Sandžak ( Serbian : Санџак ) is a historical and geo-political region in the Balkans , located in the southwestern part of Serbia and the eastern part of Montenegro . The Serbo-Croatian term Sandžak derives from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , a former Ottoman administrative district founded in 1865.
121-479: Various empires and kingdoms have ruled over the region. In the 12th century, Sandžak was part of the region of Raška under the medieval Serbian Kingdom . During the Ottoman territorial expansion into the western Balkans in a series of wars , the region became an important administrative district, with Novi Pazar as its administrative center. Sandžak was under Austro-Hungarian occupation between 1878 and 1909 as
242-503: A complete turning from an old to a totally new life. While it entailed the acceptance of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came. Muslim scholars like Abu Hanifa and Abu Yusuf stated that the jizya tax should be paid by Non-Muslims ( Kuffar ) regardless of their religion, some later and also earlier Muslim jurists did not permit Non-Muslims who are not People of
363-547: A convert. Crypto-Jews , Crypto-Christians , Crypto-Muslims and Crypto-Pagans are historical examples of the latter. The religions of the world are divided into two groups: those that actively seek new followers (missionary religions) and those that do not (non-missionary religions). This classification dates back to a lecture given by Max Müller in 1873, and is based on whether or not a religion seeks to gain new converts. The three main religions classified as missionary religions are Christianity , Islam , and Buddhism , while
484-461: A department or any school of higher education. Sandžak saw a process of industrialisation, during which factories were opened in several cities, including Novi Pazar, Prijepolje, Priboj , Ivangrad , while the coal mines were opened in the Prijepolje area. The urbanisation caused a major social and economic shift. Many people left villages for towns. The national composition of the urban centres
605-774: A garrison, until an agreement between Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the withdrawal of Austro-Hungarian troops from Sandžak in exchange for full control over Bosnia. In 1912, it was divided between the Kingdom of Montenegro and the Kingdom of Serbia . Novi Pazar serves as Sandžak's economic and cultural center and is the region's most populous city. Sandžak has a diverse and complex ethnic and religious composition, with significant Eastern Orthodox , Roman Catholic , and Sunni Muslim populations. Bosniaks comprise ethnic majority in this region. The Serbo-Croatian term Sandžak ( Serbian Cyrillic : Санџак )
726-855: A great rift between the German army and Albanians and they were abandoned. In November 1941 as clashes continued Albanians defeated the Chetniks in the battle of Novi Pazar . The battle was followed by reprisals against the Serbs of Novi Pazar. In 1943, Chetnik forces based in Montenegro conducted a series of ethnic cleansing operations against Muslims in the Bihor region of modern-day Serbia. In May 1943, an estimated 5400 Albanian men, women and children in Bihor were massacred by Chetnik forces under Pavle Đurišić . In
847-587: A handful of them were allowed to leave and the rest of them were forced to convert. Muslims were expelled from Portugal in 1497, and they were gradually forced to convert in the constituent kingdoms of Spain. The forced conversion of Muslims was implemented in the Crown of Castile from 1500 to 1502 and it was implemented in the Crown of Aragon in the 1520s. After the conversions, the so-called " New Christians " were those inhabitants ( Sephardic Jews or Mudéjar Muslims) who were baptized under coercion as well as in
968-478: A persecuted religion into a religion which was capable of persecuting and sometimes eager to persecute. On 27 February 380, together with Gratian and Valentinian II , Theodosius I issued the decree Cunctos populos , the so-called Edict of Thessalonica , recorded in the Codex Theodosianus xvi.1.2 . This declared Trinitarian Nicene Christianity to be the only legitimate imperial religion and
1089-455: A place where they had no liberty, and were liable to imprisonment, torture and death if they worshiped after their own fashion the gods of their fathers", wrote Filippo Sassetti , who was in India from 1578 to 1588. In 1858, Edgardo Mortara was taken from his Jewish parents and raised as a Catholic, because he had been baptized by a maid without his parents' consent or knowledge. This incident
1210-518: A reaction, the notables of the region then published a memorandum and declared themselves to be Albanians. The memorandum was sent to Prime Minister Ekrem Libohova whom they asked to intervene so the region could be united to the Albanian kingdom. It has been estimated that 9,000 Muslims were killed in total by the Chetniks and affiliated groups during the war in Sandžak. The Jewish community of Novi Pazar
1331-658: A report in 1901-02. The five kazas (districts) of the sanjak of the Novi Pazar at that time were: Akova , Sjenica , Kolašin , Novi Pazar and Nova Varoš . According to the Bulgarian report, in the kaza of Akova there were 47 Albanian villages which had 1,266 households. Serbs lived in 11 villages which had 216 households. The town of Akova (Bijelo Polje) had 100 Albanian and Serb households. There were also mixed villages - inhabited by both Serbs and Albanians - which had 115 households with 575 inhabitants. The kaza of Sjenica
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#17327760175251452-557: A significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam. Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would sell them as slaves to Muslim households where they were forced to convert to Islam . Many Christian martyrs were executed under
