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152-468: Kuči ( Montenegrin and Serbian : Кучи , Kuči ; Albanian : Kuçi , pronounced [ˈkutʃi] ) is a tribe of Albanian origin, historically located in modern central and eastern Montenegro ( Brda region), north-east of Podgorica , extending along the border with Albania. Processes of Slavicisation during the Ottoman era and onwards facilitated ethno-linguistic shifts within much of

304-472: A Grča , son of Nenad as its ancestor also placed him as an ancestor of the Berisha tribe. On the contrary, in Berisha it is believed that Old Kuči itself descends from Berisha and is called Berisha i Kuq (Red Berisha) as opposed to Berisha of Pukë, Mërturi and a part of Piperi that traces its origin from Berisha, who are collectively called Berisha i Bardh (White Berisha). In historical record, Berisha and

456-458: A "backward country", or an opportune people with questionable morals, behaviors and a disrespect for religion. Other Arvanites during the late 1980s and early 1990s expressed solidarity with Albanian immigrants, due to linguistic similarities and being politically leftist. Relations too between Arvanites and other Orthodox Albanian speaking communities such as those of Greek Epirus are mixed, as they are distrusted regarding religious matters due to

608-515: A Bosniak politician and former Minister of Security of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The name appears in several Albanian inhabited territories, including toponyms in Shkodër , Tiranë , Berat , Vlorë and Korçë , as well as anthroponyms and toponyms among the medieval Albanian communities of the Peloponnese , for example the village of Kuçi (modern Chelidoni , known until 1955 as Koutsi )

760-613: A basis for the standard Serbo-Croatian language, was often used instead of the Zeta–South Raška dialect characteristic of most dialects of Montenegro. Petar Petrović Njegoš, one of the most respectable Montenegrin authors, changed many characteristics of the Zeta–South Raška dialect from the manuscript of his Gorski vijenac to those proposed by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić as a standard for the Serbian language . For example, most of

912-581: A coherent strategy to emerge in assistance of a pan-Balkan coalition against the Ottomans. In 1658, in another attempt to form an anti-Ottoman coalition the seven tribes of Kuči, Vasojevići, Bratonožići, Piperi, Kelmendi , Hoti and Gruda allied themselves with the Republic of Venice , establishing the so-called "Seven-fold barjak" or "alaj-barjak. In 1688, the Kuči, with help from Kelmendi and Piperi, destroyed

1064-521: A community of diverse brotherhoods (clans), in relation to the Drekalovići who claimed ancestry from a single ancestor. J. Erdeljanović found, in the Old Kuči, very noticeable instances of the merging of various brotherhoods into one over time. The merging was so finalized that it was hard for him to mark off the parts of those composite brotherhoods, "even the searching in that direction was also encountered by

1216-667: A compact area in southeastern mainland Greece, namely across Attica (especially in Eastern Attica), southern Boeotia , the north-east of the Peloponnese, the south of the island of Euboea , the north of the island of Andros , and several islands of the Saronic Gulf including Salamis , Hydra , Poros , Agistri and Spetses . In parts of this area they formed a solid majority until about 1900. Within Attica, parts of

1368-491: A derivation from Romanian cuci ("hills"), from a similar source to Albanian kuci ("place of high altitude"). Idriz Ajeti and Eqrem Çabej considered kuq improbable and proposed a derivation from kuç ("earthen pot", figuratively "valley") as a geographical reference to valley dwellers as the name is widespread in Albanian-speaking groups. Aleksandar Loma suggests a potential, albeit unclear, connection to

1520-537: A distinct language have appeared since 2004 when the Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro regime introduced usage of the term. The new constitution, adopted on 19 October 2007, deemed Montenegrin to be the official language of Montenegro. The most recent population census conducted in Montenegro was in 2011. According to it, 36.97% of the population (229,251) declared that their native language

1672-597: A geographical term, first attested in Polybius in the form of a place-name Arvon ( Άρβων ), and then again in Byzantine authors of the 11th and 12th centuries in the form Arvanon ( Άρβανον ) or Arvana ( Άρβανα ), referring to a place in what is today Albania. The name Arvanites ("Arbanitai") originally referred to the inhabitants of that region, and then to all Albanian-speakers. The alternative name Albanians may ultimately be etymologically related, but

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1824-538: A language system and thus are allophones rather than phonemes. In addition, there are speakers in Montenegro who do not utter them and speakers of Serbian and Croatian outside of Montenegro (notably in Herzegovina and Bosanska Krajina) who do. In addition, introduction of those letters could pose significant technical difficulties (the Eastern European character encoding ISO/IEC 8859-2 does not contain

1976-563: A national hero of Montenegro who led the tribe in the Montenegrin-Ottoman Wars in 1861–62 and 1876–78 , people of Kuči ancestry include and Jakup Ferri (1832–1879), a national hero of Albania who fought against Miljanov's annexation of his home territory Plav to Montenegro. Modern individuals include Momir Bulatović , a Montenegrin politician and the first President of the Republic of Montenegro and Fahrudin Radončić ,

2128-655: A nomadic lifestyle based on pastoralism, and spread out into small villages. In 1453, the Albanians rose in revolt against Thomas and Demetrios Palaiologos , due to the chronic insecurity and tribute payment to the Turks; they were also joined by the local Greeks, who by then had a common leader in Manuel Kantakouzenos . Following the Ottoman conquest, many Albanians fled to Italy and settled primarily in

2280-690: A number of teachers declaring a strike and parents refusing to send their children to schools. The cities affected by the strike included Nikšić , Podgorica , Berane , Pljevlja and Herceg Novi . The new letters had been used for official documents since 2009 but in February 2017, the Assembly of Montenegro removed them from the official webpage. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Montenegrin, written in

2432-566: A past Albanian Muslim population living amongst them. Amongst the wider Greek speaking population however, the Arvanites and their language Arvanitika were viewed in past times in a derogatory manner. These views contributed toward shaping negative attitudes held by Arvanites regarding their language and thereby increasing assimilation. In post-dictatorial Greece, the Arvanites have rehabilitated themselves within Greek society through for example

2584-700: A phara desired to be the leader of the phratry and would not be led by another. Women held a relatively strong position in traditional Arvanitic society. Women had a say in public issues concerning their phara, and also often bore arms. Widows could inherit the status and privileges of their husbands and thus acquire leading roles within a fara , as did, for instance, Laskarina Bouboulina . Traditional Arvanite folk songs offer valuable information about social values and ideals of Arvanitic societies. The traditional clothing of Arvanites included distinctive attire that sometimes identified them in past times as Arvanites from other neighbouring populations. Arvanite males on

2736-454: A population group in Greece of Albanian origin. They are bilingual , traditionally speaking Arvanitika , an Albanian language variety , along with Greek . Their ancestors were first recorded as settlers who came to what is today southern Greece in the late 13th and early 14th century. They were the dominant population element in parts of the Peloponnese , Attica and Boeotia until

2888-595: A proclamation to the kings of Spain and France claiming they were independent from Ottoman rule and did not pay tribute to the empire. It was followed by an assembly in Prokuplje in 1616 and another one in 1620 in Belgrade , where he appears as one of the participants. In this period they continue to appear as subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The first half of the 17th century is marked by an important event in

3040-491: A shifting of the younger generation towards Greek. At some times, particularly under the nationalist 4th of August Regime under Ioannis Metaxas of 1936–1941, Greek state institutions followed a policy of actively discouraging and repressing the use of Arvanitika. In the decades following World War II and the Greek Civil War , many Arvanites came under pressure to abandon Arvanitika in favour of monolingualism in

