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128-642: Zulia State is in northwestern Venezuela, bordering Lake Maracaibo , the largest body of water of its kind in Latin America . Its basin covers one of the largest oil and gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere . Zulia is economically important to the country for its oil and mineral exploitation, but it is also one of the major agricultural areas of Venezuela, highlighting the region's contribution in areas such as livestock, bananas , fruits, meat, and milk. There are several competing theories about

256-563: A Venezuelan citizen by birth and without any other nationality in full enjoyment of civil rights and older, to reside in the Federal Entity at least four years before the election according to Article 69 of the State Constitution, to be older than 25 years, not to be a minister of religious worship or to occupy positions in the national, state or municipal administration, and in case of being an official, to be separated from

384-399: A flat bottom is steep and the northwestern edge is gentle. The southern part is lighter due to river water injection, while the northern part is slightly salty due to tidal influence. The Catatumbo River forms a bird-foot-shaped delta in the southwest of the lake basin, and the surface lake water in the delta has a salinity of only 0.13%. However, the intrusion of seawater from the mouth of

512-460: A general amnesty and the promise to convene a new constituent assembly before the ten-year period established by the Constitution of Cúcuta, and Páez backed down and recognized Bolívar's authority. The reforms, however, never fully satisfied its different political factions, and no permanent consolidation was achieved. The instability of the state's structure was now apparent to all. In 1828,

640-459: A great diversity of landscapes plants which, according to Huber's classification, can be grouped into tree, shrub and herbaceous formations. Tree formations include coastal mangroves, dry to semi-deciduous lowland forests, lowland evergreen forests, and mountain forests. It is estimated that the total area of mangroves in Zulia State occupies an area of 116.3 km (44.9 mi), located in

768-706: A great mass of water constituted by the Maracaibo lake system, combining the heights that surround it and the flat lands that serve as coastal support. The geomorphological evolution of the state of Zulia is related to the processes generated by the collision between the South American and Pacific tectonic plates, in their interaction with the Caribbean plate. Throughout its geological history, the Andes and Perijá became positive zones; however, an orogenic pulsation in

896-452: A heterogeneous mosaic of potentialities for the economic, social and cultural development, manifested in the practice of agriculture, livestock, forestry, mining, fishing and tourism, with areas under special administration. These elements make Zulia a federal entity capable of contributing within the economic activities, a complex industrial marked by its uniqueness, reinforced by the routes and means of lake-marine communications that facilitate

1024-469: A high risk of extinction in the medium term. Among the different species of mammals, the palm tree bear ( Myrmecophaga tridactyla ), which lives especially in the northeast of the Lake Maracaibo basin, is threatened by poaching and is often rolled up on the tracks. The cunaguaro ( Leopardus pardalis ), often in thorny forests, thickets and even in mangrove forests, this species - a house today -

1152-642: A horst tectonic that starts in the valley of the Intermedio river, lengthening and narrowing in a south–north direction ending in the Oca mountains, from which the lowlands of the Guajira isthmus follow. The Perijá mountain range comprises five large landscape units: Sierra de Motilones, Sierra de Perijá, Sierra de Valledupar, Montes de Oca and the foothills of mountains and valleys. Between the Perijá mountain range and

1280-802: A serious threat to the unity of the country. In July and August, the municipal government of Guayaquil and a junta in Quito issued declarations of support for Páez's actions. Bolívar, for his part, used the developments to promote the conservative constitution he had just written for Bolivia , which found support among conservative Ecuadorians and the Venezuelan military officialdom, but was generally met with indifference or outright hostility among other sectors of society and, most importantly for future political developments, by vice-president Santander himself. In November two assemblies met in Venezuela to discuss

1408-853: A tropical rain forest climate with an annual average precipitation of 2,556 mm, and surpassing 3,500 mm per year in the heights of Serrania de Perija . The geographical location and the diversity of natural landscapes present in the state of Zulia, in addition to the presence of Lake Maracaibo, define the great variety of climates present in the state. According to Koeppen's classification, there are desert climates (Bwhi), semi-dry tropical climates (Bshi), tropical savannah and sub-humid trophy forests (Awi), tropical rainy trophy forests and savannah (Aw "i), tropical rainy monsoon (Ami), tropical rainy jungle (Afi), very humid tropical temperate (Cfi), tropical humid temperate (Cwi) and undefined mountain climates. Lake Maracaibo and its basin are factors that complement each other to produce high rainfall. However, for

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1536-545: A year on average. The nocturnal thunderstorms occur on average about 297 days per year. At its peak in September, the lake area can experience up to 280 lightning strikes per hour, approximately 28 lightning strikes per minute, lasting up to 9 hours, and is capable of illuminating nighttime navigation. The aboriginal Añú  [ es ] people who lived on the banks of the lake refer to it as Coquivacoa. The tribes of Wayuu , Caquetíos , and Quiriquires also lived in

1664-466: Is 210 kilometers long from north to south, 121 kilometers wide from east to west, covers an area of 13,512 square kilometers, the deepest is 35 meters, the shore length is about 1000 kilometers, and the volume is about 280 cubic kilometers. The largest river entering the lake, the Catatumbo River , enters the lake from west to east, providing 57% of the water entering the lake. In addition to

1792-444: Is also the place with the most frequent lightning on Earth. The famous Catatumbo lightning can illuminate nighttime navigation. Lake Maracaibo is located within the eponymous basin and is one of the oldest lakes on earth. It was formed 36 million years ago when the faults collapsed when the Andes were uplifted in the late Eocene . In the geological history, sea water and fresh water have alternated many times, and have flooded

1920-504: Is between 358 and 665.99 mm (14.094 and 26.220 in), with a median temperature of 28 °C (82 °F). The precipitation rates increase in the western and eastern regions of Lake Maracaibo, forming a wet tropical savanna climate, with annual average temperatures from 27 °C to 28 °C, and rainfall exceeding 1,000 mm (39 in) registered in Mene Grande. In the southern lake region, increased rainfall conforms to

