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132-532: Zeewolde is known for its landscape and nature art. The best-known art work is Sea Level by Richard Serra , located in the De Wetering landscape park. In the Hulkesteinse forest there is the naturist resort Flevo-Natuur  [ nl ] , with recreation bungalows , a camp site , and the possibility of day recreation. The municipality of Zeewolde was founded in 1984 and is therefore one of

264-542: A BA in Art History and an MFA in 1964. Fellow Yale alumni contemporaneous to Serra include Chuck Close , Rackstraw Downs , Nancy Graves , Brice Marden , and Robert Mangold . At Yale Serra met visiting artists from the New York School such as Philip Guston , Robert Rauschenberg , Ad Reinhardt , and Frank Stella . Serra taught a color theory course during his last year at Yale and after graduating

396-479: A triangular space on the ground with three openings that can be walked through. Once inside the viewer can look up and see the sky framed by the triangular shape made by the leaning plates. Another vertical sculpture, Terminal (1977), was conceived for " Documenta VI " in 1977. It was permanently installed on a traffic island between the street car tracks in front of a train station in Bochum, Germany . Serra chose

528-585: A B.A. in Art History and an M.F.A. in 1964. While in Paris on a Yale fellowship in 1964, he befriended composer Philip Glass and explored Constantin Brâncuși 's studio, both of which had a strong influence on his work. His time in Europe also catalyzed his subsequent shift from painting to sculpture. From the mid-1960s onward, particularly after his move to New York City in 1966, Serra worked to radicalize and extend

660-745: A Splash Piece: Splashing with Four Molds (To Eva Hesse) (1969). Following his process-based works of the late 1960s and early 1970s, Serra began to solely use rolled or forged steel in his sculpture. Berlin Block (for Charlie Chaplin) (1977) was Serra's first forged sculpture. Made for the plaza outside the Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , the sculpture weighs 70 tons. His other forged sculptures include Elevation for Mies (1985–88) at Museum Haus Esters, Krefeld, Germany ; Philibert et Marguerite (1985), in

792-466: A commissioned installation, opened at the Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao, Spain . Consisting of eight sculptures spanning a decade from 1994 to 2005, "The Matter of Time" highlights the evolution of Serra's sculptural forms. Serra chose to include five sculptures derived from the initial torqued ellipse: one single, one double ellipse, and three torqued spirals. The Torqued Spirals followed after

924-484: A corner and divided the room into two equal spaces. The work invited the viewer to walk around the sculpture, shifting the viewer's perception of the room as they walked. Serra first recognized the potential of working in large scale with his Skullcracker Series made during the exhibition, "Art and Technology," at LACMA (the Los Angeles County Museum of Art) in 1969. He spent ten weeks building

1056-792: A cultivar of the Kazakh dandelion ( Taraxacum kok-saghyz ) that is suitable for commercial production of natural rubber. In collaboration with Continental Tires , IME began a pilot facility. Many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more elaborate processing to produce anything like usable rubber, and most are more difficult to tap. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha ( Palaquium gutta ) and chicle from Manilkara species. Others that have been commercially exploited, or at least showed promise as rubber sources, include

1188-447: A fiber, sometimes called 'elastic', had significant value to the textile industry because of its excellent elongation and recovery properties. For these purposes, manufactured rubber fiber was made as either an extruded round fiber or rectangular fibers cut into strips from extruded film. Because of its low dye acceptance, feel and appearance, the rubber fiber was either covered by yarn of another fiber or directly woven with other yarns into

1320-456: A force to stay upright. Serra's early Prop Pieces such as Prop (1968) relied mainly on the wall as a support. Serra wanted to move away from the wall to remove what he thought was a pictorial convention. In 1969 he propped four lead plates up on the floor like a house of cards . The sculpture One Ton Prop: House of Cards (1969) weighed 1 ton and the four plates were self-supporting. Another pivotal moment for Serra occurred in 1969 when he

1452-510: A form of assisted biological coagulation. Little care is taken to exclude twigs, leaves, and even bark from the lumps that are formed, which may also include tree lace. Earth scrap is material that gathers around the base of the tree. It arises from latex overflowing from the cut and running down the bark, from rain flooding a collection cup containing latex, and from spillage from tappers' buckets during collection. It contains soil and other contaminants, and has variable rubber content, depending on

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1584-496: A gate that opens as the viewer walks down the path toward the sea. Seen from the center of a bridge, which crosses the ravine and leads to the museum, the two plates form a single plane as if the gate had closed. As you walk down from the museum to the ocean below, the plates appear to have a continuous swinging motion. In 1988 Serra was invited by the National Gallery of Iceland to build a work. Serra chose Videy Island as

1716-752: A given strain, thereby increasing the elastic force constant and making the rubber harder and less extensible. Raw rubber storage depots and rubber processing can produce malodour that is serious enough to become a source of complaints and protest to those living in the vicinity. Microbial impurities originate during the processing of block rubber. These impurities break down during storage or thermal degradation and produce volatile organic compounds. Examination of these compounds using gas chromatography / mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas chromatography (GC) indicates that they contain sulfur, ammonia, alkenes , ketones , esters , hydrogen sulfide , nitrogen, and low-molecular-weight fatty acids (C2–C5). When latex concentrate

1848-662: A house in Cape Breton , Nova Scotia, in 1970 and spent summers working there. Serra married art historian Clara Weyergraf in 1981. As of 2019, Serra maintained a home in Manhattan and studios in Nova Scotia and the North Fork of Long Island . Natural rubber Rubber , also called India rubber , latex , Amazonian rubber , caucho , or caoutchouc , as initially produced, consists of polymers of

1980-520: A large stretch ratio and high resilience and also is buoyant and water-proof. Industrial demand for rubber-like materials began to outstrip natural rubber supplies by the end of the 19th century, leading to the synthesis of synthetic rubber in 1909 by chemical means. The major commercial source of natural rubber latex is the Amazonian rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ), a member of the spurge family , Euphorbiaceae . Once native to Brazil,

2112-478: A number of ephemeral stacked steel pieces at the Kaiser Steelyard. Using a crane to explore the principles of counterbalance and gravity , the stacks were as tall as 30 to 40 feet (9 to 12 m) high and weighed between 60 and 70 tons (54.4 and 63.5 t). They were knocked down by the steelworkers at the end of each day. The scale of the stacks allowed Serra to begin to think of his work outside

2244-432: A petroleum refinery or other natural incineration processes, is sometimes used as an additive to rubber to improve its strength, especially in vehicle tires. During vulcanization, rubber's polyisoprene molecules (long chains of isoprene) are heated and cross-linked with molecular bonds to sulfur, forming a 3-D matrix. The optimal percentage of sulfur is approximately 10%. In this form, the polyisoprene molecules orientation