3192-504: A significant center. The Zeta period begins with the fall of Duklja to Serbian rule and extends through the rule of the Balšić and Crnojević families. While there is no consensus on the dating of Glagolitic and Cyrillic scripts in present-day Montenegro, it is established that Old Church Slavonic and Cyrillic became dominant during the Zeta period, replacing Glagolitic script . In Zeta

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3344-630: A stance of rejecting the identification of the language with Albanian as well. In recent times, Arvanites had only very imprecise notions about how related or unrelated their language was to Albanian. Since Arvanitika is almost exclusively a spoken language, Arvanites also have no practical affiliation with the Standard Albanian language used in Albania, as they do not use this form in writing or in media. The question of linguistic closeness or distance between Arvanitika and Albanian has come to

3496-552: A well-informed and trusted person of the Venetians – Mariano Bolizza – who describes the Kuči as Albanian Catholics. In his report, Bolizza notes that Lale Drecalou ( Lale Drekalov /Lalë Drekali) and Nico Raizcou (Niko Rajckov/Niko Raiku) were the commanders of the Catholic Albanian Kuči ( Chuzzi Albanesi ) which had 490 households and 1,500 men-in-arms described as very war-like and courageous . In 1614, Lale Drekalov

3648-673: A wider sense. It puts the estimated number of Epirus Albanophones at 10,000. Arvanitika proper is said to include the outlying dialects spoken in Thrace. Arvanites in Greece originate from Albanian settlers who moved south from areas in what is today southern Albania during the Middle Ages. These Albanian movements into Greece are recorded for the first time in the late 13th and early 14th century. The reasons for this migration are not entirely clear and may be manifold. In many instances

3800-743: Is a descent model , similar to the Albanian tribal system of fis . Arvanites were organised in phares (φάρες) mostly during the reign of the Ottoman Empire . The apical ancestor was a warlord and the phara was named after him. In an Arvanitic village, each phara was responsible to keep genealogical records (see also registry offices ), that are preserved until today as historical documents in local libraries. Usually, there were more than one phares in an Arvanitic village and sometimes they were organised in phratries that had conflicts of interest. Those phratries didn't last long, because each leader of

3952-640: Is a prestige supradialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian. The dialect serves as a basis for the Montenegrin language. Some of the dialects are shared with the neighbouring Slavic nations, such as the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect and the Zeta–Raška dialect . The Eastern Herzegovinian dialect is spoken in the majority of Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina , as well as areas in Croatia and Serbia, with Montenegro only partially codifying

4104-473: Is a dialectal phenomenon. Consequently, Montenegrins were obligated to use atypical non-jotized forms such as "djed" (grandfather), "cjedilo" (strainer), "tjerati" (to drive), "sjesti" (to sit), and so on. In subsequent editions, Belić abolished the normative status of the so-called longer endings of pronominal-adjective declension (-ijem, -ijeh) and codified only the short endings. This led Vuk's language model to be gradually abandoned by his followers. Despite

4256-474: Is currently considered in danger of extinction due to it having no legal status in Greece. The language is also not available at any level of the educational system in Greece. Social changes, government policies, and public indifference have also contributed to the decline of the language. Arvanites were regarded as ethnically distinct from the Greeks until the 19th century. Amongst the Arvanites, this difference

4408-464: Is first mentioned in 1485 as a nahiyah of the Sandjak of Shkodra . Over time, several waves of settlers came to populate the region and form the historical community of Kuči. The region is known for its resistance against Ottoman rule and its key role in the creation of modern Montenegro . Until the 17th century, the Kuči region was equally Orthodox and Catholic. Today, it is mostly Orthodox except for

4560-494: Is marked by close contact with the northern Albanian dialects of Malësia . This is especially apparent in the dialects of Kuči and Bratonožići, largely because of the historic bilingualism that was present in the area. However, as Kuči is in a transitional area between the Albanian and Slavic languages, it has become the subject of historiographical dispute. In particular, Serbian historiography has been criticized, as muting in

4712-468: Is mentioned again in the Venetian cadaster of 1416–7 of Shkodra , where the village of "Kuç" ( Kuč ) , is listed as a small settlement of eight households near the city itself, headed by a Jon Nada . Two other heads of households are sons of Nenad, Gjergj ( Giergi in the original document) and Lazër ( Lazzaro ). A person married into the village is Jon Progani , who was married to Nesa (a diminutive of

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4864-414: Is of less clear origin (see Albania (toponym) ). It was probably conflated with that of the "Arbanitai" at some stage due to phonological similarity. In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi", with a range of variants, were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising names Illyrians . In the 19th and early 20th century, Alvani (Albanians)

5016-800: Is recorded as an Albanian settlement ( cemā'at-i Arnavudān ) in 1460–3. According to Giuseppe Valentini , also the Arbëreshë surname Cuccia directly corresponds to the tribal name of the Kuči. Valentini makes further connections to the Albanian Kuçi of medieval Greece , noting that the Sicilo-Arbëreshë Cuccia family descends from a certain Pietro Cuccia who arrived from Greece in 1467. The surname appears at least 19 times among Albanian stradioti recorded between 1482 and 1547, and Valentini notes various toponyms connected to

5168-781: Is the Ubli village, which had 227 inhabitants in the 2011 Montenegrin census and houses several institutions like a culture hall, the "Đoko Prelević" elementary school, a hospital, a police station and a former fabric factory. Ubli is situated in Upper Kuči ( Montenegrin and Serbian : Gornji Kuči ) and includes the villages of Prelevići, Pavićevići, Živkovići, Kostrovići and Rajovići. The other villages of Upper Kuči are Medun , Orahovo, Bezjovo, Cvilin, Fundina , Koći, Kržanja, Kosor, Liješta , Dučići, Vrbica, Donje Stravče, Gornje Stravče , Zaugao, Brskut, Zagreda, Momče, Ubalac and Raći . Lower Kuči ( Montenegrin and Serbian : Donji Kuči ) comprises

5320-531: The Euromosaic (1996) reports notes that the designation Chams is today rejected by the group. The report by GHM (1995) subsumes the Epirote Albanophones under the term Arvanites , although it notes the different linguistic self-designation, on the other hand, applies the term Arvanites only to the populations of the compact Arvanitic settlement areas in southern Greece, in keeping with

5472-421: The Arbëreshë villages of Calabria and Sicily . On the other hand, in an effort to control the remaining Albanians, during the second half of the 15th century, the Ottomans adopted favorable tax policies towards them, likely in continuation of similar Byzantine practices. This policy had been discontinued by the early 16th century. Arvanites often took part in wars on the side of the Republic of Venice against

5624-526: The Declaration on the Common Language , which states that in Montenegro, Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina a common polycentric standard language is used, consisting of several standard varieties, similar to the situation of languages like German , English or Spanish . The introduction of the Montenegrin language has been supported by other important academic institutions such as

5776-473: The Greek War of Independence and the Greek Civil War , this has led to increasing assimilation amongst the Arvanites. The common Christian Orthodox religion they shared with the rest of the local population was one of the main reasons that led to their assimilation. Although sociological studies of Arvanite communities still used to note an identifiable sense of a special "ethnic" identity among Arvanites,

5928-691: The Latin alphabet : "Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i savješću i jedni prema drugima treba da postupaju u duhu bratstva." Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Montenegrin, written in Montenegrin Cyrillic alphabet: "Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима. Она су обдарена разумом и савјешћу и једни према другима треба да поступају у духу братства." Article 1 of