1573-484: A total of 1,749 Serb and Albanian households with 8,745 inhabitants. The kaza of Kolašin had 27 Albanian villages with 732 households and 5 Serb villages with 75 households. The administrative centre of the kaza, Šahovići, had 25 Albanian households. The kaza of Novi Varoš, according the Bulgarian report, had 19 Serbian villages with 298 households and "one Bosnian village with 200 houses". Novi Varoš had 725 Serb and some Albanian households. The last official registration of
1694-424: A total population of 204,068. They were mostly counted as Orthodox Serbs or Montenegrins (56.48%) and Bosnian Muslims (43.09%). Most Bosniaks declared themselves ethnic Muslims in 1991 census. By the 2002-2003 census, however, most of them declared themselves Bosniaks. There is still a significant minority that identify as Muslims (by ethnicity). There are still some Albanian villages (Boroštica, Doliće and Ugao) in
1815-631: Is a geographical and historical region of Serbia . Initially a small borderline district between early medieval Serbia and Bulgaria (city/area of Ras ), since the mid-12th century became the center of the Grand Principality of Serbia and of the Serbian Kingdom . From that period the name of Raška became associated with the state of Serbia, eventually covering the south-western parts of modern Serbia, and historically also including north-eastern parts of modern Montenegro , and some of
1936-457: Is aimed at alleviating current suffering, to brutal change, which is aimed at achieving long-term goals, for the benefit of groups which have ranged from small cliques to all of humanity. The relationship is far from simple. But religion has frequently been used in a coercive manner, and it has also used coercion. People may express their faith through the act of taking refuge , and conversions usually require people to recite their acceptance of
2057-401: Is around 385,666. A plurality of people in Sandžak identify as Bosniaks . They form 52.05% (197,754) of the region's population. Serbs form 30.03% (114,121), Montenegrins 6.97% (26,494), ethnic Muslims 4.71% (17,879), and Albanians 1.06% (4,035). About 19,687 (5.18%) people belong to smaller communities or have chosen to not declare an ethnic identity. Religion in Sandžak is also as diverse as
2178-611: Is not the homeland of Muslims and Christians. Hindu extremist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha , have gone so far as to call for massacres and forced sterilisations , of religious minorities, particularly the Muslims, that have not done ghar wapsi ("returned home") to Hinduism. After the Arab conquests, a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered enslavement and forced conversion. The Teaching of Jacob (written soon after
2299-939: Is the transcription of Ottoman Turkish sancak ( sanjak , "province"); the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , known in Serbo-Croatian as Novopazarski sandžak . Historically, it is known as Raška by the Serbs . The region is known as Sanxhak in Albanian . Sandžak stretches from the southeastern border of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the borders with Kosovo and Albania at an area of around 8,500 square kilometers. Six municipalities of Sandžak are in Serbia ( Novi Pazar , Sjenica , Tutin , Prijepolje , Nova Varoš , and Priboj ), and seven in Montenegro ( Pljevlja , Bijelo Polje , Berane , Petnjica , Rožaje , Gusinje , and Plav ). Sometimes
2420-614: The Baltic Sea forced conversions were a widely used tactic, which received papal sanction. These tactics were first adopted during the Wendish Crusade and became more widespread during the Livonian Crusade and Prussian Crusade , in which tactics included killing hostages, massacre, and devastation of the lands of tribes that had not yet submitted. Most of the populations of these regions were converted only after
2541-646: The British government for protection. About 450 local civilians were killed after the uprising was quelled. These events resulted in a large influx of Albanians migrating to the Principality of Albania . In World War II , Sandžak was the battleground of several factions. In 1941, the region was partitioned between the Italian governorate of Montenegro , the Italian protectorate over the Kingdom of Albania , and
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#17327760175252662-522: The Massacre of Verden in 782, when Charlemagne reportedly had 4,500 captive Saxons massacred for rebelling, and the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae , a law imposed on conquered Saxons in 785, after another rebellion and destruction of churches and killing of missionary priests and monks, that prescribed death to those who refused to convert to Christianity. Forced conversion that occurred after
2783-610: The Muslim National Council of Sandžak (MNVS) which consisted of the Muslim Party of Democratic Action (SDA) and other Bosnian Muslim organizations and parties. It was declared illegal by Serbia. According to the SDA, 70.2% of the population participated in the referendum with 98.92% voting in favor of autonomy. With the democratic changes in Serbia in 2000, the ethnic Bosniaks were enabled to start participating in
2904-417: The Ottoman army , and jizya taxes. The Islamization of Sandžak was otherwise caused by a number of factors, mainly economic, as Muslims didn't pay the devşirme tributes and jizya taxes. The Muslims were also privileged compared to Christians, who were unable to work in the administration or testify in court against Muslims, as they were treated as dhimmi . The second factor that contributed to
3025-459: The Pešter plateau . The Slavic dialect of Gusinje and Plav (sometimes considered part of Sandžak) shows very high structural influence from Albanian. Its uniqueness in terms of language contact between Albanian and Slavic is explained by the fact that most Slavic-speakers in today's Plav and Gusinje are of Albanian origin. The total population of the municipalities of Sandžak in Serbia and Montenegro