2376-669: A pier in Doha, Qatar , reflect the verticality of their surrounding architecture. Outdoor sculptures like St. John's Rotary Arc (1980) temporarily installed outside the Holland Tunnel entrance in New York City; Tilted Arc (1981) installed and later removed from New York City's Federal Plaza; Clara-Clara (1983), temporarily installed at Tuileries , Place de la Concorde , Paris; Berlin Junction (1987) installed outside

2508-435: A point where it shares properties of both; i.e., if it is heated and cooled, it is degraded but not destroyed. The final properties of a rubber item depend not just on the polymer, but also on modifiers and fillers, such as carbon black , factice , whiting and others. Rubber particles are formed in the cytoplasm of specialized latex-producing cells called laticifers within rubber plants. Rubber particles are surrounded by

2640-524: A series of actions: a hand tries to catch falling lead; pairs of hands move lead shavings; and bound hands untie themselves. A later film Railroad Turnbridge (1976) frames the surrounding landscape of the Willamette River in Portland, Oregon , as the bridge turns. Steelmill/Stahwerk (1979), made in collaboration with the art historian Clara Weyergraf is divided in two parts. The first part

2772-455: A sheet of lead as tightly as they could. In 1968 Serra was included in the group exhibition "Nine at Castelli" at Castelli Warehouse in New York where he showed Prop (1968), Scatter Piece (1968), and made Splashing (1968) by throwing molten lead against the angle of the floor and wall. In 1969 his piece Casting was included in the exhibition Anti-Illusion: Procedures / Materials at

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2904-451: A significant amount of rubber. Gloves (medical, household, and industrial) and toy balloons were large consumers of rubber, although the type of rubber used is concentrated latex. Significant tonnage of rubber was used as adhesives in many manufacturing industries and products, although the two most noticeable were the paper and the carpet industries. Rubber was commonly used to make rubber bands and pencil erasers . Rubber produced as

3036-453: A single phospholipid membrane with hydrophobic tails pointed inward. The membrane allows biosynthetic proteins to be sequestered at the surface of the growing rubber particle, which allows new monomeric units to be added from outside the biomembrane, but within the lacticifer. The rubber particle is an enzymatically active entity that contains three layers of material, the rubber particle, a biomembrane and free monomeric units. The biomembrane

3168-462: A source of controversy, such as that caused by his Tilted Arc in Manhattan in 1981. Serra was married to artist Nancy Graves between 1965 and 1970, and Clara Weyergraf between 1981 and his death in 2024. Serra was born in San Francisco, California, on November 2, 1938, to Tony and Gladys Serra – the second of three sons. His father was Spanish from Mallorca and his mother Gladys was

3300-446: A unique surface in his prints. He did so by first applying a layer of ink onto the paper. He then would apply a layer of paint stick through the second screen creating a saturated and textured surface. Serra continued to work this his silkscreen technique, sometimes combining it with etching and aquatint. His print series include: Videy Afanger (1991); Hreppholer (1991); WM (1996); Rounds (1999); Venice Notebook (2001); Between

3432-549: A vertical sculpture consisting of three vertical plates, each 36 feet (11 m) high, was installed at a subway entrance near West Broadway between Leonard and Franklin Streets . The sculpture is now permanently installed outside the Deichterhallen , Hamburg, Germany . St. John's Rotary Arc , one of Serra's earliest curved sculptures, was 12 feet (3.6 m) high and spanned 180 feet (55 m). From 1980 to 1988

3564-401: A wire that encircles the tree. This wire incorporates a spring so it can stretch as the tree grows. The latex is led into the cup by a galvanised "spout" knocked into the bark. Rubber tapping normally takes place early in the morning, when the internal pressure of the tree is highest. A good tapper can tap a tree every 20 seconds on a standard half-spiral system, and a common daily "task" size

3696-581: Is perpendicular to the fall of the land. East-West/West-East (2014), located on an east-west axis in the Brouq Nature Reserve in Qatar , was commissioned by Sheika al-Mayassa al-Thani of Qatar. It consists of four steel plates either 54 3 ⁄ 4 or 48 1 ⁄ 2 feet (16.7 or 14.8 m) high. The plates are placed at irregular intervals in a valley that runs between two gypsum plateaus . The plates are level with each other and

3828-442: Is 25 cm (vertical) bark consumption per year. The latex-containing tubes in the bark ascend in a spiral to the right. For this reason, tapping cuts usually ascend to the left to cut more tubes. The trees drip latex for about four hours, stopping as latex coagulates naturally on the tapping cut, thus blocking the latex tubes in the bark. Tappers usually rest and have a meal after finishing their tapping work and then start collecting

3960-418: Is a natural polymer of isoprene (polyisoprene), and an elastomer (a stretchy polymer). Polymers are simply chains of molecules that can be linked together. Rubber is one of the few naturally occurring polymers and prized for its high stretch ratio, resilience, and water-proof properties. Other examples of natural polymers include tortoise shell , amber , and animal horn . When harvested, latex rubber takes

4092-532: Is a sticky, milky and white colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark and collecting the fluid in vessels in a process called "tapping". The latex then is refined into the rubber that is ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup. The coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for sale. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials. In most of its useful forms, it has

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4224-415: Is between 450 and 650 trees. Trees are usually tapped on alternate or third days, although many variations in timing, length and number of cuts are used. "Tappers would make a slash in the bark with a small hatchet. These slanting cuts allowed latex to flow from ducts located on the exterior or the inner layer of bark ( cambium ) of the tree. Since the cambium controls the growth of the tree, growth stops if it

4356-551: Is composed of six rectilinear concrete sections placed along the sloping landscape . In 2013 Shift was designated a Heritage Site under the Ontario Heritage Act. Shift, like Pulitzer Prizes pieces, was based on the elevational fall of the land over a given distance. The top edges of the plates function as a horizon being placed into specific elevational intervals as you walk the entire field. Serra's subsequent site-specific works in landscape continued to explore

4488-496: Is cut. Thus, rubber tapping demanded accuracy, so that the incisions would not be too many given the size of the tree, or too deep, which could stunt its growth or kill it." It is usual to tap a panel at least twice, sometimes three times, during the tree's life. The economic life of the tree depends on how well the tapping is carried out, as the critical factor is bark consumption. A standard in Malaysia for alternate daily tapping