6080-806: The Matica crnogorska , although meeting opposition from the Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts . Some proponents go further. The chief proponent of Montenegrin was Zagreb -educated Vojislav Nikčević , professor at the Department of Language and Literature at the University of Montenegro and the head of the Institute for Montenegrin Language in the capital Podgorica. His dictionaries and grammars were printed by Croatian publishers since

6232-685: The Republic of Venice , according to which Zeta was placed under Venetian jurisdiction; albeit under the condition that the Metropolitan of Zeta would not be subordinated to the Catholic Church . In the Ottoman defter of the Sanjak of Scutari in 1485, Kuči appears as a nahiye for the first time in its modern location. At this point, the nahiye of Kuči comprised communities that later formed two different administrative units and bajraks : Kuči and Triepshi. The total number of households in

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6384-527: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood." Arvanite Arvanites ( / ˈ ɑːr v ə n aɪ t s / ; Arvanitika : Αρbε̱ρεσ̈ε̰ , romanized : Arbëreshë or Αρbε̰ρορε̱ , romanized: Arbërorë ; Greek : Αρβανίτες , romanized : Arvanítes ) are

6536-456: The accusatives of place used in the Zeta–South Raška dialect were changed by Njegoš to the locatives used in the Serbian standard. Thus the stanzas "U dobro je lako dobar biti, / na muku se poznaju junaci" from the manuscript were changed to "U dobru je lako dobar biti, / na muci se poznaju junaci" in the printed version. Other works of later Montenegrin authors were also often modified to

6688-562: The breakup of Yugoslavia through proponents of Montenegrin independence from Serbia and Montenegro . Montenegrin became the official language of Montenegro with the ratification and proclamation of a new constitution in October 2007. The beginnings of Montenegrin literacy date back to 9th century, during the Duklja period, with the establishment of numerous monasteries in the coastal region. While traces of Latin and Greek literacy from

6840-575: The digraphs ⟨sj⟩ and ⟨zj⟩ . The Ministry of Education has accepted neither of the two drafts of the Council for the Standardization of the Montenegrin language, but instead adopted an alternate third one which was not a part of their work. The Council has criticized this act, saying it comes from "a small group" and that it contains an abundance of "methodological, conceptual and linguistic errors". On 21 June 2010,

6992-674: The ijekavian dialect'. After World War II and until 1992, the official language of Montenegro was Serbo-Croatian. Before that, in the previous Montenegrin realm, the language in use was called Serbian. Serbian was the officially used language in Socialist Republic of Montenegro until after the 1950 Novi Sad Agreement , and Serbo-Croatian was introduced into the Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Montenegro in 1974. Organizations promoting Montenegrin as

7144-517: The ruling coalition , Movement for Changes , the Bosniaks , and the Liberals , while the pro-Serbian parties voted against it and the Albanian minority parties abstained from voting. The Constitution was ratified and adopted on 19 October 2007, recognizing Montenegrin as the official language of Montenegro. According to a poll of 1,001 Montenegrin citizens conducted by Matica crnogorska in 2014,

7296-484: The 18th century, strengthened by the state and church organization, conditions were created for the establishment of the uncodified Montenegrin literary language as a means of common communication across the territory under the jurisdiction of the state and church. Even before the birth of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić , Ivan-Antun Nenadić from Perast advocated for the phonetic orthographic principle, emphasizing that writing should reflect how people speak and pronounce. This rule

7448-471: The 19th century. They call themselves Arvanites (in Greek) and Arbëror (in their language). Arvanites today self-identify as Greeks as a result of a process of cultural assimilation , and do not consider themselves Albanian. Arvanitika is in a state of attrition due to language shift towards Greek and large-scale internal migration to the cities and subsequent intermingling of the population during

7600-403: The 20th century, after the creation of the Albanian nation-state, Arvanites in Greece have come to dissociate themselves much more strongly from the Albanians, stressing instead their national self-identification as Greeks. At the same time, it has been suggested that many Arvanites in earlier decades maintained an assimilatory stance, leading to a progressive loss of their traditional language and

7752-526: The 20th century. The name Arvanites and its equivalents are today used both in Greek ( Αρβανίτες , singular form Αρβανίτης , feminine Αρβανίτισσα ) and in Arvanitika itself ( Arbëreshë or Arbërorë ). In Standard Albanian ( Arvanitë, Arbëreshë, Arbërorë ) all three names are used. The name Arvanites and its variants are based upon the root arb/alb of the old ethnonym that was at one time used by all Albanians to refer to themselves. It refers to

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7904-521: The 580 inhabited villages, 407 are listed as Albanian, 169 as Greek, and four as mixed; however, Greek villages had on average 3.5 times more families than Albanian ones. Many of these settlements have since been abandoned, while others have been renamed. A Venetian source of the mid-15th century estimates that 30,000 Albanians lived in the Peloponnese at that time. Throughout the Ottoman–Venetian wars , many Albanians died or were captured in service to

8056-772: The 86 brotherhoods which lived in Kuči at the time. The Ottoman increase of taxes in October 1875 sparked the Great Eastern Crisis , which included a series of rebellions, firstly with the Herzegovina Uprising (1875–77) , which prompted Serbia and Montenegro declaring war on the Ottoman Empire (see Serbian–Ottoman War and Montenegrin–Ottoman War ) and culminated with the Russians following suit ( Russo-Turkish War ). In Kuči, chieftain Marko Miljanov Popović organized resistance against

8208-594: The Albanian nation. But I will talk about four tribes, the tribes of Piperi, Bratonožići, Bjelopavlići and Kuči. Based on their outstanding fighting skills they seem to have Albanian blood, and in fact Albanians consider them to be so. However, since almost everyone applies the Orthodox rites and speaks the Slavic language, they can be considered more Slavs than Albanians." The political alliances in Europe did not allow for

8360-532: The Albanian tribes that were within the nahiye and would later be administratively within Kuči following the incorporation of their lands into the Montenegrin state, such as Trieshi and Koja e Kuçit, were treated as branches or regions of the Kuči tribe despite their distinct histories and identities. In terms of traditional customs, up to the end of the 19th century traces of a variant of the northern Albanian kanuns remained in use in Kuči. Marie Amelie von Godin in her travels still reported traces of bilingualism in

8512-547: The Albanians were invited by the Byzantine and Latin rulers of the time. They were employed to re-settle areas that had been largely depopulated through wars, epidemics, and other reasons, and they were employed as soldiers. Some later movements are also believed to have been motivated to evade Islamization after the Ottoman conquest . Groups of Albanians moved into Thessaly as early as 1268 as mercenaries of Michael Doukas . The Albanian tribes of Bua , Malakasioi and Mazaraki were described as "unruly" nomads living in

8664-418: The Balkans in general, Kuči has suffered heavily from emigration since the collapse of Yugoslavia . The 2011 Montenegrin census recorded about 1,000 inhabitants in total in the villages traditionally associated with Kuči. Two major ethnic groups inhabit the region: ethnic Montenegrins and ethnic Serbs (see Montenegrin Serbs ), though these may be regarded as one, as some families may politically be split between

8816-418: The Catholic Kuči, Bratonožići and Drekalovići tribe has converted to Orthodoxy by Rufim Boljević . A 1652 Franciscan report by Giacinto Sospello illustrates the final stages of the acculturation of the Kuči. Sospello writes: "I do not want to deal here with Zeta near Shestan, which is part of Montenegro, where people practice the Orthodox rites and speak the Slavic language: the local people are not part of