2048-424: Is considered to be of high quality. The red deer ( Odocoileus virginianus gymnotis ), subspecies that has contracted by almost 50% in the arid zones of Zulia and in the basin of the Maracaibo lake due to the indiscriminate hunting to which it has been object, given the inexistence of a specific law to protect it. The yellow bat of the deserts ( Rhogeessa minutilla ) is distributed in the arid and semi-arid zones of

2176-657: Is geographically a peninsula), while others like Toad have tectonic origins. The majority of the islands are located in the area of the Tablazo Bay and forms the Almirante Padilla municipality  [ es ] . The islands of Burro, Providencia, Hijacal, Pájaros, and the artificial islands are located at the neck of the lake and belong to other municipalities. Natural islands of Lake Maracaibo: Artificial islands of Lake Maracaibo: The 8,678 metres (28,471 ft) long General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge connects

2304-399: Is illegally extracted. Two species of indigenous reptiles are named after Zulia: a turtle ( Mesoclemmys zuliae ) and a lizard ( Maracaiba zuliae ). In the humid and sub-humid Zulian sub-region, which includes the municipalities located to the southeast, south and southwest of Lake Maracaibo, live communities of animals that are largely the same as those living in the dry region, especially

2432-474: Is influenced by latitude , which generates an increase from north to south in the average annual precipitation of the Maracaibo (488 mm), Cabimas (528.9 mm) and Santa Barbara (1,366.5 mm) stations. This behavior is explained by the descending latitudinal order, at except for the El Tucuco station (2,032.9 mm), whose behavior is due to the altitudinal factor (205 meters above sea level), where

2560-686: Is made up of numerous river basins and sub-basins that cover the states of Zulia, Lara, Táchira, Mérida, Trujillo and part of the Republic of Colombia, the latter drained by the Catatumbo River and its tributaries. All of them flow into the area comprised by the lake itself, the Maracaibo Strait and the El Tablazo Bay. Some sources indicate that the Maracaibo system is made up of four distinct but closely related bodies of water:

2688-499: Is that Ecuador and Venezuela separated from the Gran Colombian Federation and inherited all of the treaty obligations that Gran Colombia had assumed, at least to the extent that they apply to their respective territories. There are indications that Colombia itself maintained this position; Gran Colombia and its successor state, the Republic of Colombia, shared a capital city, a subset of the same territory, and much

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2816-421: Is that of the Catatumbo River , with a surface of 25,708.36 km and represents more than a quarter (32.60%) of the total area of Maracaibo Lake Basin. The soils of Zulia State, framed within the depression of Lake Maracaibo, are the result of the interaction of factors such as relief, climate, material origin, vegetation and soil formation processes. The edaphic diversity of the state of Zulia corresponds to

2944-408: Is threatened by distraction hunting; it is also destroying its habitat even though it is a species under an indefinite ban. There are others mammals in this sub-region that are at lower risk than those mentioned above, such as the endemic subspecies brownish-grey matacan deer ( Mazama gouazoubira ), which is distributed in arid areas and is persecuted as a source of subsistence food for its meat, which

3072-495: The Constitution of Cúcuta . Gran Colombia was constituted as a unitary centralist state. Its existence was marked by a struggle between those who supported a centralized government with a strong presidency and those who supported a decentralized, federal form of government . At the same time, another political division emerged between those who supported the Constitution of Cúcuta and two groups who sought to do away with

3200-692: The Great Colombia , proclaiming its independence from the Government of Madrid. Zulia Province declared independence from Spain on January 28, 1821. During the Gran Colombia period in 1824, it received the name of " Zulia Department ", honoring the Zulia River . The Constituent Congress of 1824 divided the territory of Colombia into four departments, one of which was Zulia, composed of the provinces of Coro, Mérida and Maracaibo; but when

3328-541: The Gulf of Venezuela , El Tablazo Bay, the Maracaibo Strait and Lake Maracaibo. Although the estuarine portion is mainly constituted by the strait and El Tablazo, it is not possible to understand the estuarine biota without taking into account the other adjacent water bodies. The Gulf of Venezuela participates in the oceanic components, hence the importance of considering the depth, movement and chemical composition of its water body. Such physical-chemical characteristics determine

3456-576: The Gulf of Venezuela . With a surface area of 13,512 km (5,217 sq mi), if counted as a lake it would be the largest in South America , ahead of Lake Titicaca, as well as one of the oldest lakes on Earth , having formed 36 million years ago in the Andes Mountains . The lake is connected to the Gulf of Venezuela to the north by a narrow spit . It is fed by numerous rivers,

3584-571: The Presidency of Quito (which was still under Spanish rule in 1821). Since the new country was proclaimed soon after Bolívar's unexpected victory in New Granada , its government was temporarily set up as a federal republic, made up of three departments headed by a vice-president and with capitals in the cities of Bogotá ( Cundinamarca Department ), Caracas ( Venezuela Department ), and Quito ( Quito Department ). In that year, none of

3712-796: The Province of Mérida del Espiritu Santo de la Grita , becoming the province Espiritu Santo de Maracaibo , or Maracaibo Province . The territory that covers the State of Zulia was erected in the Province of Maracaibo in the year of 1678 and was added, along with Mérida, to the Viceroyalty of the New Kingdom of Granada . It is entity was governed by the President of the Court, whose official seat

3840-532: The Republic of Colombia ( Spanish : República de Colombia ), was a state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern North America (aka southern Central America ) from 1819 to 1831. It included present-day Colombia , mainland Ecuador (i.e. excluding the Galápagos Islands ), Panama , and Venezuela , along with parts of northern Peru , northwestern Brazil , and claimed

3968-594: The United States of Colombia , and in 1886, adopted its present-day name: the Republic of Colombia. Panama, which voluntarily became part of it in 1821, remained a department of the Republic of Colombia until 1903 when, in great part as a consequence of the Thousand Days War of 1899–1902, it became independent under intense American pressure. The United States wanted territorial rights in the future Panama Canal Zone , which Colombia had refused. With