4620-438: Is held tightly to the rubber core by the high negative charge along the double bonds of the rubber polymer backbone. Free monomeric units and conjugated proteins make up the outer layer. The rubber precursor is isopentenyl pyrophosphate (an allylic compound), which elongates by Mg -dependent condensation by the action of rubber transferase. The monomer adds to the pyrophosphate end of the growing polymer. The process displaces

4752-410: Is level at the top. All stones at the higher elevation measure 3 meters; all stones at the lower elevation measure 4 meters. Because of the variance of topography , the stones in a set are sometimes closer together, sometimes further apart. The rise and fall of Videy Island and the surrounding landscape are seen against the fixed measure of the standing stones. The stones are visible along the horizon of

4884-572: Is low and strain results from small changes of bond lengths and angles: this caused the Challenger disaster , when the American Space Shuttle 's flattened o-rings failed to relax to fill a widening gap. The glass transition is fast and reversible: the force resumes on heating. The parallel chains of stretched rubber are susceptible to crystallization. This takes some time because turns of twisted chains have to move out of

5016-525: Is made up of interviews of German steel factory workers about their work. The second part captures the forging of Serra's sculpture Berlin Block (for Charlie Chaplin). Survey exhibitions and screenings of his films have been held at the Kunstmuseum Basel , Switzerland in 2017; Anthology Film Archives, New York, October 17–23, 2019; and Harvard Film Archive, January 27 – February 9, 2020. In 2019, Serra donated his entire film and video works to

5148-899: Is not cultivated widely in its native continent of South America because of the South American leaf blight , and other natural predators there. Rubber latex is extracted from rubber trees. The economic life of rubber trees in plantations is around 32 years, with up to 7 years being an immature phase and about 25 years of productive phase. The soil requirement is well-drained, weathered soil consisting of laterite , lateritic types, sedimentary types, nonlateritic red or alluvial soils. The climatic conditions for optimum growth of rubber trees are: Many high-yielding clones have been developed for commercial planting. These clones yield more than 2,000 kilograms per hectare (1,800 lb/acre) of dry rubber per year, under ideal conditions. Rubber production has been linked to deforestation. Rubber therefore

5280-588: Is one of seven commodities included in the 2023 EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products (EUDR), which aims to guarantee that the products European Union (EU) citizens consume do not contribute to deforestation or forest degradation worldwide. In places such as Kerala and Sri Lanka, where coconuts are in abundance, the half shell of coconut was used as the latex collection container. Glazed pottery or aluminium or plastic cups became more common in Kerala-India and other countries. The cups are supported by

5412-449: Is produced by smallholders, who collect rubber from trees far from the nearest factory. Many Indonesian smallholders, who farm paddies in remote areas, tap dispersed trees on their way to work in the paddy fields and collect the latex (or the coagulated latex) on their way home. As it is often impossible to preserve the latex sufficiently to get it to a factory that processes latex in time for it to be used to make high quality products, and as

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5544-529: Is produced from rubber, sulfuric acid is used for coagulation. This produces malodourous hydrogen sulfide. The industry can mitigate these bad odours with scrubber systems . Rubber is the polymer cis-1,4-polyisoprene – with a molecular weight of 100,000 to 1,000,000 daltons . Typically, a small percentage (up to 5% of dry mass) of other materials, such as proteins , fatty acids , resins , and inorganic materials (salts) are found in natural rubber. Polyisoprene can also be created synthetically, producing what

5676-567: Is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version. The first use of rubber was by the indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica . The earliest archeological evidence of the use of natural latex from the Hevea tree comes from the Olmec culture, in which rubber was first used for making balls for the Mesoamerican ballgame . Rubber

5808-402: Is sometimes referred to as "synthetic natural rubber", but the synthetic and natural routes are distinct. Some natural rubber sources, such as gutta-percha , are composed of trans-1,4-polyisoprene, a structural isomer that has similar properties. Natural rubber is an elastomer and a thermoplastic . Once the rubber is vulcanized, it is a thermoset . Most rubber in everyday use is vulcanized to

5940-479: Is still random but they become aligned when the rubber is stretched. This sulfur vulcanization makes the rubber stronger and more rigid, but still very elastic. And through the vulcanization process, the sulfur and latex are meant to be totally used up in individual form. Natural rubber latex is shipped from factories in Southeast Asia , South America , and West and Central Africa to destinations around

6072-706: The Berlin Philharmonic ; are all curved forms or arcs that open and close depending on the direction the viewer takes walking around them. Sight Point (1972–75) was Serra's first vertical Urban work and a continuation of the balance and counterbalance principles of his earlier work Prop . Sight Point stands outside the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, consisting of three vertical steel plates 10 feet (3 m) wide and 40 feet (12 m) high that lean in at an angle and forming

6204-505: The Mullins effect and the Payne effect and is often modeled as hyperelastic . Rubber strain crystallizes . Because there are weakened allylic C-H bonds in each repeat unit , natural rubber is susceptible to vulcanisation as well as being sensitive to ozone cracking . The two main solvents for rubber are turpentine and naphtha (petroleum). Because rubber does not dissolve easily,

6336-803: The Musee de Brou , Bourg-en-Bresse, France; Weight and Measure (1992), a temporary site-specific installation at the Tate Gallery , London; Santa Fe Depot (2004), in the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego ; and Equal (2015) in the Museum of Modern Art , New York. Serra's most known series of sculptures using rolled steel plates are the Torqued Ellipses . In 1991 Serra visited Borromini's Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome and mistook

6468-632: The Museum of Modern Art in New York. Serra's first solo exhibition was in 1966 at Galleria Salita in Rome, Italy. His first solo exhibition in the U.S. was at the Leo Castelli Warehouse, New York in 1969. His first solo museum exhibition was held at the Pasadena Art Museum in California in 1970. The first retrospective of his work was held at the Museum of Modern Art , New York, in 1986. A second retrospective

6600-728: The Putumayo genocide . Between the 1880s–1913 Julio César Arana and his company that would become the Peruvian Amazon Company controlled the Putumayo river. W.E. Hardenburg, Benjamin Saldaña Rocca and Roger Casement were influential figures in exposing these atrocities. Roger Casement was also prominent in revealing the Congo atrocities to the world. Days before entering Iquitos by boat Casement wrote "'Caoutchouc

6732-618: The University of California, Santa Barbara and graduating in 1961 with a BA in English Literature. In Santa Barbara, Serra met the muralists, Rico Lebrun and Howard Warshaw. Both were in the Art Department and took Serra under their wing. During this period, Serra worked in steel mills to earn a living, as he did at various times from ages 16–25. Serra studied painting at Yale University and graduated with both