8968-502: The Catholic community of Koja . Muslim converts appear since 1485. In the 17th and 18th centuries, both voluntarily and non-voluntarily many people from the pleme began to settle in the Plav - Gusinje , Rožaje and the wider Sandžak region. Many of their descendants identify as Muslim Bosniaks. The history of the people of Kuči represents the diversity of the area and its location at the crossroads between different cultures and religions. As such, alongside Marko Miljanov (1833–1901),

9120-436: The Catholic powers in Europe that were considered to have abandoned their allies in the Balkans. Drekalov's conversion was soon followed by a gradual conversion of all Catholics of Kuči. As Francesco Bolizza notes in a letter to Cardinal Caponi in 1649, about three or four Catholic villages remained in Kuči under the jurisdiction of the Franciscan mission of Gruda. According to Historians Simo Milutinović and Dimitrije Milaković ,

9272-437: The Council for General Education adopted the first Montenegrin Grammar . The first written request for the assignment of an international code was submitted by the Montenegrin authorities to the technical committee ISO 639 in July 2008, with complete paperwork forwarded to Washington in September 2015. After a long procedure, the request was finally approved on Friday, December 8, 2017, and ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3 code [cnr]

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9424-419: The Duklja period are partially preserved, there is only indirect evidence of literacy in the Slavic language. The use of Glagolitic script in Duklja was influenced by the strong center of Bulgarian literacy in Ohrid , although some argue that Slavic literature in Duklja was written in Latin script. Literary activity flourished around Lake Skadar during this period, with the Monastery of Prečista Krajinska as

9576-584: The East Herzegovinian forms in order to follow the Serbian language literary norm. However, some characteristics of the traditional Montenegrin Zeta–South Raška dialect sometimes appeared. For example, the poem Onamo namo by Nikola I Petrović Njegoš , although it was written in the East Herzegovinian Serbian standard, contains several Zeta–South Raška forms: "Onamo namo, za brda ona" ( accusative , instead of instrumental case za brdima onim ), and "Onamo namo, da viđu (instead of vidim ) Prizren" , and so on. Most mainstream politicians and other proponents of

9728-401: The Greek mainland wore the fustanella , a pleated like skirt garment or kilt, while those who lived on some Aegean islands wore baggy breeches of the seafaring Greeks. Arvanite women were known for wearing a chemise shirt that was heavily embroidered. They also wore a heavily embroidered foundi or gown like garment that was heavily embroidered in silk and on the mainland the sigouni ,

9880-430: The Institute for Montenegrin Language and Linguistics, and the Montenegrin Society of Independent Writers played a crucial role in preserving Montenegrin values. The Declaration on the Constitutional Status of the Montenegrin Language by the Montenegrin PEN Center in 1997 was a significant document emphasizing the autonomy of the Montenegrin language. These efforts culminated in the new Montenegrin Constitution of 2007, where

10032-445: The Kuçi appeared for the most part to have converted to the Orthodox religion, while a smaller part, the Triepshi, continued to preserve the Catholic faith, although both Kuçi groups were allies ( confederati ). At the beginning of the 18th century, some people from the Kuči and Kelmendi were forcibly resettled by the Ottomans in the southern parts of the Sandžak , especially in the hills of the Pešter plateau, around Sjenica , and in

10184-411: The Kuči ( Cucci ) are mentioned by Marino Bizzi as being half Orthodox and half Catholic ( la metà scismatica e l'altra latina ). In 1613, the Ottomans launched a campaign against the rebel tribes of the northern Albanian territories. In response, the tribes of the Vasojevići , Kuči, Bjelopavlići, Piperi, Kastrati, Kelmendi, Shkreli and Hoti formed a political and military union known as “The Union of

10336-469: The Kuči recorded in the Ottoman register of 1485. The settlement is deemed to have been named after its founder, Panta Lleshi, who likely lived during the first half of the 15th century. Furthermore, folk legends note that Panta had a number of sons among which Mara , Llesh , Pjetri , and Gjergj appear to be reflected in the Ottoman register through the surnames and patronyms of household heads. The katuns of Petrovići and Lješovići possibly branched off from

10488-404: The Kuči were "kin" to Kastrati, Berisha and Kelmendi because their distant ancestor once, ostensibly, settled in the same general area as Kuči. Another late 19th century tradition was recorded by Jovan Erdeljanović in Kuči, the most intricate versions of which were from Kržanj, Žikoviće, Kostroviće, Bezihovo, Kute, Podgrad and Lazorce. According to this story, the Old Kuči descended from Gojko ,

10640-399: The Latin alphabet due to their existence in Polish , but which must be created ad hoc using combining characters when typesetting Cyrillic. Many literary works of authors from Montenegro provide examples of the local Montenegrin vernacular. The medieval literature was mostly written in Old Church Slavonic and its recensions , but most of the 19th century works were written in some of

10792-469: The Montenegrin Language, which aims to standardize the Montenegrin language according to international norms. Proceeding documents will, after verification, become a part of the educational programme in Montenegrin schools. The first Montenegrin standard was officially proposed in July 2009. In addition to the letters prescribed by the Serbo-Croatian standard, the proposal introduced two additional letters, ⟨ś⟩ and ⟨ź⟩ , to replace

10944-618: The Montenegrin language gained official status for the first time. The establishment of the Council for the Standardization of the Montenegrin Language in 2008 and the adoption of the Montenegrin Spelling Book in 2009 represent significant steps in the standardization and affirmation of the Montenegrin language. In January 2008, the government of Montenegro formed the Board (Council) for Standardization of

11096-798: The Montenegrin language state that the issue is chiefly one of self-determination and the people's right to call the language what they want, rather than an attempt to artificially create a new language when there is none. The Declaration of the Montenegrin PEN Center states that the " Montenegrin language does not mean a systemically separate language, but just one of four names (Montenegrin, Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) by which Montenegrins name their part of [the] Shtokavian system, commonly inherited with Muslims , Serbs and Croats ". Therefore, in 2017, numerous prominent writers, scientists, journalists, activists and other public figures from Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia signed

11248-537: The Montenegrin literary language encompasses the period after World War II, with the improvement of the country's status, the language's standing also improved. Although Montenegro did not gain the right to name its language with its own name, during this period, institutions promoting the Montenegrin language were substantively developed. Associations and organizations like the Montenegrin PEN Center, Matica crnogorska, Duklja Academy of Sciences and Arts,

11400-602: The Mountains” or “The Albanian Mountains” . The leaders swore an oath of besa to resist with all their might any upcoming Ottoman expeditions, thereby protecting their self-government and disallowing the establishment of the authority of the Ottoman Spahis in the northern highlands. Their uprising had a liberating character. With the aim of getting rid of the Ottomans from the Albanian territories In 1614 Kuči are described in terms of ethnicity and religion in 1614 by

11552-401: The Old Kuči appear in different areas and timelines as Old Kuči formed part of the tribe of current Kuči, which was based on different ancestral groups in the late 15th century . Nevertheless, if not kin by blood, Montenegrin and Albanian tribes regarded closeness in original or home territory from where someone "came". Therefore, Serbian geographer Andrija Jovićević put forward the narrative that

11704-676: The Ottoman Empire that was still at its pinnacle of power. Albanian uprisings intensified – especially in the Sanjak of Scutari and Sanjak of Dukagjin – during the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 when the Porte faced the forces of the Catholic powers of the Holy League . In a 1582/83 defter (Ottoman tax registry), the Kuči nahiya had 13 villages, belonging to the Sanjak of Scutari. Anthroponymy in