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4096-783: The West Indian manatee and the Amazon river dolphin . About 145 species of fish inhabit the lake, including many endemic species such as the Maracaibo half-hooked catfish ( Hypostomus maracaiboensis ), the Maracaibo hairy catfish ( Trichomycterus maracaiboensis ), the Maracaibo Lake Lamont catfish ( Lamontichthys maracaibero ), Lake Maracaibo tetra ( Bryconamericus motatanensis ), and Maracaibo wolf anchovies ( Lycengraulis limnichthys ) living in surface waters. The lake has been drilled about 14,000 times, and more than 15,000 miles of oil and gas pipelines criss-cross

4224-407: The orography favors high rainfall. The geomorphological conformation of the state of Zulia is a semicircular depression. It defines a hydrographic pattern that can be catalogued by its shape as a radial drainage, that is, that the waters coming from the water dividers are directed towards a common outlet, Lake Maracaibo, which defines this characteristic pattern. The Zulia hydrographic network

4352-650: The Americas if the new states accepted monarchs from European dynasties. In addition, Colombia and the international powers disagreed over the extension of the Colombian territory and its boundaries. Gran Colombia was proclaimed through the Fundamental Law of the Republic of Colombia, issued during the Congress of Angostura (1819), but did not come into being until the Congress of Cúcuta (1821) promulgated

4480-449: The Andes at night contacts the warm and humid air on the lake surface, forming an average of 297 mm per year. The meteorological phenomenon known as Catatumbo lightning takes place in southern part of the lake, characterized by a continuous series of lightnings that are almost continuous and silent. This makes Lake Maracaibo the place with the most frequent lightning on Earth. There are about 233 lightning strikes per square kilometer in

4608-490: The Catatumbo River are the main traffic lines for the transportation of commodities in the nearby area, and the city of Maracaibo is the transshipment center of coffee produced in the Andes. The waterway can pass through large sea-going ships and oil tankers, exporting crude oil and agricultural and livestock products from the Andean mountains and lakes. The Lake District is home to a quarter of Venezuela's population, and with

4736-664: The Cocinetas, Peonias, Sinamaica and Los Olivitos lagoons , and the mouth of the Limon River. For the coastal wetlands in the entire system of Maracaibo is estimated an area of 5,683 km (2,194 mi), highlighting in the south of the lake the swamps of Juan Manuel de Aguas Claras and Aguas Negras . The mangrove vegetation is rather dense. It comprises a set of predominant species, among which are: red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle ), black and pink mangrove ( Avicennia germinans ), white mangrove ( Laguncularia racemosa ) and

4864-503: The Congress who formerly had been ardent federalists now came to believe that centralism was necessary to successfully manage the war against the royalists . To break up regionalist tendencies and to set up efficient central control of local administration, a new territorial division was implemented in 1824. The departments of Venezuela, Cundinamarca, and Quito were split into smaller departments, each governed by an intendant appointed by

4992-522: The Constitution of 1989, its partial amendment of 1993 and 2001. The Executive Power is represented by the Governor of Zulia State. The Governor is elected by means of direct and secret universal suffrage of all Venezuelan citizens residing in the territory of Zulia State and registered in the Electoral Roll of the State's circumscription. To occupy the position of Governor, it is necessary to be

5120-506: The Constitution, either in favor of breaking up the country into smaller republics or maintaining the union but creating an even stronger presidency. The faction that favored constitutional rule coalesced around Vice-President Francisco de Paula Santander , while those who supported the creation of a stronger presidency were led by President Simón Bolívar . The two of them had been allies in the war against Spanish rule, but by 1825, their differences had become public and were an important part of

5248-562: The Essequibo region. The terms Gran Colombia and Greater Colombia are used historiographically to distinguish it from the current Republic of Colombia , which is also the official name of the former state. However, international recognition of the legitimacy of the Gran Colombian state ran afoul of European opposition to the independence of states in the Americas. Austria , France , and Russia only recognized independence in

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5376-503: The Fundamental Law of the Republic of Colombia during the Congress of Angostura (1819). The territory it claimed loosely corresponded to the former territories of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (1739–1777), which it claimed under the legal principle of uti possidetis . It united the territories of the former Third Republic of Venezuela , the United Provinces of New Granada , the former Royal Audiencia of Panama , and

5504-555: The Great Colombia was dissolved in 1830, Maracaibo was left with the character of Province composed of its own territory and that of Trujillo. One year later the Trujillo Section was erected in Province, separating definitively from Maracaibo. With the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, it was named Maracaibo Province and was one of the 11 provinces of Venezuela . In 1835 the territory of the Province of Maracaibo

5632-668: The Indians living in Lake Maracaibo. These risky enterprises, for which a great deal of value and energy was required, were interesting subjects that inspired the chronicler Juan de Castellanos much of his poetic work concluded by the year of 1590 under the title of "Elegies of Illustrious Men of the Indies. During the Spanish colonial period, its lands were part of the Venezuela Province until 1676, when its lands were added to

5760-679: The Islands of Margarita and Trinidad were incorporated into the General Captaincy of Caracas. By Royal Decree of February 15, 1785, the city of Barinas and its dependencies, which corresponded to Maracaibo, were segregated to form a separate province, and instead the city of Trujillo was incorporated, which was part of the province of Caracas. In 1789, the province covered the territory of the current Venezuelan states of Zulia, Apure , Barinas , Táchira , Mérida and Trujillo . In 1810, Mérida and Trujillo were separated as new provinces. At

5888-741: The Lora and Aricuaisá Rivers, and by the Tucuco and Río Negro Rivers, in their lower course, forming highly floodable lands, generating river arms, lagoons, lakes, among which the protected area known as Ciénagas de Juan Manuel National Park stands out. To the southeast of the Santa Ana, towards the southern area of the lake, the Catatumbo river system, to which the Socuavó, Tarra and Zulia rivers drain, also provides significant volumes of water and sediments to