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6864-546: The Whitney Museum of American Art in New York. In Casting the artist again threw molten lead against the angle of the floor and wall. He then pulled the casting made from the hardened lead away from the wall and repeated the action of splashing and casting creating a series of free-standing forms. "To prop" is another transitive verb from Serra's "Verb List" utilized by the artist for a series of assemblages of lead plates and poles dependent on leaning and gravity as

6996-557: The cytosol . In plants, isoprene pyrophosphate can also be obtained from the 1-deox-D-xyulose-5-phosphate/2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway within plasmids. The relative ratio of the farnesyl pyrophosphate initiator unit and isoprenyl pyrophosphate elongation monomer determines the rate of new particle synthesis versus elongation of existing particles. Though rubber is known to be produced by only one enzyme, extracts of latex host numerous small molecular weight proteins with unknown function. The proteins possibly serve as cofactors, as

7128-457: The Académie (published in 1755) that described many of rubber's properties. This has been referred to as the first scientific paper on rubber. In England, Joseph Priestley , in 1770, observed that a piece of the material was extremely good for rubbing off pencil marks on paper, hence the name "rubber". It slowly made its way around England. In 1764, François Fresnau discovered that turpentine

7260-455: The Arts, New York, 1997; Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles , 1998–1999; Centro de Arte Hélio Oiticica, Rio de Janeiro, 1997–1998; Trajan's Market , Rome, 1999–2000; Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts , St. Louis, 2003; National Archaeological Museum, Naples , 2004; and Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, in 2017. Serra's work is included in many museums and public collections around

7392-794: The Avenue du Président Wilson, allowing Serra to study Brâncuși's work, later drawing his own sculptural conclusions. An exact replica of Brâncuși's studio is now located opposite the Centre Pompidou . Serra spent the following year in Florence, Italy on a Fulbright Grant . In 1966 while still in Italy, Serra made a trip to the Prado Museum in Spain and saw Diego Velázquez 's painting, " Las Meninas ." The artist realized he would not surpass

7524-673: The Congo Free State for more information on the rubber trade in the Congo Free State in the late 1800s and early 1900s.) The rubber boom in the Amazon also similarly affected indigenous populations to varying degrees. Correrias, or slave raids were frequent in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia where many were either captured or killed. The most well known case of atrocities generated from rubber extraction in South America came from

7656-718: The Double Torqued Ellipses when Serra decided to connect a double ellipses into one wound form that can be entered and walked through. The remaining sculptures in "The Matter of Time" are one closed ( Blind Spot Reversed) and one open ( Between the Torus and the Sphere ) torus and spherical sculpture; and Snake : made of three parts, each comprising two identical conical sections inverted relative to each other and spanning 104 feet (31.7 m) overall. The sculptures are organized by Serra with intention. The direction which

7788-540: The Museum Boijmans van Beuningen. Rotterdam, The Netherlands in 2017. Serra began making prints in 1972. Working closely with Gemini G.E.L. in Los Angeles, Serra developed unconventional printing techniques. He made over 200 printed works and like his sculpture and drawing, his prints reflect an interest in process, scale, and experimentation with material. His early lithographs starting in 1972 include

7920-553: The Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam in 1978; Richard Serra: Tekeningen/Drawings at the Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastrict in 1990; Richard Serra Drawings: A Retrospective at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and Menil Collection, Houston from 2011 to 2012; and Richard Serra: Drawings 2015–2017: Rambles, Composites, Rotterdam Verticals, Rotterdam Horizontals, Rifts at

8052-657: The Torus and the Sphere (2006); Paths and Edges (2007); Level (2008); Junction (2010); Reversal (2015); Elevational Weight (2016); Equa l (2018); and (?) (2019). From 1968 to 1979 Serra made a collection of films and videos. Although he began working with sculpture and film at the same time, Serra recognized the different material capacities of each and did not extend sculptural problems into his films and videos. Serra collaborated with several artists including Joan Jonas , Nancy Holt , and Robert Fiore, on his films and videos. His first films, Hand Catching Lead (1968), Hands Scraping (1968) and Hand Tied (1968) involve

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8184-415: The action-based works with origins in the verb list. Serra used lead in many of his constructs because of its adaptability. Lead is malleable enough to be rolled, folded, ripped, and melted. With To Lift (1967) Serra lifted a 10-foot (3 m) sheet of rubber off the ground making a free-standing form; with Thirty-five Feet of Lead Rolled Up (1968), Serra, with the help of Philip Glass, unrolled and rolled

8316-409: The amount of contaminants. Earth scrap is collected by field workers two or three times a year and may be cleaned in a scrap-washer to recover the rubber, or sold to a contractor who cleans it and recovers the rubber. It is of low quality. Latex coagulates in the cups if kept for long and must be collected before this happens. The collected latex, "field latex", is transferred into coagulation tanks for

8448-985: The artist's work in film and video was on view at the Kunstmuseum Basel, in 2017. Serra enjoyed solo exhibitions at the Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-Baden, 1978; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen , Rotterdam, 1980; Musée National d'Art Moderne , Centre Pompidou , Paris, 1983–1984; Museum Haus Lange, Krefeld, 1985; The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1986 and 2007; Louisiana Museum of Modern Art , Humlebæk, 1986; Westphalian State Museum of Art and Cultural History , Münster, 1987; Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus , Munich, 1987; Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum , Eindhoven, 1988; Bonnefantenmuseum , Maastricht, 1990; Kunsthaus Zürich , 1990; CAPC Musée d'Art Contemporain , Bordeaux, 1990; Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía , Madrid, 1992; Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen , Düsseldorf, 1992; Dia Center for

8580-775: The cavernous interior of the Grand Palais. Overall, the sculpture spanned 656 feet (200 m). The plates were not placed in a line but stood side to side off the Grand Palais's center axis. They tilted either left or right, leaned either toward or away from another, and the viewer as they strolled around them. The sculpture Equal (2015), in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art, New York, consists of eight forged blocks. Each block measures 5 by 5 1 ⁄ 2 by 6 feet (1.5 × 1.7 × 1.8 m) and weighs 40 tons. The blocks are stacked in pairs and positioned on their longer or shorter sides so that each stack measures 11 feet (3.4 m) tall. When walking amongst

8712-688: The confines of gallery and museum spaces. In 1970 Serra received a Guggenheim Fellowship and traveled to Japan. His first outdoor sculptures, To Encircle Base Plate (Hexagram ) (1970) and Sugi Tree (1970), were both installed in Ueno Park as part of the " Tokyo Biennale ." While in Japan, Serra spent most of his time studying the Zen gardens and temples of the Myoshin-ji in Kyoto . The layout of