3146-674: The Plav rebellion rose up in the Rožaje , Gusinje , and Plav districts, fighting against the inclusion of Sandžak in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . As a result, during the Serbian army's second occupation of Rožaje, which took place in 1918-1919, seven hundred Albanian citizens were slaughtered in Rožaje. In 1919, Serb forces attacked Albanian populations in Plav and Gusinje, which had appealed to
3267-481: The Principality of Montenegro . In order to mark the occasion, prince Nikola of Montenegro (1860–1918) decided to name the newly formed Eastern Orthodox diocese as the Eparchy of Zahumlje and Raška ( Serbian : Епархија захумско-рашка , romanized : Eparhija zahumsko-raška ). In the 19th century the region also became part of the wider " Old Serbia " historiographical term. In 1912, central parts of
3388-405: The Principality of Serbia . In order to mark the occasion, prince Miloš Obrenović (1815–1839) founded a new town, that was also called Raška, situated at the very confluence of Raška river and Ibar, right at the border with Ottoman territory. In 1878, some southwestern parts of the historical Raška region, around modern Andrijevica , were liberated from the Ottoman rule and incorporated into
3509-650: The Raška architectural school . They include: Church of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul in Stari Ras, and monasteries of Gradac and Stara Pavlica . Forced conversion#Islam Forced conversion is the adoption of a religion or irreligion under duress . Someone who has been forced to convert to a different religion or irreligion may continue, covertly, to adhere to the beliefs and practices which were originally held, while outwardly behaving as
3630-828: The Sandžak Muslim militia . At one point around 2,000 members of the SS regiment operated in Sjenica. Its leader was Sulejman Pačariz , an Islamic cleric of Albanian origin. The Anti-Fascist Council of People's Liberation of Sandžak (AVNOS) had been founded on 20 November 1943 in Pljevlja . In January 1944, the Land Assembly of Montenegro and the Bay of Kotor claimed Sandžak as part of a future Montenegrin federal unit. However, in March,
3751-528: The Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia . The Muslim population was in general anti-partisan. They were organized in small formations known in historiography as the Sandžak Muslim militia . These formations depending on their location and regional politics were affiliated to Albanian nationalist groups linked to Balli Kombëtar in central and south Sandžak or to Muslim Ustaše groups in
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3872-651: The Triple Gems of Buddhism . However, they may always practice Buddhism without fully abandoning their own religion. According to Chin Human Rights Organisation (CHRO), Christians from the Chin ethnic minority group in Myanmar are facing coercion to convert to Buddhism by state actors and programme. Christianity was a minority religion during much of the middle Roman Classical Period , and
3993-674: The Vandals attempted to force all Spanish Catholics to become Arian Christians during their rule in Spain. Gregory also recounted episodes of forced conversion of Jews by Chilperic I and Avitus of Clermont . During the Saxon Wars , Charlemagne , King of the Franks , forcibly converted the Saxons from their native Germanic paganism by way of warfare, and law upon conquest. Examples are
4114-614: The Zlatibor District . The Serbian Despotate was invaded by the Ottoman Empire in 1455. Apart from the effect of a lengthy period under Ottoman domination, many of the subject populations were periodically and forcefully converted to Islam as a result of a deliberate move by the Ottoman Turks as part of a policy of ensuring the loyalty of the population against a potential Venetian invasion. However, Islam
4235-466: The dhimmi category. Wael Hallaq states that in theory, Islamic religious tolerance only applied to those religious groups that Islamic jurisprudence considered to be monotheistic "People of the Book", i.e. Christians, Jews, and Sabians if they paid the jizya tax, while to those excluded from the "People of the Book" were only offered two choices: convert to Islam or fight to the death. In practice,
4356-420: The state generally have different aims, both are concerned about power and order; both use reason and emotion to motivate behavior. Throughout history, leaders of religious and political institutions have cooperated, opposed one another, and/or attempted to co-opt each other, for purposes which are both noble and base, and they have implemented programs with a wide range of driving values, from compassion , which
4477-606: The "Old Christians". The Spanish Inquisition generated much wealth and income for the church and individual inquisitors by confiscating the property of the persecuted. The end of Al-Andalus and the expulsion of the Sephardic Jews from the Iberian Peninsula went hand in hand with the increasing amount of Spanish and Portuguese influence in the world, influence which was exemplified by the Christian conquest of
4598-488: The "People of the Book" designation and dhimmi status were even extended to the non-monotheistic religions of the conquered peoples, such as Hindus , Jains , Buddhists , and other non-monotheists. The Druze have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as the Shia Ismaili Fatimid State , Mamluk , Sunni Ottoman Empire , and Egypt Eyalet . The persecution of
4719-782: The 10th century, Vladimir the Great , the ruler of Kievan Rus' , ordered Kiev's citizens to undergo a mass baptism in the Dnieper river. In the 13th century the pagan populations of the Baltics faced campaigns of forcible conversion by crusading knight corps such as the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Order , which often meant simply dispossessing these populations of their lands and property. After Ivan