11856-408: The Ottoman takeover of the region, they were an integral part of the military structures of Thessaly. Two of their military leaders known in Byzantine sources as Peter and John Sebastopoulos controlled the small towns of Pharsala and Domokos . Ottoman control began in the late 14th century with the capture of Larissa in 1392-93 and consolidated in the early 15th century. Nevertheless, Ottoman control

12008-723: The Ottomans and joined forces with the Montenegrins. The Kuči, identifying as a Serb tribe, asked to be united with Montenegro. After the Berlin Congress , Kuči was included into the borders of the Principality of Montenegro . At the Battle of Novšiće , following the Velika attacks (1879) , the battalions of Kuči, Vasojevići and Bratonožići fought the Albanian irregulars under the command of Ali Pasha of Gusinje , and were defeated. Like many rural areas in Montenegro and

12160-492: The Ottomans, between 1463 and 1715. During the Greek War of Independence , many Arvanites played an important role on fighting on the Greek side against the Ottomans, often as national Greek heroes. With the formation of modern nations and nation-states in the Balkans , Arvanites have come to be regarded as an integral part of the Greek nation. In 1899, leading representatives of the Arvanites in Greece, including descendants of

12312-533: The Peloponnese during the reign of Theodore I Palaiologos , first in Arcadia and subsequently in the more southern regions around Messenia , Argolis , Elis and Achaea . Around 1418, a second large group arrived, possibly fleeing Aetolia , Acarnania and Arta , where Albanian political power had been defeated. After the Ottoman incursion in 1417, other groups from Albania crossed western Greece and may have infiltrated into Achaea. The settled Albanians practiced

12464-545: The Rovčani housed and protected some of the refugee families. In 1794, the Kuči and Rovčani were devastated by the Ottomans. From the late 17th to the early 18th century, many brotherhoods that were from Kuči left the area whether as refugees from Ottoman punitive campaigns or simply as emigrants and settled further north, mostly in the Sandzak area, where many converted to Islam. The movements and conversion included about 30 of

12616-518: The Venetians; at Nafpaktos , Nafplio , Argos , Methoni , Koroni and Pylos . Furthermore, 8,000 Albanian stratioti , most of them along with their families, left the Peloponnese to continue their military service under the Republic of Venice or the Kingdom of Naples . Historian Thomas Gordon who traveled in the Kingdom of Greece in the 1830s and earlier in the 1820s described its Albanian-speaking areas: "Attica, Argolis, Boeotia, Phocis, and

12768-416: The apprehension of said individuals". With the arrival of the Drekalovići, the old families called themselves "Old Kuči". According to certain oral traditions and legends, the Old Kuči descend from an ancestor named Panta . In relation to this, scholars such as Djurdjev and Pulaha have asserted that this tradition is reflected in the historical record with the attestation of Pantalesh, the main settlement of

12920-578: The approximately 730,000 inhabitants of the Peloponnese, and the three neighboring islands of Poros, Hydra and Spetses, Arvanites numbered 90,253, or 12.3% of the total population. In the mid-19th century, Johann Georg von Hahn had estimated their number throughout Greece to be between 173,000 and 200,000. There are no official figures about the number of Arvanites in Greece today (no official data exist for ethnicity in Greece). The last official census figures available come from 1951. Since then, estimates of

13072-411: The area Albanian and Slavic symbiosis and bilingualism in favor of a monoethnic and monolingual Serbian narrative, a trend evident in ethnographers of the early 20th century like Jovan Erdeljanović and Jovan Cvijić . Older Serbian or Yugoslav historiography and ethnography on the Kuči conflated the Ottoman nahiye of Kuči—an administrative unit composed of different communities—with the Kuči tribe. As such,

13224-731: The area as the Ottomans were consolidating their power base. Pavlovići and Banjovići, which represent more than half of the new households have a predominantly Slavic Orthodox anthroponymy. Koći is the historical settlement of the Catholic Albanian Koja tribe that would fully form in later years. Leshoviq/Lješovići had come to the area from the Catholic Albanian Kelmendi tribe to the south of Kuči. Many of these brotherhoods no longer exist, while some of them became part of Trieshi and Koja e Kuçit . These formed Old Kuči ( Serbian : Starokuči ), who were

13376-580: The area in 1614 recorded that Lale Drekalov and Niko Raičkov held 490 houses of the Chuzzi Albanesi ("Albanian Kuči", a village of predominantly Roman Catholic religion), with 1,500 soldiers, described as "very war-like and courageous". The Drekalovići, the largest brotherhood of Kuči, numbered close to 800 households in 1941, roughly half of all of Kuči. The Islamization of Kuči has made a minority of inhabitants declaring as simply Montenegrins, or Muslims by ethnicity, and Bosniaks although they trace

13528-413: The area of Kuči. According to her reports, although Albanian was no longer spoken in the area, some laments and oaths were still being sung and recited in Albanian. Montenegrin language Montenegro's language has historically and traditionally been called either Serbian or Montenegrin. The idea of a standardized Montenegrin standard language separate from Serbian appeared in the 1990s during

13680-822: The army of Süleyman Pasha twice, took over Medun and got their hands of large quantities of weapons and equipment. In the same year, the Kuči are still considered Albanian by the German historian Christoph Boethius, renowned for his studies on the Ottoman Wars. In 1689, an uprising broke out in Piperi, Rovca , Bjelopavlići, Bratonožići, Kuči and Vasojevići, while at the same time an uprising broke out in Prizren , Peja , Pristina and Skopje , and then in Kratovo and Kriva Palanka in October ( Karposh's Rebellion ). In 1699,

13832-551: The authors did not identify a sense of 'belonging to Albania or to the Albanian nation'. Many Arvanites find the designation "Albanians" offensive as they identify nationally and ethnically as Greeks and not Albanians . Jacques Lévy describes the Arvanites as "Albanian speakers who were integrated into Greek national identity as early as the first half of the nineteenth century and who in no way consider themselves as an ethnic minority". Relations between Arvanites and other Albanian speaking populations have varied over time. During

13984-500: The brother of King Vukašin . His descendants were forced to flee Shkodra with the Ottoman invasion and settled in Brštan. Gojko Mrnjavčevic, however, is a fictional character in Serb epic poetry, who dies in the 1371 Battle of Maritsa in folk tradition itself. The South Slavic dialect spoken in Kuči forms a speech group with Bratonožići and Piperi. South Slavic in these three communities

14136-588: The capital Athens and its suburbs were Arvanitic until the late 19th century. There are also settlements in some other parts of the Peloponnese, and in Phthiotis . Albanians also settled on the islands of Kea , Psara , Aegina , Kythnos , Skopelos , Ios and Samos . They would thereafter assimilate into the Greek population. Arvanitika is a dialect of the Albanian language, sharing similar features primarily with other Tosk varieties. The name Arvanítika and its native equivalent Arbërisht are derived from

14288-536: The community. As such, people from the Kuči today largely identify themselves as Montenegrins and Serbs , with a minority still identifying as Albanians. In other areas such as the Sandžak , many Muslim descendants of the Kuči today identify as Bosniaks . The Kuči first appear in historical records in 1330 as a brotherhood from an Albanian katun under the jurisdiction of the Dečani Monastery . The region itself

14440-844: The country's official language to be Montenegrin, but this policy is opposed by the Socialist People's Party of Montenegro , the People's Party , the Democratic Serb Party , the Bosniak Party , and the Movement for Changes as well as by the Serb List coalition led by the Serb People's Party . A referendum was not needed, however, as a two-thirds majority of the parliament voted for the Constitution, including