8844-405: The daughter of Ukrainian Jewish immigrants from Odessa . From a young age, he was encouraged to draw by his mother. The young Serra would carry a small notebook for his sketches and his mother would introduce her son as "Richard the artist." His father worked as a pipe fitter for a shipyard near San Francisco. Serra recounted a memory of a visit to the shipyard to see a boat launch when he

8976-470: The definition of sculpture beginning with his early experiments with rubber , neon , and lead, to his large-scale steel works. His early works in New York, such as To Lift from 1967 and Thirty-Five Feet of Lead Rolled Up from 1968, reflected his fascination with industrial materials and the physical properties of his chosen mediums. His large-scale works, both in urban and natural landscapes, have reshaped public interactions with art and, at times, were also

9108-407: The dry rubber produced. Latex that drips onto the ground, "earth scrap", is also collected periodically for processing of low-grade product. Cup lump is the coagulated material found in the collection cup when the tapper next visits the tree to tap it again. It arises from latex clinging to the walls of the cup after the latex was last poured into the bucket, and from late-dripping latex exuded before

9240-666: The early 1900s, the Congo Free State in Africa was also a significant source of natural rubber latex, mostly gathered by forced labor . King Leopold II's colonial state brutally enforced production quotas due to the high price of natural rubber at the time. Tactics to enforce the rubber quotas included removing the hands of victims to prove they had been killed. Soldiers often came back from raids with baskets full of chopped-off hands. Villages that resisted were razed to encourage better compliance locally. (See Atrocities in

9372-414: The elevation of the adjacent plateaus. The work spans less than a kilometer and all plates are visible from either end. In the landscape, the sculptural elements draw the viewer's attention to the topology of the land as its walked. Serra's site-specific Urban sculptures focus the viewer's attention on the sculpture itself. Their locations often more accessible to the public than the landscape works, invite

9504-421: The export of seeds or plants. In 1876, Henry Wickham smuggled 70,000 Amazonian rubber tree seeds from Brazil and delivered them to Kew Gardens , England. Only 2,400 of these germinated. Seedlings were then sent to India , British Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ), Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ), Singapore , and British Malaya . Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia ) was later to become the biggest producer of rubber. In

9636-636: The fabric. Rubber yarns were used in foundation garments. While rubber is still used in textile manufacturing, its low tenacity limits its use in lightweight garments because latex lacks resistance to oxidizing agents and is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil and perspiration. The textile industry turned to neoprene (polymer of chloroprene ), a type of synthetic rubber, as well as another more commonly used elastomer fiber, spandex (also known as elastane), because of their superiority to rubber in both strength and durability. Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's stress–strain behavior exhibits

9768-477: The first technique for tapping trees for latex without causing serious harm to the tree. Because of his fervent promotion of this crop, he is popularly remembered by the nickname "Mad Ridley". Before World War II significant uses included door and window profiles, hoses, belts, gaskets, matting , flooring, and dampeners (antivibration mounts) for the automotive industry. The use of rubber in car tires (initially solid rather than pneumatic) in particular consumed

9900-544: The form of latex, an opaque, white, milky suspension of rubber particles in water. It is then transformed through industrial processes to the solid form widely seen in manufactured goods. Natural rubber is reactive and vulnerable to oxidization, but it can be stabilized through a heating process called vulcanization. Vulcanization is a process by which the rubber is heated and sulfur , peroxide , or bisphenol are added to improve resistance and elasticity and to prevent it from oxidizing. Carbon black , which can be derived from

10032-520: The four stacks the viewer becomes aware of their own sense of weight, balance, and gravity in relation to the sculptures. Four Rounds: Equal Weight, Unequal Measure (2017), consisting of four 82-ton (74 t) forged cylinders of varying dimensions is permanently installed at Glenstone in Potomac, Maryland . The sculpture is installed within a building designed by Thomas Phifer of Thomas Phifer and Partners, in collaboration with Serra to highlight

10164-484: The gardens revealed the landscape as a total field that can only be experienced by walking. The gardens changed Serra's way of seeing space in relation to time. Upon returning to the United States he built his first site-specific outdoor work: To Encircle Base Plate Hexagram, Right Angles Inverted (1970). Here Serra embedded two semi-circular steel flanges, forming a ring 26 feet (7.9 m) in diameter, into

10296-459: The higher-grade, technically specified block rubbers such as SVR 3L or SVR CV or used to produce Ribbed Smoke Sheet grades. Naturally coagulated rubber (cup lump) is used in the manufacture of TSR10 and TSR20 grade rubbers. Processing for these grades is a size reduction and cleaning process to remove contamination and prepare the material for the final stage of drying. The dried material is then baled and palletized for storage and shipment. Rubber

10428-431: The international market spot price of a seemingly more profitable crop (for example palm oil ) surges in relation to rubber. For instance, during the 2020 and 2021 international COVID-19 pandemic , demand for rubber gloves surged, leading to a spike in rubber prices of about 30%. In addition to the pandemic, demand exceeded supply in part because long term plantations had been torn out and replaced with other crops over

10560-458: The island and orient the viewer against the rise and fall of the surrounding landscape. Te Tuhirangi Contour (2000–2) is located on a vast open pasture on Gibbs Farm in Kaipara, New Zealand . The sculpture stands 20 feet (6 m) high and spans 844 feet (257 m) as one continuous contour that follows the rolling hills, expansion, and contraction of the landscape. The sculpture's elevation

10692-402: The latex would anyway have coagulated by the time it reached the factory, the smallholder will coagulate it by any means available, in any container available. Some smallholders use small containers, buckets etc., but often the latex is coagulated in holes in the ground, which are usually lined with plastic sheeting. Acidic materials and fermented fruit juices are used to coagulate the latex –

10824-434: The latex-carrying vessels of the tree become blocked. It is of higher purity and of greater value than the other three types. 'Cup lumps' can also be used to describe a completely different type of coagulate that has collected in smallholder plantations over a period of 1–2 weeks. After tapping all of the trees, the tapper will return to each tree and stir in some type of acid, which allows the newly harvested latex to mix with

10956-416: The latex. There is growing concern for the future supply of rubber due to various factors, including plant disease, climate change, and the volatile market price of rubber. Producers of natural rubber are mostly small family-held plantations, often serving large industrial aggregators. High volatility in the price of rubber affects rubber plantation investment, and farmers may remove their rubber trees if

11088-443: The liquid "field latex" at about midday. The four types of field coagula are "cuplump", "treelace", "smallholders' lump", and "earth scrap". Each has significantly different properties. Some trees continue to drip after the collection leading to a small amount of "cup lump" that is collected at the next tapping. The latex that coagulates on the cut is also collected as "tree lace". Tree lace and cup lump together account for 10%–20% of