4840-486: The 18th and 19th centuries. The third factor of Islamization was the geographical location of Sandžak, which allowed it to become a trade centre, facilitating conversions amongst merchants. The tribal migrations to Sandžak had contributed a large role to its history and identity along with culture. The second half of the 19th century was very important in terms of shaping the current ethnic and political situation in Sandžak. Austria-Hungary supported Sandžak's separation from
4961-644: The Almohad persecution, the medieval Jewish philosopher and rabbi Moses Maimonides (1135–1204), one of the leading exponents of the Golden Age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula , wrote his Epistle on Apostasy , in which he permitted Jews to feign apostasy under duress, though strongly recommending leaving the country instead. There is dispute amongst scholars as to whether Maimonides himself converted to Islam in order to freely escape from Almohad territory, and then reconverted back to Judaism in either
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5082-432: The Book , Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to dhimmi status (along with Jews , Samaritans , Gnostics , Mandeans , and Zoroastrians ), which was inferior to the status of Muslims. Christians and other religious minorities thus faced religious discrimination and religious persecution in that they were banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelize or spread Christianity ) in
5203-564: The Book or Ahle-Kitab (Jews, Christians, Sabians) pay the jizya . Instead, they only allowed them (non- Ahle-Kitab ) to avoid death by choosing to convert to Islam. Of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence , the Hanafi and Maliki schools allow polytheists to be granted dhimmi status, except Arab polytheists . However, the Shafi'i , Hanbali and Zahiri schools only consider Christians , Jews , and Sabians to be eligible to belong to
5324-652: The Bosnian Muslims of the Independent State of Croatia . Amonge these factions, the Yugoslavs, Slavic Muslims, Serbs, and Montenegrins adopted different strategies. Muslims wanted either unification with Bosnia under a federal Yugoslavia or the establishment of an autonomous Sandžak region. Serbs and Montenegrins wanted the area to either pass entirely to Serbia or Montenegro. The formal partition of Sandžak between Italian and German spheres of influence
5445-553: The Byzantine Empire. As it was made the seat of the Serbian state in Latin sources of the era Serb rulers began to be named Rasciani and their state as Rascia. The name was used among Hungarians and Germans up until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In 1833, some northern parts of the historical Raška region, up to the confluence of rivers Raška and Ibar , were detached from the Ottoman rule and incorporated into
5566-694: The Communist Party opposed this, insisting that Sandžak's representatives at AVNOJ should decide on the matter. In February 1945, the Presidency of the AVNOJ made a decision to oppose the Sandžak's autonomy. The AVNOJ explained that the Sandžak did not have a national basis for an autonomy and opposed crumbling of the Serbian and Montenegrin totality. On 29 March 1945 in Novi Pazar , the AVNOS accepted
5687-877: The Crusaders in Lorraine, on the Lower Rhine, in Bavaria and Bohemia, in Mainz and in Worms (see Rhineland massacres , Worms massacre (1096) ). Though he strongly condemned and prohibited forced conversion and baptism by decree, Pope Innocent III suggested in a private letter to a bishop in 1201 that those who agreed to be baptized to avoid torture and intimidation might be compelled to outwardly observe Christianity: [T]hose who are immersed even though reluctant, do belong to ecclesiastical jurisdiction at least by reason of
5808-604: The Druze included massacres , demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places and forced conversion to Islam. Those were no ordinary killings and massacres in the Druze's narrative, they were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative. The wars of the Ridda (lit. apostasy ) undertaken by Abu Bakr , the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate , against Arab tribes who had accepted Islam but refused to pay Zakat and Jizya Tax, have been described by some historians as an instance of forced conversion or "reconversion". The rebellion of these Arab tribes
5929-431: The Eastern Orthodox Serbs. Sandzak was an administrative part of the Sanjak of Bosnia until 1790, when it become a separated Sanjak of Novi Pazar . However, in 1867, it become a part of the Bosnia Vilayet that consisted of seven sanjaks, including the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. This led to Sandžak Muslims identifying themselves with other Slavic Muslims in Bosnia . Albanian speakers gradually migrated or were relocated to
6050-416: The Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity , and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs . After the Arab conquests a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered enslavement and forced conversion. During the rise of the Islamic Caliphates, it
6171-449: The Islamization were migrations; a large demographic shift occurred after the Great Turkish War (1683–1699). Part of the Slavic-speaking Orthodox Christian population was expelled northwards, while other Christians and Muslims were driven to the Ottoman territory. The land abandoned by the Eastern Orthodox Serbs was settled by populations from neighbouring areas who either were or became Muslim in Sandžak. Large migrations occurred throughout
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#17327760175256292-495: The Jewish dhimmi s living under the Caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were still better off than in Christian Europe . Many Jews migrated to al-Andalus , where they were not just tolerated but allowed to practice their faith openly. Christians had also practiced their religion openly in Córdoba, and both Jews and Christians lived openly in Morocco as well. The first Almohad ruler, Abd al-Mumin, allowed an initial seven-month grace period . Then he forced most of