14592-406: The development of the Montenegrin spoken language, progressively shedding Church Slavonic elements as time passed. The most significant writers during the period of written language emerged in the late Baroque period - Andrija Zmajević in the coastal part Bay of Kotor and Danilo Petrović Njegoš in the continental part Cetinje . Both wrote in the Montenegrin vernacular. From the second half of

14744-589: The dialect. The Zeta–Raška dialect is prevalent in mostly southern Montenegro and parts of the historical region of Raška in Serbia. It is mainly spoken by local ethnic Serbs , Montenegrins, Bosniaks and Muslims. The proponents of the separate Montenegrin language prefer using Gaj's Latin alphabet over the Serbian Cyrillic . In both scripts, the Montenegrin alphabets have two additional letters (bold), which are easier to render in digital typography in

14896-496: The dialects of Montenegro. They include the folk literature collected by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and other authors, as well as the books of writers from Montenegro such as Petar Petrović Njegoš 's The Mountain Wreath ( Gorski vijenac ), Marko Miljanov 's The Examples of Humanity and Bravery ( Primjeri čojstva i junaštva ), etc. In the second half of the 19th century and later, the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect , which served as

15048-428: The draft of the constitution but did not address the language and church issues, calling them symbolic. The new constitution ratified on 19 October 2007 declared Montenegrin to be the official language of Montenegro, but also gave some recognition to Albanian , Bosnian , Croatian , and Serbian. The ruling Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro and Social Democratic Party of Montenegro stand for simply stating

15200-481: The eight settlements of the nahiya were 253. These (with household numbers in brackets) were: Pantalesh (110), Brokina (12), Bardhani (25), Radona (55), Bankeq (11), Stani (24), Bytidosi (11), Llazorçi (5). Llazorçi was a settlement of another small tribe, the Lazori who appear as part of the Albanian katun in 1330. By 1485, they had moved northwards with the Kuči brotherhoods. Bankeq and a part of Bytidosi are related with

15352-504: The ethnonym Arvanites , which in turn comes from the toponym Arbëna (Greek: Άρβανα), which in the Middle Ages referred to a region in what is today Albania . Its native equivalents ( Arbërorë, Arbëreshë and others) used to be the self-designation of Albanians in general. While Arvanitika was commonly called Albanian in Greece until the 20th century, the wish of Arvanites to express their ethnic identification as Greeks has led to

15504-421: The forefront especially since the early 1990s, when a large number of Albanian immigrants began to enter Greece and came into contact with local Arvanitic communities. Since the 1980s, there have been some organized efforts to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of Arvanites. The largest organisation promoting Arvanitika is the "Arvanitic League of Greece" ( Αρβανίτικος Σύλλογος Ελλάδος ). Arvanitika

15656-401: The formal acknowledgment of ijekavian in literary language, the interwar period in Montenegro was marked by an increasing use of ekavian . The introduction of ekavian was implemented through education, as textbooks and teaching staff predominantly followed ekavian norms. This is vividly illustrated by writings in the Montenegrin press of that time. The contemporary stage in the development of

15808-548: The government's webpage. In 2004, the government of Montenegro changed the school curriculum so that the name of the mandatory classes teaching the language was changed from "Serbian language" to "Mother tongue (Serbian, Montenegrin, Croatian, Bosnian)". This change was made, according to the government, in order to better reflect the diversity of languages spoken among citizens in the republic and to protect human rights of non-Serb citizens in Montenegro who declare themselves as speakers of other languages. This decision resulted in

15960-401: The historical region of Triepshi. In terms of anthroponymy the demographics of the area showed a cohabitation of Albanian and Slavic names. In the 253 households, 105 households heads had Albanian names, 53 had mixed Albanian-Slavic names and 91 had Slavic names. About 2/3 of the Slavic anthroponymy (59 households) was concentrated in two settlements, Radona and Stani. Radona also had about 1/5 of

16112-544: The independence heroes, published a manifesto calling their fellow Albanians outside Greece to join in the creation of a common Albanian-Greek state. After the Greek War of Independence, Arvanites contributed greatly to the fulfilment of irredentist concept of Megali Idea which aimed to see all Greek populations in the Ottoman Empire freed and came to a halt with the end of the Greco-Turkish war in 1922. During

16264-486: The isles of Hydra, Spetses, Salamis, and Andros" as well as "several villages in Arcadia, Achaia, and Messenia". Historian George Finlay in the mid 19th century estimated the number of Albanians (Arvanites) in Greece to number about 200,000 out of approximately 1.1 million inhabitants in total based on the 1861 census. A demographic census by Alfred Philippson , based on fieldwork between 1887 and 1889, found that out of

16416-477: The land strip between Novi Pazar , Tutin , Rožaje and Plav . Many of these converted to Islam over time and came to form an important part of the Muslim population in these regions. In 1774, in the same month of the death of Šćepan Mali , Mehmed Pasha Bushati attacked the Kuči and Bjelopavlići, but was subsequently decisively defeated and returned to Scutari. Bushati had broken into Kuči and "destroyed" it;

16568-429: The language in Montenegro was officially referred to as Serbian , and the assimilation of the Montenegrin language toward the general štokavian Karadžić model was primarily implemented through textbooks and external teaching staff that wholeheartedly followed the principles of Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reform. Vuk's principle of introducing the vernacular into literature encountered little opposition in Montenegro, as it

16720-454: The letter З, for example, and the corresponding letters were not proposed for Cyrillic). Prime minister Milo Đukanović declared his open support for the formalization of the Montenegrin language by declaring himself as a speaker of Montenegrin in an October 2004 interview with Belgrade daily Politika . Official Montenegrin government communiqués are given in English and Montenegrin on

16872-585: The linguistic demographics were: According to an early 2017 poll, 42.6% of Montenegro's citizens have opted for Serbian as the name of their native language, while 37.9% for Montenegrin. A declaration of Montenegrin as their native language is not confined to ethnic Montenegrins. According to the 2011 census, a proportion of other ethnic groups in Montenegro have also claimed Montenegrin to be their native language. Most openly, Matica Muslimanska called on Muslims living in Montenegro to name their native language as Montenegrin. Montenegrins speak Shtokavian , which

17024-422: The local language of medieval Zeta, influencing Bosnian and Serbian redactions. Despite being erroneously labeled as Zeta-Hum redaction, it originated in Zeta and then spread to Hum. The period of written language spans from the late 15th to the 18th century. During this time, written language represents the written realization of the local spoken language. In new socio-historical circumstances in Montenegro, there

17176-426: The localities of Doljani, Murtovina , Stara Zlatica and Zlatica . The Kuči region itself can be divided into two major historical sub-regions: An area that is also considered part of the wider Kuči region is that of Koja , a Catholic Albanian tribe . It became part of Montenegro in 1880 and it includes the settlements of Koći and Fundina. The region of Koja stands between Triepshi in the south and Kuči proper in

17328-631: The major Montenegrin publishing houses such as Obod in Cetinje opted for the official nomenclature specified in the Constitution (Serbian until 1974, Serbo-Croatian to 1992, Serbian until 2007). Nikčević advocates amending the Latin alphabet with three letters Ś, Ź, and З and corresponding Cyrillic letters С́, З́ and Ѕ (representing IPA [ ɕ ] , [ ʑ ] and [ dz ] respectively). Opponents acknowledge that these sounds can be heard by many Montenegrin speakers, however, they do not form