6016-476: The Maracaibo lake there is a wide plain, very flat, which due to its topographic differences, drainage, edaphic and vegetal formations can be differentiated in two areas: a northwest area of less flat topography, with presence of hills in some sectors, scarce hydrographic network, sandy soils and low in organic matter. Between the southern area of the Palmar River and the northern area of the Catatumbo River,

6144-596: The Province of Venezuela, was its factor and governor of: the Province Ambrosio Dalfinger, the first conqueror of those regions. His expedition from Coro to Maracaibo around 1528 and 1529 and the one he carried out at the end of 1529 along the eastern shore of the lake up to the mouth of the Motatán river, were the first occasions, after the discovery, in which they made contact the Europeans with

6272-482: The State of Maracaibo on the same territory as the province. At the end of the same year, the state's legislation determined to change the name to the Sovereign State of Zulia, but that lasted only a few months. In 1874, its name again became Zulia State. Federal government orders in 1881 created the combined Falcón Zulia state . Its autonomous state status continued until April 1, 1890, when congress legislated

6400-593: The Upper Eocene and another one during the Miocene-Pliocene defined the current form of these mountainous systems, conditioning the depression of the Maracaibo and its surrounding plains. These orogenic processes made the Perijá mountain range suffer a less intense uplift than the Andes and, therefore, its structural pattern and relief are more moderate. Likewise, the Ziruma mountain range develops towards

6528-629: The area. At the end of the last glacial period , the sea level rose, connecting Lake Maracaibo directly with the Atlantic Ocean , and the lighter fresh water floated on the heavier salt water, causing nutrients to be deposited on the bottom of the lake, resulting in the accumulation of more than a five kilometer thick deposit of sediment on the bedrock. In the Pliocene , the depression of today's Lake Maracaibo reached what would be practically its current form. The numerous rivers that flow into

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6656-566: The area. When Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci and Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda 's fleet sailed here on August 24, 1499 (the first time Europeans entered this area), the stilt houses in which the Añú lived in reminded Vespucci of the Italian city of Venice , so he named the region Veneziola ( Venezuela in Spanish), or "Little Venice". Spain made two attempts to establish settlements around

6784-483: The arid conditions that characterize the continental territory that borders it. The most important hydrological contributions are not located in the sector of the marabine coast, but come from the mountainous system of the state of Falcon. In the Maracaibo Lake basin, 21 major sub-basins have been identified, some of which go beyond the political-territorial limits of the State of Zulia. The most important basin

6912-419: The beginning of the 19th century, the province of Maracaibo had, besides the capital of its name, the cities of Mérida, Trujillo, San Cristobal, El Rosario de Perijá and San Bartolomé de Sinamaica, with their respective dependencies; but once the independence of Mérida, was segregated with the character of a province, while Maracaibo continued under the Spanish regime until January 18, 1821, on which date it joined

7040-406: The biggest being the Catatumbo River . The fault in the northern section has collapsed and is rich in oil and gas resources. It is Venezuela's main oil producing area and an important fishing and agricultural producing area. Eutrophication caused by oil pollution is a major environmental problem facing the lagoon. The area around the lagoon is inhabited by a quarter of the country's population and

7168-568: The birds. At As for mammals , there are new species, such as the spider monkey, also known as the marimonda ( Ateles belzebuth hybridus ), a species that lives in the humid forests of the Maracaibo Lake Basin (includes the forests of the Perijá mountain range). In the Perijá sub-region (mountainous area), the ecosystem is made up of a great diversity of animal communities: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. Representatives of some species of mammals in this subregion are:

7296-461: The bottom of the lake to float to the surface of the lake, which in turn allowed the duckweed to rapidly multiply and triggered a bloom that lasted for up to eight months. The blooms were noted in June to have covered 18% of the lake, and the local government had to begin spending about $ 2 million per month on cleanup work. Numerous oil spills , at least partly attributed to deficient maintenance, and

7424-433: The buttonwood mangrove ( Conocarpus erectus ). The category of dry semi-deciduous lowland forest occupies the largest area in the state, 18,872.7 km (7,286.8 mi). These plant formations are located above the western coast, in the municipalities Paez, Mara, Maracaibo, Jesus Enrique Lossada, San Francisco, La Cañada de Urdaneta, Rosario de Perijá, Machiques de Perijá, part of Catatumbo and Jesus Maria Semprum. On

7552-409: The capacity to absorb and dilute the contaminating elements that may be present in this water body. The Gulf of Venezuela, with a total surface of 17,840 km, without including the bay of El Tablazo, is located to the north of the outer portion of the marabinal depression. Its shape is approximately rectangular, with the major axis in the northeast–southwest direction. The outer limit of the gulf with

7680-418: The central government, with the same powers that Bourbon intendants had. Realizing that not all of the provinces were represented at Cúcuta because many areas of the country remained in royalist hands, the congress called for a new constitutional convention to meet in ten years. In its first years, it helped other provinces still at war with Spain to become independent: all of Venezuela except Puerto Cabello

7808-477: The central government. Support for Páez and his revolt—which came to be known as the Cosiata (a Venezuelan colloquialism of the time meaning "the insignificant thing") in Venezuelan history—spread throughout Venezuela, aided by the fact that it did not explicitly stand for anything, except defiance to the central government. Nevertheless, the support Páez received from across the Venezuelan political spectrum posed

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7936-407: The city of Maracaibo, the lake water is contaminated with E. coli from feces, oil pollution, and eutrophication caused by agricultural sewage discharged into the lake, as well as domestic and industrial wastewater, resulting in the blooms of duckweed and green algae . The presence of large amounts of duckweed blocks the passage of sunlight, significantly affecting biological cycles, preventing

8064-450: The coastal area to the foothills of the Oca mountains. The fauna is distributed according to the terrestrial or aquatic habitat of fresh and marine water, lentic and lotic waters, and also ecotone fauna. The dry sub-region includes the municipalities of Paez, Mara, Maracaibo, Miranda, Jesus Enrique Lossada, Cabimas , La Cañada de Urdaneta and Lagunillas. This sub-region is home to vulnerable animal communities, considered to be taxa that face