11220-399: The material is finely divided by shredding prior to its immersion. An ammonia solution can be used to prevent the coagulation of raw latex. Rubber begins to melt at approximately 180 °C (356 °F). On a microscopic scale, relaxed rubber is a disorganized cluster of erratically changing wrinkled chains. In stretched rubber, the chains are almost linear. The restoring force is due to

11352-638: The medium. He often pushes the conventions of drawing towards a tactile, phenomenological experience of movement, time, and space. The artist said that his drawing practice is involved with "repetition, knowing there's no possibility of repeating, knowing that it's going to yield something different each time." Following his break into space with sculptures like Strike: To Roberta and Rudy (1969–71), Serra became interested in redefining architectural space with drawing as well. In 1974 Serra started to make his Installation Drawings—large-scale site-specific sheets of canvas completely covered in paintstick and stapled to

11484-489: The models Serra worked with an engineer to fabricate the sculptures. In total there are seven Torqued Ellipses and four Double Torqued Ellipses (an ellipse inside of an ellipse) dated between 1996 and 2004. Each sculpture has a different degree or torque and measures up to 13 feet (3.9 m) high. The sculptures all have an opening so that they can be walked through and around. Three Torqued Ellipses are on permanent view at Dia Beacon , New York. In 2005 "The Matter of Time",

11616-458: The organic compound isoprene , with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand , Malaysia , Indonesia , and Cambodia are four of the leading rubber producers. Types of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers . Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the Pará rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ) or others. The latex

11748-412: The ovals of the dome and the floor to be offset from one another. He thought to make a sculpture in this torqued form. Serra constructed models of this perceived form in his studio by cutting two ellipse -shaped pieces of wood and nailing a dowel between them. He then turned the ellipses so they were at a right angle to one another and wrapped a sheet of lead around the form. After making a template from

11880-577: The plantation expanded to Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Today, India is the world's 3rd largest producer and 4th largest consumer of rubber. In Singapore and Malaya, commercial production was heavily promoted by Sir Henry Nicholas Ridley , who served as the first Scientific Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens from 1888 to 1911. He distributed rubber seeds to many planters and developed

12012-504: The plates was determined by the fall of the landscape. Each plate was impaled into the ground far enough until its rise was 5 feet (1.5 m). Serra's intention was for the plates to act as cuts in the landscape that function as surrogate horizons as viewers walked amongst them. Shift (1970–72), Serra's second endeavor in the landscape, was built in a field owned by the collector Roger Davidson in King City, Ontario . The sculpture

12144-606: The preparation of dry rubber or transferred into air-tight containers with sieving for ammoniation. Ammoniation, invented by patent lawyer and vice-president of the United States Rubber Company Ernest Hopkinson around 1920, preserves the latex in a colloidal state for longer periods of time. Latex is generally processed into either latex concentrate for manufacture of dipped goods or coagulated under controlled, clean conditions using formic acid. The coagulated latex can then be processed into

12276-400: The preponderance of wrinkled conformations over more linear ones. For the quantitative treatment see ideal chain , for more examples see entropic force . Cooling below the glass transition temperature permits local conformational changes but a reordering is practically impossible because of the larger energy barrier for the concerted movement of longer chains. "Frozen" rubber's elasticity

12408-422: The previously coagulated material. The rubber/acid mixture is what gives rubber plantations, markets, and factories a strong odor. Tree lace is the coagulum strip that the tapper peels off the previous cut before making a new cut. It usually has higher copper and manganese contents than cup lump. Both copper and manganese are pro-oxidants and can damage the physical properties of the dry rubber. Smallholders' lump

12540-465: The prints Circuit; Balance; Eight by Eight; or 183rd & Webster Avenue, each titled after a sculpture created around the same time. In 1981 Serra produced his first lithograph series comprising seven editions, titled: Sketch #1 through Sketch #7. That same year Serra begin to make larger-scale prints such as Malcolm X; Goslar, or The Moral Majority Sucks. After pushing lithography to its limit, Serra began to work with silkscreen to produce

12672-420: The rubber fig ( Ficus elastica ), Panama rubber tree ( Castilla elastica ), various spurges ( Euphorbia spp.), lettuce ( Lactuca species), the related Scorzonera tau-saghyz , various Taraxacum species, including common dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale ) and Kazakh dandelion, and, perhaps most importantly for its hypoallergenic properties, guayule ( Parthenium argentatum ). The term gum rubber

12804-580: The same quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees . In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low and varies greatly. In Nazi Germany , research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In 2013, by inhibiting one key enzyme and using modern cultivation methods and optimization techniques, scientists in the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME) in Germany developed

12936-468: The sculpture's mass within the confines of the building's interior. Drawing was integral to Serra's practice. Serra made drawings on large sheets of canvas or handmade paper. They include horizontal or vertical compositions; constructions of overlapping sheets; or line drawings. His drawings were primarily done in paintstick, lithographic crayon, or charcoal and are always black. Serra experiments with different techniques and tools to manipulate and apply

13068-635: The site because of its proximity to a high-traffic area. Exchange (1996), sited in a vehicular round-about on top of a highway tunnel, made of seven trapezoidal plates. The sculpture stands 60 feet (18 m) high and can be seen by drivers as they enter and leave the City of Luxembourg. In 1980 Serra installed two sculptures, with the support of the Public Art Fund , in New York City. T.W.U. (1980) and St. John's Rotary Arc (1980) were each placed in areas where traffic and people converged. T.W.U,

13200-501: The site for Afangar (Stations, Stops on the Road, To Stop and Look: Forward and Back, To Take It All In) (1990). The sculpture consists of nine pairs of basalt columns (a material indigenous to Iceland ) and is placed along the periphery of Vesturey in the western part of the country. All nine locations share the same elevations in that the stones of each pair are situated at an elevation of 9 and 10 meters, respectively. Each set of stones

13332-471: The site-specific sculpture was installed on the rotary at the entrance and exit to the Holland Tunnel . The following year in 1981, a second site-specific curved sculpture Tilted Arc (1981) was installed in New York City's Federal Plaza . Commissioned by the U.S. General Services Administration's Art-in-Architecture Program following a rigorous selection process, the sculpture's arc spanned 120 feet (36 m) and 12 feet (3.6 m) high. The sculpture

13464-486: The site. Serra pursued English literature at the University of California, Berkeley , before shifting to visual art. He graduated with a B.A. in English Literature from the University of California, Santa Barbara , in 1961, where he met influential muralists Rico Lebrun and Howard Warshaw. Supporting himself by working in steel mills , Serra's early exposure to industrial materials influenced his artistic trajectory. He continued his education at Yale University , earning