17480-442: The mixed Slavic Orthodox-Albanian anthroponymy and it was the only settlement of Kuči in 1485 where Muslim converts lived (5/55 households). In the 1497 defter, it had 338 households in eleven settlements including new or renamed settlements like Pavlovići, Petrovići, Lješovići (Leshoviq), Lopari, Banjovići and Koći (Koja). This increase by 85 households in a few years represents a wave of refugees and other communities that settled in

17632-570: The mountains of Thessaly in the early 14th century in Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos' 'History'. They numbered approximately 12,000. Kantakouzenos describes a pact they made to serve the Byzantine Emperor and pay tribute to him ca. 1332 in exchange for using the lowland areas of Thessaly in the summer months. Albanian groups were given military holdings Fanari in the 1330s and by the end of the 14th century and

17784-537: The name Nenada ). His son, Gjin Progani was also a household head as were Jon Serapa and Gjergj Tina and Pali Samrishi . They paid one ducat per household in taxes to the Venetian governor of Scutari. Members of this brotherhood also lived in other villages in the area like in Shurdhani, where three out of six households were from Kuçi. The region on the eastern shore of Lake Shkodra and the parishes of Zeta became

17936-707: The national language, and especially the archaizing Katharevousa which remained the official variant of Greek until 1976. This trend was prevalent mostly during the Greek military junta of 1967–1974 . The 1460–1463 Ottoman taxation cadastre recorded the taxable population of the Peloponnese by households ( ḫâne ), bachelors, and widows. Specifically, there were 6,551 (58.37%) Greek and 4,672 (41.63%) Albanian households, 909 (66.25%) Greek and 463 (33.75%) Albanian bachelors, and 562 (72.05%) Greek and 218 (27.95%) Albanian widows. Greeks tended to live in large villages and cities, while Albanians in small villages. Specifically, out of

18088-470: The negative image of their communities. However, this theory has been rejected by modern scholars and it is seen as a myth. In the 1990s, the Albanian president Sali Berisha raised a question about an Albanian minority in Greece, but the Arvanite cultural associations reacted angrily to his statement. Fara ( Greek : φάρα , means "seed", "descendants" in Albanian , from Proto-Albanian *pʰarā )

18240-449: The north. The people of Koja are referred to as Kojanë . Some villages stand between the Kuči sub-regions. For example, the village of Orahovo is located between Old Kuči and Koja. Other settlements that were once part of one Kuči tribal region moved over time to other regions. Albanian in origin, Kuči underwent a process of gradual cultural integration into the neighbouring Slavic population. The Kuči are first attested to in 1330, in

18392-445: The numbers of Arvanites has ranged from 25,000 to 200,000. The following is a summary of the widely diverging estimates (Botsi 2003: 97): Like the rest of the Greek population, Arvanites have been emigrating from their villages to the cities and especially to the capital Athens . This has contributed to the loss of the language in the younger generation. Today, regions with a strong traditional presence of Arvanites are found mainly in

18544-515: The onset of the Greek war of Independence, Arvanites fought alongside Greek revolutionaries and against Muslim Albanians. For example Arvanites participated in the 1821 Tripolitsa massacre of Muslim Albanians, while some Muslim Albanian speakers in the region of Bardounia remained after the war, converting to Orthodoxy. In recent times, Arvanites have expressed mixed opinions towards Albanian immigrants within Greece. Negative views are perceptions that Albanian immigrants are "communists" arriving from

18696-400: The period in question, the highest achievement of such literary language is seen in the letters of Petar I Petrović-Njegoš . As a result of Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reform, during the transitional period of the Montenegrin language (from the 1830s to World War I), significant changes occurred, and some typical Montenegrin linguistic features were officially abolished. Throughout this period,

18848-483: The phase marked by the influence of Serbian linguist Aleksandar Belić , between the two World Wars. Montenegrin linguistic peculiarities, preserved in the literary style in the first two decades of the 20th century, were assimilated into the common "Serbo-Croatian" linguistic template in the new socio-historical framework. Although Belić's Orthography from 1923 formally allowed the use of ijekavian , he emphasized in that edition and subsequent ones that jekavian jotization

19000-550: The propagation of the Pelasgian theory regarding Arvanite origins. The theory created a counter discourse that aimed to give the Arvanites a positive image in Greek history by claiming the Arvanites as the ancestors and relations of contemporary Greeks and their culture. The Arvanite revival of the Pelasgian theory has also been recently borrowed by other Albanian speaking populations within and from Albania in Greece to counter

19152-448: The reach of the mentioned reform, entering the 20th century with preserved foundational Montenegrin language characteristics. The preservation of typical Montenegrin language features in the literary style is evident in the works of three representative figures from that period: Petar II Petrović Njegoš , Stefan Mitrov Ljubiša , and Marko Miljanov Popović . The most significant changes in the Montenegrin literary language occurred during

19304-540: The region was mixed. In the settlements of Bankeq, Bytadosa, Bardić, Lazarniči, and Lješovići, mixed Albanian-Slavic anthroponyms now predominated over typical Albanian personal names, borne by a minority of household heads. However, in the villages of Petrovići, Koći, and Brokina half of household heads bore typical Albanian anthroponyms, the other half bearing mixed Albanian-Slavic names. In contrast, typical Slavic anthroponymy dominated in Pavlovići and Radona. This period marks

19456-554: The religious history of Kuči. Voivode Lale Drekalov, who was a Catholic, converted to Orthodoxy in his second marriage to a relative of the voivode of the Bratonožići tribe. The main reasons that have been put forward to explain this decision include his shift in orientation of political alliances towards the Orthodox tribes of Montenegro, the influence of the Orthodox Church in the region and the increasing disappointment towards

19608-495: The same origin with that of their Christian brethren. There are various oral traditions with varying degrees of consistency with archival records. In Montenegro, Marko Miljanov himself from Kuči wrote in his book about his home region that the Kuči and Berisha were "regarded close", allegedly because the Berisha ancestors settled from Kuči; Konstantin Jireček further recorded about this story that Old Kuči ( Staro Kuči ), which placed

19760-492: The school year 1863/64, Montenegro began the continuous implementation of Karadžić's linguistic reform in Cetinje schools. This reform would ultimately achieve a definitive victory in Montenegro by the end of the 19th century, primarily in administrative, journalistic, and scientific styles. The literary style, which retained fundamental Montenegrin linguistic features, resisted this process the longest and mostly remained beyond

19912-670: The second and third charters of the Dečani chrysobulls . There, a certain Petar Kuč (Albanian: Pjetër Kuçi ) is recorded, an individual from the Albanian katun ( Serbian : Katun Arbanasa ), considered to have been the leader of the Kuči brotherhood. Contrary to the Vlach katuns mentioned in the charters, no indication is given on the location of the Albanian katun, however Branislav Djurdjev proposed that it must have been located in Zeta . Kuči

20064-619: The self-identification of those groups. Linguistically, the Ethnologue identifies the present-day Albanian/Arvanitic dialects of Northwestern Greece (in Epirus and Lechovo ) with those of the Chams, and therefore classifies them together with standard Tosk Albanian , as opposed to "Arvanitika Albanian proper" (i.e. southern Greek-Arvanitika). Nevertheless, it reports that in Greek the Epirus varieties are also often subsumed under "Arvanitika" in

20216-406: The settlement of Pantalesh and were descended from Panta's sons Pjetri and Llesh. Another wave of settlement in the mid 16th century is that of the Drekalovići, who came to form an important part of Kuči. In the second half of the 16th century, in particular between 1560–1571, armed uprisings spread in the northen Albanian territories of Mirdita, Shkodra, Kelmendi, Kuçi, and Pipri, fighting against