8192-518: The coastal plains of the gulf of Venezuela. The natural region Cordillera de Perijá or western Andean mountain range is located in the west of Zulia state. This unit occupies an area of 4,170.55 km, which represents 12.92% of the state. Part of the most western sectors of the Machiques de Perijá, Rosario de Perijá, Jesús Enrique Lossada, Mara and Guajira municipalities are located in this natural region . The Perijá mountain range can be considered

8320-735: The confusion would not arise. The word " Colombia " is the Castilian version of the eighteenth-century Neo-Latin word " Columbia " which derives from the family name of the Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus . It was the term proposed by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda to denote the New World region of the Western Hemisphere , especially to all American territories and colonies under Spanish colonial rule . He used an improvised, quasi-Greek adjectival version of

8448-436: The constitution, either in favor of breaking up the country into smaller republics or maintaining the union but creating an even stronger presidency. The faction that favored constitutional rule and a federal state coalesced around vice-president Francisco de Paula Santander , while those who supported the creation of a stronger presidency and national unity were led by President Simón Bolívar . The two of them had been allies in

8576-433: The country was divided into twelve departments each governed by an intendant . Departments were further divided into thirty-six provinces, each headed by a governor, who had overlapping powers with the intendant. Military affairs at the department level were overseen by a commandant general , who could also be the intendant. All three offices were appointed by the central government. The central government, which temporarily

8704-440: The development of native algae and plant species. Additionally, duckweed residues accumulate at the bottom, generating a layer of organic elements that produces large amounts of ammonium, methane and other compounds whose saturation causes eutrophication of the waters. In the spring of 2004, heavy rains fell in the Lake Maracaibo basin, causing a large influx of fresh water into the lake. This caused nutrients originally deposited on

8832-484: The eastern coast they are distributed in the municipalities of Miranda, Santa Rita, Cabimas, Simón Bolívar, Lagunillas and part of the municipality of Valmore Rodriguez. In the municipality of Paez, these plant formations develop in dry climates with an annual average temperature of 28 °C (82.4 °F), average annual rainfall of 125 mm to 250 mm (5 inches to 10 inches) and in Aridisols and Entisols soils. The vegetation varies in size, density and species from

8960-505: The effects of the activities human) stand out: the flamingo ( Phoenicopterus ruber ) , distributed in the swamp of Los Olivitos, Miranda municipality, and in the Gran Eneal lagoon, Paez municipality. Although this species cannot be classified as particularly threatened, the loss of its habitats, feeding and nesting areas, together with the lack of adequate management of its shelters, has led to important studies and pro-conservation campaigns, in order to protect and ensure its integrity. Among

9088-485: The end of the eighteenth century, its textile industry had suffered because cheaper textiles were being imported. After independence, it adopted a low-tariff policy, which benefited agricultural regions such as Venezuela. Moreover, from 1820 to 1825, the area was ruled directly by Bolívar because of the extraordinary powers granted to him. His top priority was the war in Peru against the royalists, not solving Ecuador's economic problems. Having been incorporated later, Ecuador

9216-421: The entry and exit of products and goods to the international market . Consequently, it is a nodal center of development in the western geography of Venezuela that manages and concentrates its internal flows and placed at any point of the planet by its expeditious air, land, sea and lake routes. The state of Zulia, from the geomorphological point of view, can be defined as a depression that presents in its center

9344-407: The exception of Panama (which, as mentioned, achieved independence seven decades later), the countries that were created have similar flags, reminiscent of the flag of Gran Colombia: Before a new constitution could be written by the 1821 Congress of Cúcuta , the 1819 Congress of Angostura appointed Bolívar and Santander president and vice president, respectively. Under the Constitution of Cúcuta ,

9472-562: The failure of Bolívar's vision. The former republic was replaced by the republics of Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Granada. The former Department of Cundinamarca (as established in 1819 at the Congress of Angostura ) became a new country, the Republic of New Granada . In 1858, New Granada was replaced by the Granadine Confederation . Later in 1863, the Granadine Confederation changed its name officially to

9600-485: The formation of new nation-states. The significance of this view is that the treaties Peru had signed with Gran Colombia became void when the countersignatory ceased to exist. The three new states, the Republic of New Granada (which later changed its name to Republic of Colombia ), the Republic of Venezuela , and the Republic of Ecuador , in the Peruvian view, started with a clean diplomatic slate. An alternative view

9728-467: The future of the region, but no formal independence was declared at either. That same month, skirmishes broke out between the supporters of Páez and Bolívar in the east and south of Venezuela. By the end of the year, Bolívar was in Maracaibo preparing to march into Venezuela with an army, if necessary. Ultimately, political compromises prevented this. In January, Bolívar offered the rebellious Venezuelans

9856-463: The indiscriminate discharge of sewage without prior treatment, have significantly deteriorated the water quality, to the point that in some parts of the Zulia area, the water presents levels of contamination that are very dangerous for health. Within the existing polluting activities, the mining of mineral coal has started more recently, which further contaminates the basin with pollutants. Likewise,

9984-483: The influence of the prevailing wind, the lake water circulates counterclockwise. There are also the Santa Ana River, Chama River , Motatán River , Escalante River , and about fifty other rivers which drain into it. Lake Maracaibo is deep in the south and shallow in the north. The northern half of the lake, which looks like a bottleneck, is 55 kilometers long. The southeastern edge of the lake basin with

10112-471: The influx of farmers from the nearby Andes, the population of the Lake District increased from about 300,000 in 1936 to over 3.62 million in 2007. Lake Maracaibo possesses highly oxygenated waters which makes it rich in algae, and in turn fish, making it very biologically diverse. It is home to clams, blue crabs , shrimp and other aquatic products, and is also home to two endangered aquatic mammals,