6413-408: The Montenegrin municipality of Andrijevica is also regarded as part of Sandžak. The most populated municipality in the region is Novi Pazar (100,410), while other large municipalities are: Pljevlja (31,060), and Priboj (27,133). In Serbia, the municipalities of Novi Pazar and Tutin are part of the Raška District , while the municipalities of Sjenica, Prijepolje, Nova Varoš, and Priboj, are part of
6534-423: The Ottoman Empire, or at least its autonomy within it. The reason was to prevent the kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia from unifying, and allow Austria-Hungary's further expansion into the Balkans. Per these plans, Sandžak was seen as part of the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina , while its Muslim population played a significant role, giving Austrian-Hungarians a pretext of protecting the Muslim minority from
6655-496: The Ottoman provinces of Kosovo and North Macedonia , leaving a primarily Slavic-speaking population in the rest of the region (except in a southeastern corner of Sandžak that ended up as a part of Kosovo). Some members of the Albanian Shkreli and Kelmendi tribes began migrating into the lower Pešter and Sandžak regions at around 1700. The Kelmendi chief had converted to Islam, and promised to convert his people to. A total of 251 Kelmendi households (1,987 people) were resettled in
6776-411: The Pešter area on that occasion, however five years later part the exiled Kelmendi managed to fight their way back to their homeland, and in 1711 they sent out a large raiding force to bring back some other from Pešter too. The remaining Kelmendi and Shkreli converted to Islam and became Slavophones by the 20th century, and as of today they now self-identify as part of the Bosniak ethnicity , although in
6897-436: The Pešter plateau they partly utilized the Albanian language until the middle of the 20th century, particuarily in the villages of Ugao , Boroštica , Doliće , and Gradac . Since the 18th century, many people originating from the Hoti tribe have migrated to and live in Sandžak, mainly in the Tutin area, but also in Sjenica. In October 1912, during the First Balkan War , Serbian and Montenegrin troops seized Sandžak, which
7018-409: The Pešter region. There were a larger presence of Albanians in Sandžak in the past, however due to various factors such as migration, assimilation, along with mixing, many identify as Bosniaks instead. Catholic Albanian groups which settled in Tutin and Pešter in the early 18th century were converted to Islam in that period. Their descendants make up the large majority of the population of Tutin and
7139-425: The Portuguese army after the majority of the native villagers there had also converted to Christianity. "The fathers of the Church forbade the Hindus under terrible penalties the use of their own sacred books, and prevented them from all exercise of their religion. They destroyed their temples, and so harassed and interfered with the people that they abandoned the city in large numbers, refusing to remain any longer in
7260-474: The Raška Oblast was formed with its seat in Čačak . In 1929, this administrative unit was abolished and its territory was divided among three newly formed provinces (banovinas). Within the borders of modern Serbia , post mid-12th century historical Raška region covers (approximately) the territorial span of three districts: Raška , Zlatibor and Moravica . Some of the churches in western Serbia and eastern Bosnia were built by masters from Raška, who belonged to
7381-479: The Slavic Muslims of Sandžak suffered economic decline due to the defeat and collapse of the Ottoman Empire , which had been their primary source of economic stability. Additionally, the agrarian reform implemented in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia worsened their economic situation, leading to the emigration of Muslims from Sandžak to the Ottoman Empire. During World War I, Sandžak was occupied by Austria-Hungary. In 1919, an Albanian revolt, which later came to be known as
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#17327760175257502-420: The Terrible 's conquest of the Khanate of Kazan , the Muslim population faced slaughter, expulsion, forced resettlement and conversion to Christianity. In the 18th century, Elizabeth of Russia launched a campaign of forced conversion of Russia's non-Orthodox subjects, including Muslims and Jews. The Portuguese carried out the Christianisation of Goa in India in the 16th and 17th centuries. The majority of
7623-419: The aboriginal Indian populations of the Americas. The Ottoman Empire and Morocco absorbed most of the Jewish and Muslim refugees, but a large majority of them remained in Spain and Portugal by choosing to be Conversos. During the European colonization of the Americas , forced conversion of the continents' indigenous, non-Christian population was common, especially in South America and Mesoamerica , where
7744-496: The central and capital part of medieval Serbia, but as a separate small domain within Serbia. In the modern sense, Raška region would be an area situated in the southwestern modern Serbia (including Stari Vlah , see below). The 10th century De Administrando Imperio mentions Rasa ( Stari Ras ) as a border area between Bulgaria and Serbia at the end of the 9th century. It was not mentioned among inhabited cities of early medieval Serbia, and there's no general consensus whether Ras
7865-403: The choice between conversion, exile, and being executed. The treatment and persecution of Jews under Almohad rule was a drastic change. Prior to Almohad rule during the Caliphate of Córdoba , Jewish culture experienced a Golden Age . María Rosa Menocal , a specialist in Iberian literature at Yale University , has argued that "tolerance was an inherent aspect of Andalusian society", and that