20368-529: The south of Greece. In the course of the 20th century, it became customary to use only Αλβανοί for the people of Albania, and only Αρβανίτες for the Greek-Arvanites, thus stressing the national separation between the two groups. There is some uncertainty to what extent the term Arvanites also includes the small remaining Christian Albanophone population groups in Epirus and West Macedonia . Unlike

20520-419: The southern Arvanites, these speakers are reported to use the name Shqiptarë both for themselves and for Albanian nationals, although these communities also espouse a Greek national identity nowadays. The word Shqiptár is also used in a few villages of Thrace , where Arvanites migrated from the mountains of Pindus during the 19th century. However they also use the name Arvanitis speaking in Greek, while

20672-605: The territory where the Kuči, along with other communities, such as the Bitidosi and Bushati would eventually migrate and settle in. In 1455 the Kuči, who some scholars speculate may not have fully territorialized as a tribe, took part in an assembly alongside 50 other tribes of the Upper Zeta region. As a result of this assembly, the Lord of Zeta Stefan Crnojević was granted the consent and authority to sign an agreement with

20824-490: The time where Albanian toponymy begins to be either translated into Slavic or acquire Slavic suffixes like in the village of Bardhani that begins to appears as Bardić , and in Llazorçi which appears as Lazarniči . Administratively, the Kuči, Bratonožići and part of Plav were under the soldiers of Medun and its spahi, but the commander was not named. They were also subject to taxation, despite having some autonomy. In 1610,

20976-495: The toponym Kučevo for which he proposes a number of Slavic (f.e., * kučь meaning " Eurasian bittern ", * kuti meaning "smith") and non-Slavic etymologies; as well as connections to Polish toponyms Kucz and Kuczów . The Kuči region is within the municipality of Podgorica and comprises almost all of eastern Podgorica, with the exception of Koći , which is part of the Tuzi Municipality . The unofficial Kuči centre

21128-459: The tribal name across Albania and Arvanite settlements in Greece. According to the tradition of the Berisha tribe , the Old Kuči is called Berisha i Kuq (Red Berisha) as opposed to Berisha i Bardh (White Berisha), which is used for Berisha of Pukë, Mërturi and a part of Piperi that traces its origin from Berisha. The etymology of Kuči (Albanian: Kuçi) is unclear. Many scholars have adopted

21280-593: The two, i.e. with one brother opting for a Montenegrin identity and another a Serb. Most of the inhabitants are followers of the Serbian Orthodox Church , while a minority are ethnic Muslims . There is an enclave of Roman Catholic Albanians in the village of Koći ( Koja in Albanian) and Fundina. Christian Orthodox residents used to be split into two distinct groups: Old Kuči ("Starokuči") and Drekalovići/New Kuči . Mariano Bolizza in his voyage in

21432-482: The vast majority of the population declared Serbian to be their native language. Such had also been the case with the first recorded population census in Montenegro, in 1909, when approximately 95% of the population of the Principality of Montenegro claimed Serbian as their native language. According to the Constitution of Montenegro , the official language of the republic since 1992 has been 'Serbian language of

21584-556: The view that the etymology of the name is from Albanian kuq (Gheg Albanian [/kut͡ʃ/] , kuç in the Albanian alphabet) "red", ultimately from Latin coccaeus evolved through Albanian phonetic changes. It was first proposed by Gustav Meyer and adopted by Pavle Ivić , Petar Šimunović and many others. Alternative etymologies from Albanian sources include kuç ("puppy, doggie") suggested by Biris (1998), and kuci ("place of high altitude, summit, steep high rock") suggested by Sarris (1928) and Fourikis (1929). Stanišić proposes

21736-468: Was Montenegrin, and 42.88% (265,895) declared it to be Serbian. Mijat Šuković , a prominent Montenegrin lawyer, wrote a draft version of the constitution which passed the parliament's constitutional committee. Šuković suggested that Montenegrin be declared the official language of Montenegro . The Venice Commission , an advisory body of the Council of Europe , had a generally positive attitude towards

21888-502: Was a gradual shift towards the reintegration of the Montenegrin language with a popular basis. However, Old Church Slavonic continued to be used in the Orthodox Church for a long time. In this phase, Old Church Slavonic books and Cyrillic script dominated. Yet, in the coastal region, the influence of the Montenegrin type of Old Church Slavonic had little impact on the literature of the period, where Latin and Italian language prevailed. The written language in secular use continued to follow

22040-565: Was already present there before Vuk. However, the complete acceptance of all aspects of this reform did not proceed smoothly, leading to divisions among Montenegrin cultural figures. In lengthy debates, Jovan Pavlović (a consistent follower of Vuk) and Lazar Tomanović stood out, with Tomanović advocating for the introduction of graphemes ś and ź. Đuro Špadijer, in his Serbian Grammar (intended for 3rd and 4th grades in Montenegrin elementary schools), introduced some characteristics considered by Vuk's model as dialectal and provincial. However, from

22192-460: Was applied early in Montenegrin literature, making it unsurprising that Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reforms were later accepted without significant issues. In the period of the uncodified Montenegrin literary language, three styles can be observed: literary, business, and scientific, all formed in the process of spontaneous Montenegrin linguistic standardization. Montenegrin literature, both linguistically and thematically, originated from everyday life. In

22344-423: Was assigned to the Montenegrin language, effective December 21, 2017. The language remains an ongoing issue in Montenegro. In the census of 1991, the vast majority of Montenegrin citizens, 510,320 or 82.97%, declared themselves speakers of the then-official language: Serbo-Croatian . The earlier 1981 population census had also recorded a Serbo-Croatian-speaking majority. However, in the first Communist censuses,

22496-684: Was established a printing press by Đurađ Crnojević , starting in Obod and later moving to Cetinje . This press produced five incunabula , making Montenegro one of the four Slavic nations with incunabula in their language. During this period there was a development of the Zetan (Montenegrin) redaction of Old Church Slavonic, exemplified by the Miroslavljevo Gospel from the 12th century, written in Kotor . This redaction adapted Old Church Slavonic to

22648-473: Was expressed in words such as shkljira for a Greek person and shkljerishtë for the Greek language that had until recent decades negative overtones. These words in Arvanitika have their related counterpart in the pejorative term shqa used by Northern Albanians for Slavs . Ultimately these terms used amongst Albanian speakers originate from the Latin word sclavus which contained the traditional meaning of "the neighbouring foreigner". With participation in

22800-460: Was one of the chief participants and organizers of the assembly of Kuçi . In that assembly 44 leaders mostly from northern Albania and Montenegro took part to organize an insurrection against the Ottomans and ask for assistance by the Papacy. Gjon Renësi had undertaken the task of presenting the decisions of the assembly to the Papacy. The leaders who participated in the assembly also decided to send

22952-436: Was threatened throughout this era by groups of Greeks, Albanians and Vlachs who based themselves in the mountainous areas of Thessaly. The main waves of migration into southern Greece started from 1350, reached a peak some time during the 14th century, and ended around 1600. Albanians first reached Thessaly , then Attica , and finally the Peloponnese. One of the larger groups of Albanian settlers, amounting to 10,000, settled

23104-474: Was used predominantly in formal registers and Arvanites (Αρβανίτες) in the more popular speech in Greek, but both were used indiscriminately for both Muslim and Christian Albanophones inside and outside Greece. In Albania itself, the self-designation Arvanites had been exchanged for the new name Shqiptarë since the 15th century, an innovation that was not shared by the Albanophone migrant communities in

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