10240-410: The lake connecting Maracaibo and Santa Rita was completed in 1962. Lake Maracaibo is rich in oil and gas resources and is known as the "oil lake". The first Spaniards who arrived used tar seeping from the lake to fill ship cracks. The Maracaibo oil field was discovered in 1914, the first oil well was constructed in 1917, and large-scale exploitation began in 1922. The oil fields are concentrated in

10368-437: The lake floor, but most of these pipelines are half a century old, with oil leaking from many aging underwater pipes. Before the 1950s, the lake water could still be used directly for domestic use, but then due to the intrusion of tidal salt water caused by the widening of the lake mouth channel, the salinity of the northern lake area increased by about 1,000%, and the south also increased by 300–500%. In lakeside towns such as

10496-672: The lake have been defining its banks, especially those that form the southern delta of the lake, where the Escalante , Catatumbo and Santa Ana rivers converge. Lake Maracaibo is located in the Maracaibo lowland in the faulted basin between the Perija Mountains and the Merida Mountains of the Eastern Cordillera Mountains in northwestern Venezuela. The lake is in the shape of a vase. It

10624-518: The lake in 1529 and 1569, but it was not until 1574 that the city of Maracaibo was successfully established. The Privateer Henry Morgan raided settlements on the lake in the Spring of 1669 and defeated a Spanish squadron sent to intercept him. On July 24, 1823, Venezuela won the famous Battle of Lake Maracaibo on the lake during the Venezuelan War of Independence . The original depth of

10752-421: The lake makes the salinity of the bottom lake water higher, reaching 0.2–0.3%. The north is connected with the Gulf of Venezuela , and the spit at the mouth of the lake extends for about 26 kilometers. The annual average temperature of the lake area is 28 °C, the precipitation is more in the south and less in the north, and the average annual rainfall in the south is 1400 mm. The mountain wind from

10880-409: The lake mouth, which was only more than 4 meters deep, was increased to 8 meters after dredging in the 1930s, and the 3-kilometer-long stone breakwater was further increased to 11 meters after its completion in 1957, allowing ocean-going tankers to enter the lake, At the same time, the northern part, which was originally fresh water, became brackish. The 8,678-meter General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge over

11008-429: The lands are very flat and low, particularly those closest to Lake Maracaibo are flooded during rainy periods or when there is an overflow of rivers, giving rise to alluvial sandy-clay soils. This natural region includes the 21 municipalities that make up the state of Zulia and occupies an area of 24,377.81 km, representing 75.51% of the state. In the center of the depression is the engraved tectonic pit occupied by

11136-541: The lower parts. There are very arid zones with others of great humidity, very populated zones in small spaces and other extensive semi-populated areas. Very rich areas and others of great poverty. The Lake Maracaibo Basin covers the large to the north and west, from the Guajira Peninsula to the Perijá Mountains . Venezuela's Andean states of Táchira , Mérida and Trujillo border Zulia State at

11264-514: The marshes. Towards the southeast of the lake, in the sector located between the Pocó and Escalante rivers, there is close contact with the northwestern Andean slope, and there is a reduced relief of excrement cones, terraces and torrential lava flows that sometimes manifest themselves in low, rounded hills. In the northern sector a semi-arid climate prevails, with an irregular pluviometric regime. The annual medial precipitation registered in Maracaibo city

11392-429: The mouth of the Catatumbo River , where it empties into Lake Maracaibo, is the famous Catatumbo lightning ( Relámpago del Catatumbo ) which is represented on the state's flag and coat of arms by lightning bolts. Due to its geographical location, Zulia has geostrategic and geopolitical advantages combined in the diversity of resources given by the nature of its geography, geology and hydrography, drawing in its territory

11520-462: The name, "Colombia", to mean papers and things "relating to Colombia", as the title of the archive of his revolutionary activities. Simón Bolívar and other Spanish American revolutionaries also used the word "Colombia" in the continental sense. The 1819 proclamation of a country with the name "Colombia" by the Congress of Angostura gave the term a specific geographic and political reference. The total population of Gran Colombia after independence

11648-434: The national congress in 1826. Gran Colombia was constituted as a unitary centralist state. Its history was marked by a struggle between those who supported a centralized government with a strong presidency and those who supported a decentralized, federal form of government . At the same time, another political division emerged between those who supported the Constitution of Cúcuta and two groups who sought to do away with

11776-530: The new constituent assembly, the Convention of Ocaña, began its sessions. At its opening, Bolívar again proposed a new constitution based on the Bolivian one, but this suggestion continued to be unpopular. The convention fell apart when pro-Bolívar delegates walked out rather than sign a federalist constitution. After this failure, Bolívar believed that by centralizing his constitutional powers he could prevent

11904-432: The northeast and northwest of the lake, and the oil-producing layers are mainly Tertiary sandstone and Cretaceous limestone, with a hydrocarbon-bearing area of 1,300 square kilometers, mainly concentrated in the coastal waters 105 kilometers long and 32 kilometers wide in the east of the lake. On the northwest coast is the capital of Zulia State , the second largest city in Venezuela and an important oil export port in

12032-463: The northeast and northwest of the state of Zulia. The decrease in vegetation as a result of livestock activity has generated a destruction of their habitat . Among the bird species, the little cardinal ( Carduelis cucullata ) is considered the most threatened not only in Zulia, but in the whole country. The cause of this situation is related to its capture and trade: the beauty of its plumage has been used as an ornament for hats. In less risk (prone to

12160-495: The origin of the state's name. One is that Guaimaral, son of the cacique Mara, was on pilgrimage in the Pamplona region, where he fell in love with the beautiful Zulia, but she was killed in a battle against the conquerors. Gaimaral sadly returned to his father's domains, naming rivers, towns and regions for his lost love there is little historical proof, but that is the most popular theory. Indigenous peoples have been living in

12288-480: The original jurisdiction of the former Viceroyalty of New Granada , it also claimed the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, the Mosquito Coast , as well as most of Esequiba . Its proclaimed name was the Republic of Colombia. Historians have adopted the term "Gran Colombia" to distinguish this republic from the present-day Republic of Colombia, which began using the name in 1863, although many use Colombia where