7986-445: The common regional name. Under Stefan Nemanja (1166–1196), the region was finally conquered by the Serbs and fortress of Ras was re-generated as the state capital, and as such it became eponymous name for the Grand Principality of Serbia . The first attested use of the term Raška ( Latin : Rascia or Rassia ) as a designation for the Serbian state was made in a charter issued in Kotor in 1186, mentioning Stefan Nemanja as
8107-407: The communist authorities and the mistrust with the Serbs and Montenegrins, but also due to the nationalisation and expropriation of property. Serbs from Sandžak also moved to the wealthier regions of the central Serbia or to Belgrade or Vojvodina , while the Muslims moved to Bosnia and Herzegovina as well. Between 25 and 27 October 1991, a referendum on Sandžak's autonomy was held, organized by
8228-468: The compilation was published by a constitution of 15 February 438. It went into force in the eastern and western parts of the empire on 1 January 439. It is Our will that all the peoples who are ruled by the administration of Our Clemency shall practice that religion which the divine Peter the Apostle transmitted to the Romans.... The rest, whom We adjudge demented and insane, shall sustain the infamy of heretical dogmas, their meeting places shall not receive
8349-472: The conquest of large indigenous polities like the Inca and Aztec Empires placed colonizers in control of large non-Christian populations. According to some South American leaders and indigenous groups, there were cases among native populations of conversion under the threat of violence, often because they were compelled to after being conquered, and that the Catholic Church cooperated with civil authority to achieve this end. Upon converting to Christianity in
8470-401: The conversions were superficial. Maimonides urged Jews to choose the superficial conversion over martyrdom and argued, "Muslims know very well that we do not mean what we say, and that what we say is only to escape the ruler's punishment and to satisfy him with this simple confession." Abraham Ibn Ezra (1089–1164), who himself fled the persecutions of the Almohads, composed an elegy mourning
8591-449: The death of Muhammad), is one of the earliest records on Islam and "implies that Muslims tried, on threat of death to make Christians abjure Christianity and accept Islam.” Non-Muslims were required to pay the jizya while pagans were either required to accept Islam, pay the jizya, be exiled, or be killed, depending on which of the four main schools of Islamic law their conqueror followed. Some historians believe that forced conversion
8712-432: The decision of the AVNOJ and divided itself between Serbia and Montenegro. Sandžak was divided based on the 1912 demarcation line. Economically, Sandžak remained undeveloped. It had a small amount of crude and low-revenue industry. Freight was transported by trucks over poor roads. Schools for business students, which remained poor in general education, were opened for working-class youth. The Sandžak had no faculty, not even
8833-572: The destruction of many Jewish communities throughout Spain and the Maghreb under the Almohads. Many Jews fled from territories ruled by the Almohads to Christian lands, and others, like the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands. However, a few Jewish traders still working in North Africa are recorded. The treatment and persecution of Christians under Almohad rule
8954-561: The early Christians were persecuted during that time . When Constantine I converted to Christianity , it had already grown to be the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Already under the reign of Constantine I, Christian heretics were being persecuted; beginning in the late 4th century, the ancient pagan religions were also actively suppressed . In the view of many historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from
9075-456: The ethnic composition, most of the Bosniaks being Muslim while a majority of the Serbs being Orthodox Christian. However, because of the prolonged Ottoman rule, Sandžak is more Muslim orientated. 43°09′47″N 19°46′30″E / 43.16306°N 19.77500°E / 43.16306; 19.77500 Ra%C5%A1ka (region) Raška ( Serbian Cyrillic : Рашка ; Latin : Rascia )
9196-707: The face of execution, becoming forced converts from Islam ( Moriscos , Conversos and "secret Moors") or converts from Judaism ( Conversos , Crypto-Jews and Marranos ). After the forced conversions, when all former Muslims and Jews had ostensibly become Catholic, the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions primarily targeted forced converts from Judaism and Islam, who came under suspicion, because they were either accused of continuing to adhere to their old religion, or they were accused of falling back into it. Jewish conversos who still resided in Spain and frequently practiced Judaism in secret were suspected of being Crypto-Jews by
9317-627: The fort, as attested by the work De Administrando Imperio , written by Constantine Porphyrogenitus , and also by the Byzantine seal of John, governor of Ras (c. 971–976). In the same time, Ras became the seat of the Eastern Orthodox Eparchy of Ras , centered in the Church of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul . The name of the eparchy eventually started to denote the entire area under its jurisdiction and later, thus becoming
9438-587: The hands of the rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphal troops. Historians recognize that during the Early Middle Ages , the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries suffered religious discrimination , religious persecution , religious violence , and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers. As People of
9559-466: The historical Raška region were liberated from the Ottoman rule, and divided between the Kingdom of Serbia and the Kingdom of Montenegro , with eponymous medieval fortress of Stari Ras belonging to Serbia. Between 1918 and 1922, Raška District was one of the administrative units of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . Its seat was in Novi Pazar . In 1922, a new administrative unit known as