13596-699: The skill of that painting and decided to move away from painting. While still in Europe, Serra began experimenting with nontraditional sculptural material. He had his first one-person exhibition "Animal Habitats" at Galleria Salita, Rome . Exhibited there were assemblages made with live and stuffed animals which would later be referenced as early work from the Arte Povera movement. Serra returned from Europe and moved to New York City in 1966. He continued his constructions using experimental materials such as rubber, latex , fiberglass , neon, and lead . His Belt Pieces were made with strips of rubber and hung on

13728-501: The so-called 'pioneers', moving in from the 'old land' to the newly created polder in 1979. They were mostly farmers and in the beginning stages deprived of amenities such as electricity or tap water . The planned village was then mostly meant to provide services to the neighbouring farmers. Alongside the farmers, two holiday resorts were founded in the area. In August 1980, the Zeewolde advisory board, headed by Han Lammers who

13860-454: The species is now pan-tropical. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation. A properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. Congo rubber , formerly a major source of rubber, which motivated the atrocities in the Congo Free State , came from vines in the genus Landolphia ( L. kirkii , L. heudelotis , and L. owariensis ). Dandelion milk contains latex. The latex exhibits

13992-453: The surface of 183rd Street in the Bronx . One semi-circle measured 1 inch (25.4 mm) wide and the second, 8 inches wide (203.2 mm). The work was visible from two perspectives: either when the viewer came directly upon it or from above on a stairway overlooking the street. Throughout the 1970s Serra continued to make outdoor site-specific sculptures for urban areas and landscapes. Serra

14124-564: The synthetic rate decreases with complete removal. More than 28 million tons of rubber were produced in 2017, of which approximately 47% was natural. Since the bulk is synthetic, which is derived from petroleum, the price of natural rubber is determined, to a large extent, by the prevailing global price of crude oil. Asia was the main source of natural rubber, accounting for about 90% of output in 2021. The three largest producers, Thailand , Indonesia, and Malaysia, together account for around 72% of all natural rubber production. Natural rubber

14256-510: The tension surrounding the nature of public art and its intended audience. Serra's work has enjoyed numerous exhibitions in gallery and museum settings. His site-specific gallery installations are sometimes used to test ideas. Serra's first U.S. solo exhibition was at the Leo Castelli Warehouse, New York City in 1969. There he exhibited ten lead Prop Pieces, a Scatter Piece: Cutting Device: Base Plate Measure (1969), and

14388-435: The terminal high-energy pyrophosphate. The reaction produces a cis polymer. The initiation step is catalyzed by prenyltransferase , which converts three monomers of isopentenyl pyrophosphate into farnesyl pyrophosphate . The farnesyl pyrophosphate can bind to rubber transferase to elongate a new rubber polymer. The required isopentenyl pyrophosphate is obtained from the mevalonate pathway, which derives from acetyl-CoA in

14520-980: The topography of the land and how the sculpture relates to this topography by way of movement, meditation, and perception of the viewer. Among the most notable of the landscape works are Porten i Slugten (1983–86) at the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art , Denmark; Afangar (Stations, Stops on the Road, To Stop and Look: Forward and Back, To Take It All In) (1990) on Videy Island, Iceland; Schunnemunk Fork (1991) in Storm King Art Center , New York; Snake Eyes and Box Cars (1993) in Sonoma County, California; Te Tuhirangi Contour (2000–2) in Kaipara, New Zealand; and East-West/West-East (2014) in Qatar. The sculpture Porten i Slugten (1983–86)

14652-578: The viewer moves through the space creates a sensation of varying scale and proportion, and an awareness to the passing of time. In 2008 Serra participated in Monumenta , an annual exhibition held in Paris's Grand Palais featuring a single artist. For Monumenta Serra installed a single sculpture, Promenade (2008), consisting of five plates, each 55 feet (16.8 m) tall and 13 feet (4 m) wide, placed 100 feet (30 m) apart from one another across

14784-707: The viewer to walk inside, pass through and move around them. Because of the confines of Urban architecture, sculptures such as Sight Point (1972–75) at the Stedelijk Museum , The Netherlands; Termina l (1977) in Bochum, Germany; T.W.U . (1980) at the Deichtorhallen , Hamburg, Germany ; Fulcrum (1986–87), installed in Broadgate , London; Exchange (1996) outside the City of Luxembourg ; or 7 (2011) on

14916-791: The village of Zeewolde was handed the keys of his house. In August 2024 it was reported that the remnants of Hulkenstein Castle might have been found in a lake near Zeewolde. There are no railway stations in the municipality, but the nearest stations are Harderwijk , Nijkerk and the stations in Almere . There are bus connections to the stations in Harderwijk and Nijkerk, and to the central station in Almere. [REDACTED] Media related to Zeewolde at Wikimedia Commons Richard Serra Richard Serra (November 2, 1938 – March 26, 2024)

15048-556: The wall using gravity as a forming device. Serra combined neon with continuous strips of rubber in his sculpture Belts (1966–67) referencing the serial abstraction in Jackson Pollock 's Mural (1963.) Around that time Serra wrote Verb List (1967) a list of transitive verbs (i.e. cast, roll, tear, prop, etc.) which he used as directives for his sculptures. To Lift (1967), and Thirty-Five Feet of Lead Rolled Up (1968), Splash Piece (1968), and Casting (1969), were some of

15180-1011: The wall. The Installation Drawings cover the wall, or walls, of a given space. Shafrazi and Zadikians were two of Serra's first Installation Drawings. Both were exhibited at Leo Castelli Gallery , New York City in 1974 and measured approximately 10 1 ⁄ 2 feet (3.2 m) high and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide overall. Serra continued to make Installation Drawing throughout his career. Other notable drawing series include: Diptychs (1989) Dead Weight (1991–92); Weight and Measure (1993–94) ; Videy Afangar (1989–91); Rounds (1996–97); out-of-rounds (1999–2000); Line Drawings (2000–02 ); Solids (2008) Greenpoint Rounds (2009); Elevational Weights (2010); Rifts (2011–18); Transparencies (2011–13); Horizontal Reversals (2014) Rambles (2015–16); Composites (2016) ; Horizontals and Verticals (2016–17); and Orchard Street (2018). National and international survey exhibitions of Serra's drawings have included Richard Serra: Tekeningen/Drawings 1971–1977 at