12416-414: The physiographic and climatic characteristics of the entity, hence to differentiate the types of existing soils the sectorization of the state is used, even though spatially they do not always maintain continuity, but similarity in the existing types of soil. The state of Zulia, due to its great territorial extension and the great variability of type of landscapes , climate and soil, allows the existence of

12544-436: The political instability from that year onward. Gran Colombia was dissolved in 1831 due to the political differences that existed between supporters of federalism and centralism, as well as regional tensions among the peoples that made up the republic. It broke into the successor states of Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela; Panama was separated from Colombia in 1903. Since Gran Colombia's territory corresponded more or less to

12672-475: The position. The term of office of the state governor is four years. A governor may be re-elected an undetermined number of times. Lake Maracaibo Lake Maracaibo ( Spanish : Lago de Maracaibo ) is located in northwestern Venezuela , between the states of Zulia , Trujillo , and Mérida . While Maracaibo is commonly referred to as a lake, its current hydrological characteristics may better classify it as estuary and/or semi-enclosed bay connected to

12800-567: The presidency and the country to accept him. The federation finally dissolved in the closing months of 1830 and was formally abolished in 1831. Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Granada came to exist as independent states. On 3 June 1828 Bolívar declared war on Peru over Gran Colombian claims on the Peruvian territories of Jaén and Maynas . The war ended in the Treaty of Guayaquil, which was signed on 22 September 1829 and went into effect on 27 October 1829. The dissolution of Gran Colombia represented

12928-414: The president. Since President Bolívar was absent from Gran Colombia for the early years of its existence, executive power was wielded by the vice president, Santander. The vote was given to persons who owned 100 pesos in landed property or had an equivalent income from a profession. Elections were indirect . In Peru, the dissolution of Gran Colombia is seen as a country ceasing to exist, giving way to

13056-485: The provinces of Quito, nor many in Venezuela and New Granada, were free yet. The Constitution of Cúcuta was drafted in 1821 at the Congress of Cúcuta , establishing the republic's capital in Bogotá. Bolívar and Santander were appointed by the Congress as the country's president and vice-president. A great degree of centralization was established by the assembly at Cúcuta since several New Granadan and Venezuelan deputies of

13184-568: The region for a long time, including Yukpa , Barí , Arawakos (Western), Timotes and Cuica , Caquetío , Wayúu , and Añú (es). The area that is now Zulia was first seen by Europeans in 1499 during an expedition commanded by Alonso de Ojeda . Transferred by the Crown of Spain to German Businessmen (to the banking company of the Welsers of Augsburg), in 1527, the Governorship and lands of

13312-487: The reptiles, the following stand out: the coastal caiman ( Crocodylus acutus ), whose distribution is severely reduced at present, is located mainly in the Pueblo Viejo dam, municipality of Lagunillas. It is an endangered species, threatened mainly by the commercialization of its skin. In lesser risk is a species of turtle, Morroccoy sabanero ( Geochelone carbonaria ), which is distributed in dry forest areas, and

13440-454: The rivers Araure, Mene, Ulé, Tamare, Pueblo Viejo, Machango and Misoa. This landscape corresponds to flat lands, of recent origin and scarce height, which varies between 50 and 100 meters above sea level. The swampy landscape of Zulia State corresponds to the southern lands of Lake Maracaibo . They occupy an area of 1,766.53 km, which represents 5% of the state. In this plain, the Santa Ana River system converges, formed on its left bank by

13568-402: The rivers Limón, Guasare, Cachirí and Socuy (municipalities Mara and Jesús Enrique Lossada); the rivers Palmar, San Juan and Apón (municipalities Rosario de Perijá, Machiques de Perijá and La Cañada de Urdaneta); in the western alluvial plains, while in the eastern alluvial plains (municipalities of Miranda, Cabimas, Santa Rita and Lagunillas) they are the result of the deposition of sediments from

13696-492: The same citizenry. It would be unnatural to disavow their common histories. The question of the status of treaties and accords dating to the revolutionary period (1809–1819) and Gran Colombia period (1819–1830) has a profound effect on international relations to the present day. There have been attempts at the reunification of Gran Colombia since the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903. People in favor of reunification are called "unionistas" or unionists. In 2008,

13824-530: The separation of the Falcon-Zulia State. It suffered further territorial changes towards the end of the 19th century, until the current delimitation in 1899 was finally drawn. Since that time the name has remained Estado Zulia . The state of Zulia is a compendium of diverse geographical areas. Plains, mountains, a large lake to which about 135 rivers flow that contribute water and sediment, an infinite number of lagoons, swamps and marshes that are in

13952-685: The separatists (the New Granadians represented mainly by Francisco de Paula Santander and José María Obando , and the Venezuelans by José Antonio Páez ) from bringing down the union. He ultimately failed to do so. As the collapse of the country became evident in 1830, Bolívar resigned from the presidency. Internal political strife between the different regions intensified even as General Rafael Urdaneta temporarily took power in Bogotá, attempting to use his authority to ostensibly restore order, but actually hoping to convince Bolívar to return to

14080-499: The so-called cañadas , which are random drainage courses, drag large amounts of garbage from the human settlements that are in their path to the lake. In addition to this, residential waste such as plastic bags and bottles are also added. These pollutants all eventually get carried into the lake. There are many islands in the lake. Some primarily consist of sedimentary rock , such as the Zapara, Pescadores, and San Carlos islands (which

14208-453: The southeast, considered as a pre-mountain range system of relatively lower altitudes, where only tertiary rocks emerge. . According to the most recent classification, the state of Zulia presents three basic physical-natural units: the natural region of the Perijá mountain range; the natural region of the Corian sierras and the natural region formed by the depression of the Maracaibo lake and

14336-399: The southern end of Lake Maracaibo . The name Venezuela comes from the lake. When Spanish conquistadors sailed into the area, they found the indigenous peoples living in communities of huts supported by stilts along the shores of the lake. They were reminded of Venice and named the place "Little Venice" or Venezuela . The lake has a number of islands, some of which are populated. Near