9680-557: The incidents in Chhattisgarh, there are other reports of forced conversions of Christians and Muslims in India to Hinduism . Some of them were converted under duress or against their will, specifically through the ghar wapsi scheme by Hindu extremists , such as Shiv Sena , the VHP & also by the political party of the BJP . The Shiv Sena has said that India or Hindustan
9801-510: The lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs. Under sharia , Non-Muslims were obligated to pay jizya and kharaj taxes, together with periodic heavy ransom levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed
9922-529: The lifetime of Muhammad. Their exclusion therefore had little practical significance after his death in 632. Arab historian Al-Baladhuri says that Caliph Umar deported Christians who refused to apostatize and convert to Islam, and that he obeyed the order of the prophet who advised: “there shall not remain two religions in the land of Arabia.” In the 9th century, the Samaritan population of Palestine faced persecution and attempts at forced conversion at
10043-545: The monastery of Đurđevi stupovi , with an inscription showing that the end of the construction was in 1170-1171. It became a royal residence, but it was not permanent residence or that of his successors as the ruling dynasty also ruled over other such palatial centres in its territory. Byzantine intervention continued until the end of the 12th century and the Serb feudal rulers of the region were often under Byzantine suzerainty. The full independence of Serbia including Raška's region
10164-424: The most eastern parts of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina , and its southern part also corresponds to the modern region of Sandžak . The name is derived from the name of the region's most important fort of Ras , which first appears in the 6th century sources as Arsa , recorded under that name in the work De aedificiis of Byzantine historian Procopius . By the 10th century, the variant Ras became common name for
10285-573: The name of churches, and they shall be smitten first by divine vengeance and secondly by the retribution of Our own initiative (Codex Theodosianus XVI 1.2.). Forced conversions of Jews were carried out with the support of rulers during Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages in Gaul , the Iberian peninsula and in the Byzantine Empire . In Gregory of Tours ' writing, he claimed that
10406-562: The native villagers to Christianity allowed the Portuguese to destroy temples in Bardez , with 300 Hindu temples destroyed. Prohibitions were then declared from December 4, 1567, on public performances of Hindu marriages, sacred thread wearing and cremation. All persons above 15 years of age were compelled to listen to Christian preaching, failing which they were punished. In 1583, Hindu temples at Assolna and Cuncolim were also destroyed by
10527-508: The natives of Goa had converted to Christianity by the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese rulers had implemented state policies encouraging and even rewarding conversions among Hindu subjects. The rapid rise of converts in Goa was mostly the result of Portuguese economic and political control over the Hindus, who were vassals of the Portuguese crown. In 1567, the conversion of the majority of
10648-410: The non-missionary religions include Judaism , Hinduism , and Zoroastrianism . Other religions, such as Primal Religions, Confucianism , and Taoism , may also be considered non-missionary religions. In general, anthropologists have shown that the relationship between religion and politics is complex, especially when it is viewed over the expanse of human history . While religious leaders and
10769-487: The north at Čačak . In 971, the Byzantine Catepanate of Ras was established, but in 976 Bulgarian control was restored. Basil II recaptured it in 1018, and by 1032 overall commander of the region was strategoi and doukes Constantine Diogenes , as part of a defensive line of Byzantine watchtowers alongside Lipjan , Zvečan , Galič , Jeleč south of Ras and Brvenik north of Ras, watching to
10890-821: The north. Many Orthodox Serbs organized in the Serbian nationalist Chetniks . The stance of these factions towards the Nazi forces ranged from armed resistance to open collaboration. Smaller groups of both Orthodox Serbs and Muslims organized after 1943 in the Yugoslav Partisan Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Sandžak. Each faction sought the inclusion of Sandžak in the post-war period into separate states. Albanian militia fought for inclusion in Greater Albania , while Ustaše formations wanted at least part of Sandžak to join
11011-567: The only one entitled to call itself Catholic . Other Christians he described as "foolish madmen". He also ended official state support for the traditional polytheist religions and customs. The Codex Theodosianus (Eng. Theodosian Code) was a compilation of the laws of the Roman Empire under the Christian emperors since 312. A commission was established by Theodosius II and his co-emperor Valentinian III on 26 March 429 and
11132-475: The order was carried out: Walid's servants "cut off a slice from Shamala's thigh and roasted it in the fire, and they thrust it into his mouth" and he was blinded during this as well. This event is confirmed by the Muslim historian Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani In the early eighth century under the Umayyads, 63 out of a group of 70 Christian pilgrims from Iconium were captured, tortured, and executed under
11253-588: The orders of the Arab Governor of Ceaserea for refusing to convert to Islam (seven were forcibly converted to Islam under torture). Soon afterwards, sixty more Christian pilgrims from Amorium were crucified in Jerusalem. There were forced conversions in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus , who suppressed the dhimmi status of Jews and Christians and gave them