15312-453: The way of the growing crystallites . Crystallization has occurred, for example, when, after days, an inflated toy balloon is found withered at a relatively large remaining volume. Where it is touched, it shrinks because the temperature of the hand is enough to melt the crystals. Vulcanization of rubber creates di- and polysulfide bonds between chains, which limits the degrees of freedom and results in chains that tighten more quickly for

15444-442: The world. As the cost of natural rubber has risen significantly and rubber products are dense, the shipping methods offering the lowest cost per unit weight are preferred. Depending on destination, warehouse availability, and transportation conditions, some methods are preferred by certain buyers. In international trade, latex rubber is mostly shipped in 20-foot ocean containers. Inside the container, smaller containers are used to store

15576-1094: The world. Selected museum collections which own his work include The Museum of Modern Art , New York; The Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; Art Institute of Chicago ; Bonnefantenmuseum , Maastricht, The Netherlands; Centre Cultural Fundació La Caixa , Barcelona; Centre Georges Pompidou , Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris; Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth , Texas; Dia Art Foundation , New York; Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and New York; Pérez Art Museum Miami , Florida; Hamburger Kunsthalle , Hamburg, Germany; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden , Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; Moderna Museet , Stockholm; and Glenstone Museum , Potomac, Maryland. Selected public collections which hold his work include City of Bochum, Germany; City of Chicago, Public Art Collection; City of Goslar, Germany; City of Hamburg, Germany; City of St. Louis, Missouri; City of Tokyo, Japan; City of Berlin, Germany; City of Paris, France; Collection City of Reykjavík, Iceland. Richard Serra moved to New York City in 1966. He bought

15708-595: The youngest in the Netherlands. Before 1984, the area was administered by the Openbaar Lichaam Zuidelijke IJsselmeerpolders  [ nl ] (OLZIJ) (English: Public Body of Southern IJsselmeer Polders ), founded by the Dutch national government after the province of Flevoland was created. The name 'Zeewolde' was always meant to be used during the planning stages, but on various locations. Zeewolde's first inhabitants were

15840-461: Was a curve that tilted and leaned away from its base. It was anchored into the plaza at both ends so that the center of the sculpture was raised. Serra's intention for the sculpture was to draw pedestrians' attention to the sculpture as they crossed the plaza. Tilted Arc was met with resistance by workers in the Federal building . An eight-year campaign to remove the sculpture ensued and Tilted Arc

15972-468: Was a rubber solvent . Giovanni Fabbroni is credited with the discovery of naphtha as a rubber solvent in 1779. Charles Goodyear redeveloped vulcanization in 1839, although Mesoamericans had used stabilized rubber for balls and other objects as early as 1600 BC. South America remained the main source of latex rubber used during much of the 19th century. The rubber trade was heavily controlled by business interests but no laws expressly prohibited

16104-408: Was an American artist known for his large-scale abstract sculptures made for site-specific landscape, urban, and architectural settings, and whose work has been primarily associated with Postminimalism . Described as "one of his era's greatest sculptors", Serra became notable for emphasizing the material qualities of his works and exploration of the relationship between the viewer, the work, and

16236-523: Was asked to help proof Josef Albers ' notable color theory book "Interaction of Color." In 1964, Serra was awarded a one-year traveling fellowship from Yale and went to Paris where he met the composer Philip Glass who became a collaborator and long-time friend. In Paris, Serra spent time sketching in Constantin Brâncuși 's studio, partially reconstructed inside the Musée national d'Art moderne on

16368-468: Was at the time the head of the OLZIJ, met for the first time. In February 1982, municipal elections were held and the first streekplan  [ nl ] (Structural plan) was drawn, envisaging the village to grow to 15.000 inhabitants. The actual village itself was started in 1983, after which in 1984 Zeewolde became a municipality in its own right. On 23 February 1984, the official first inhabitant of

16500-474: Was commissioned by the artist Jasper Johns to make a Splash Piece in Johns's studio. While Serra heated the lead plates to splash against the wall, he took one of the larger plates and set it in the corner where it stood on its own. Serra's break into space followed shortly after with the sculpture Strike: To Roberta and Rudy (1969–71). Serra wedged an 8 by 24-foot (2.4 × 7.3 m) plate of steel into

16632-616: Was commissioned for the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in Humlebaek , Denmark. After walking the museum grounds, Serra chose a ravine that runs towards the Kattegat Sea as the site for his sculpture. The ravine was the only area on the grounds that had not been landscaped. Two plates were set at an angle to each other at the end of a sloping stretch of path which fronts the ravine . The plates function in their location like

16764-760: Was first called 'india rubber,' because it came from the Indies, and the earliest European use of it was to rub out or erase. It is now called India rubber because it rubs out or erases the Indians." In India , commercial cultivation was introduced by British planters, although the experimental efforts to grow rubber on a commercial scale were initiated as early as 1873 at the Calcutta Botanical Garden . The first commercial Hevea plantations were established at Thattekadu in Kerala in 1902. In later years

16896-492: Was four years old. He watched as the ship transformed from an enormous weight to a buoyant, floating structure and noted that: "All the raw material that I needed is contained in the reserve of this memory." Serra's father, who was related to the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí , later worked as a candy plant foreman. Serra studied English literature at the University of California, Berkeley in 1957 before transferring to

17028-640: Was held at The Museum of Modern Art, New York in 2007. The first survey exhibition of his drawings was held at the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam in 1977 and traveled to the Kunsthalle Tübingen in 1978. A second retrospective of drawings was presented at The Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York City; the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art ; and The Menil Collection , Houston from 2011 to 2012. An overview of

17160-562: Was interested in the topology of landscape and how one relates to it through movement, space, and time. His first landscape work was made in late 1970 when Serra was commissioned by the art patrons Joseph and Emily Rauh Pulitzer to build a sculpture on their property outside St. Louis, Missouri . Pulitzer Piece: Stepped Elevation (1970–71) was Serra's first large-scale landscape work. Three plates measuring 5 feet (1.5 m) high by 40 to 50 feet (12 to 15 m) long were placed across approximately 3 acres (12 140 m ). The placement of

17292-529: Was later used by the Maya and Aztec cultures: in addition to making balls, Aztecs used rubber for other purposes, such as making containers and to make textiles waterproof by impregnating them with the latex sap. Charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736. In 1751, he presented a paper by François Fresneau to

17424-442: Was ultimately removed on March 15, 1989. In Serra's defense to preserve the sculpture he stated "To remove Tilted Arc , therefore, is to destroy it", advocating an art-for art's sake mantra of site-specific artworks. Following the hearing and GSA's decision, Serra responded that he would deny his authorship of Tilted Arc if it were relocated. and would consider it a "derivative work". The case of Tilted Arc continues to highlight

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