14464-404: The specific case of the northern part of the state, the wind added to the flat relief causes dry climates, with values that vary between 200 mm and 600 mm of average annual precipitation, and a higher average annual evaporation than the precipitation, such as that which occurs in Maracaibo for the period 1993-2003 of 2,339 mm. The distribution of precipitation in the state of Zulia

14592-416: The spectacled bear ( Tremarctos ornatus ), which is in a category of threat (critical danger) due to the pressure exerted by the hunt, which has caused the decrease of the populations of these animals, in spite of being distributed in areas protected by the Venezuelan laws. Since the creation of the Sovereign State of Zulia on February 17, 1864, with the approval of the first State Constitution, it regulates

14720-505: The structure and function of the government of Zulia. Like all Venezuelan State Constitutions, it is subject to national judicial review. Any of the provisions of the Constitution may be annulled if they conflict with national law and the Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. The Constitution of the State of Zulia was promulgated on August 13, 2003, and partially amended in 2011, currently in force, thus repealing

14848-511: The uplifts of the Perijá and Andean mountain ranges that occurred during the Tertiary period (late Eocene and Oligo-Miocene), and the Falcón mountain ranges (Oligo-Miocene). This pit occupies about 12,870 km of surface. This type of landscape is formed by the deposition of sediments from the rivers of the western and eastern margins of the state of Zulia, specifically in the lower courses of

14976-525: The war against Spanish rule, but by 1825, their differences had become public and were an important part of the political instability from that year onward. As the war against Spain came to an end in the mid-1820s, federalist and regionalist sentiments that had been suppressed for the sake of the war arose once again. There were calls for a modification of the political division, and related economic and commercial disputes between regions reappeared. Ecuador had important economic and political grievances. Since

15104-594: The water masses of the Maracaibo Lake system, "where more than 10,000 m3 of sediments have been accumulated, whose ages are from the Cretaceous (Mesozoic) to the Recent (Cenozoic). These deposits of both marine and terrestrial origin contain an important accumulation of hydrocarbons that make it one of the richest oil basins in South America. The tectonic fossa is a product of the orogenesis directly related to

15232-521: The waters of the Caribbean Sea, on the north side, is given by a line between Punta Espada and Punta Macolla. The distance between both points is 111.12 km. The gulf of Venezuela is a body of water that presents the following movements: of sea, of tides , marine currents and investments of water mass, which provides a high capacity to oxygenate itself and to dilute the pollutants and sediments. Scarce fluvial currents flow into this gulf, due to

15360-620: The western and eastern coast of the lake together. It held the record for being the longest cable-stayed concrete bridge in the world at the time of its inauguration in 1962. Located in the southern part of the Strait of Maracaibo, it is a vehicles-only bridge that accommodates both directions of traffic, while its height allows for the passage of vessels up to 45 meters in height. Gran Colombia Gran Colombia ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈɡɾaŋ koˈlombja] , "Great Colombia "), also known as Greater Colombia and officially

15488-417: The world. The lake area is also an important fishing and agricultural production area in Venezuela, supporting more than 20,000 fishermen, many of whom live in colorful traditional stilt houses built with iron sheets on the lake. The main crops on the south bank of the lake are bananas, peanuts, cocoa, coconut, sugar cane and coffee, the western shore of the lake developed dairy industry. Lake Maracaibo and

15616-447: Was 2,583,799, lower than the 2,900,000 population of the territory before independence with Indians numbering 1,200,000 people or 50% of the population. However in the modern-day territory of Colombia, the population was 1,327,000. Including 700,000 Indians which made up 53% of the population of the territory of Colombia. It was proclaimed by the Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 in the Constitution of Cúcuta and had been promulgated through

15744-507: Was also underrepresented in all branches of the central government, and Ecuadorians had little opportunity to rise to command positions in its army. Even local political offices were often staffed by Venezuelans and New Granadans. No outright separatist movement emerged in Ecuador, but these problems were never resolved in the ten-year existence of the country. The strongest calls for a federal arrangement instead came from Venezuela, where there

15872-451: Was divided into the five Cantons: Maracaibo, Perijá, Zulia, Gibraltar and Altagracia. By Decree of April 9, 1850 were added. the territory of the Province of Trujillo the parishes of La Ceiba and La Ceibita, belonging to Maracaibo, so that that Andean Province had an exit to the Lake. Venezuela's federal constitution , April 22, 1864, changed the denomination of "province" to "state", creating

16000-574: Was liberated at the Battle of Carabobo , Panama joined the federation in November 1821, and the provinces of Pasto , Guayaquil and Quito in 1822. That year Colombia became the first Spanish American republic recognized by the United States, due to the efforts of diplomat Manuel Torres . Its army later consolidated the independence of Peru in 1824. Bolívar and Santander were re-appointed by

16128-587: Was strong federalist sentiment among the region's liberals , many of whom had not fought in the war of independence but had supported Spanish liberalism in the previous decade and who now allied themselves with the conservative Commandant General of the Department of Venezuela, José Antonio Páez , against the central government. In 1826, Venezuela came close to seceding . That year, Congress began impeachment proceedings against Páez, who resigned his post on April 28 but reassumed it two days later in defiance of

16256-484: Was the city of Santa Fé de Bogotá and its jurisdiction extended, in a capricious and extravagant way, to the Provinces of Guayana, Cumaná, Maracaibo and the Islands of Margarita and Trinidad The difficulties that to its good administration offered this curious conglomerate, forced the Court of Madrid to modify the primitive division and by Royal Decree of September 8, 1777, the Provinces of Maracaibo, Cumaná, Guayana and

16384-530: Was to reside in Bogotá , consisted of a presidency, a bicameral congress, and a high court (the Alta Corte ). The president was the head of the executive branch of both the central and local governments. The president could be granted extraordinary powers in military fronts , such as the area that became Ecuador. The vice-president assumed the presidency in case of the absence, death, demotion, or illness of

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