11374-455: The point of the sword, and that conquered peoples were given the choice of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors ordinarily wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. (...) In most cases, worldly and spiritual motives for conversion blended together. Moreover, conversion to Islam did not necessarily imply
11495-635: The political life in Serbia and Montenegro, including Rasim Ljajić , an ethnic Bosniak, who was a minister in the verious governments of Serbia , and Rifat Rastoder , who was the Deputy President of the Parliament of Montenegro. Census data shows a general emigration of all ethnicities from this underdeveloped region. The population of the sanjak of Novi Pazar was ethnically and religiously diverse. In 1878-81, Muslim Slav muhacirs (refugees) from areas which became part of Montenegro, settled in
11616-538: The population of the sanjak of Novi Pazar before the Balkan Wars was conducted in 1910. The 1910 Ottoman census recorded 52,833 Muslims and 27,814 Orthodox Serbs. About 65% of the population were Muslims and 35% Serbian Orthodox. The majority of the Muslim population were Albanians. The last Yugoslav pre-war census of 1931 counted in Bijelo Polje, Prijepolje , Nova Varoš, Pljevlja, Priboj, Sjenica and Štavica
11737-547: The repeated rebellion of native populations that did not want to accept Christianity even after initial forced conversion; in Old Prussia, the tactics employed in the initial conquest and subsequent conversion of the territory resulted in the death of most of the native population, whose language consequently became extinct. After the end of Islamic control of Spain , Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492. In Portugal , following an order for their expulsion in 1496, only
11858-575: The ruler of Rascia . Without any evidence and support in the historical sources, the early historical region of Raška is commonly misidentified and misunderstood as a synonym for Serbian state before the mid-12th century (influenced by semi-mythical 14th century Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja which anachronistically calls the Principality of Serbia as Raška). The high medieval chronicle's also give an impression that Raška wasn't considered as
11979-474: The sacrament of Baptism in order to avoid loss, he (like one who comes to Baptism in dissimulation) does receive the impress of Christianity, and may be forced to observe the Christian Faith as one who expressed a conditional willingness though, absolutely speaking, he was unwilling ... During the 12th–13th century Northern Crusades against the pagan Finnic , Baltic , and West Slavic peoples around
12100-474: The sacrament, and might therefore be reasonably compelled to observe the rules of the Christian Faith. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt and observe Christianity. For this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. Thus one who is drawn to Christianity by violence, through fear and through torture, and receives
12221-515: The sanjak. As Ottoman institutions only registered religious affiliation, official Ottoman statistics about ethnicity do not exist. Austrian, Bulgarian and Serbian consulates in the area produced their own ethnographic estimations about the sanjak. In general, three main groups lived in the region: Orthodox Serbs, Muslim and Catholic Albanians and Muslim Slavs (noted in contemporary sources as Bosniaks). Small communities of Romani, Turks and Jews lived mainly in towns. The Bulgarian foreign ministry compiled
12342-480: The seventh century generally took place during riots and massacres carried out by mobs and clergy without support of the rulers. In contrast, royal persecutions of Jews from the late eleventh century onward generally took the form of expulsions, with some exceptions, such as conversions of Jews in southern Italy of the 13th century, which were carried out by Dominican Inquisitors but instigated by King Charles II of Naples . Jews were forced to convert to Christianity by
12463-493: The special envoy of Germany to Sandžak mentioned in his correspondence that up to 100,000 Albanians from Sandžak wanted to be moved from Serbia under the jurisdiction of Albania. The Italian and German forces considered to enact population exchange from Sandžak to Kosovo to stop interethnic violence between Serbs and Albanians. Peter Pfeiffer, diplomat of the Foreign Office of Germany warned that relocation plans would cause
12584-628: The urban dhimmi population in Morocco, both Jewish and Christian, to convert to Islam. In 1198, the Almohad emir Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur decreed that Jews must wear a dark blue garb, with very large sleeves and a grotesquely oversized hat; his son altered the colour to yellow , a change that may have influenced Catholic ordinances some time later. Those who converted had to wear clothing that identified them as Jews since they were not regarded as sincere Muslims. Cases of mass martyrdom of Jews who refused to convert to Islam are recorded. Many of
12705-432: The watchtowers was a countermeasure against their commanders who ravaged Serbian eastern frontiers. The Byzantine border fort of Ras was most likely burnt c. 1120-1122 and this is probably the reason why John II Komnenos undertook a punitive campaign against the Serbs, during which many Serbs from the region of Raška were deported to Asia Minor . The alliance between Hungary and the Serbian rulers remained in place and Ras
12826-459: The west over a "no-man's-land" named Zygos mountains beyond which was Serbia. Recent archaeological research supports the notion that the Byzantines held control of Ras during Alexios I Komnenos 's reign (1048–1118), but possibly not continuously. In the time of Alexios, Ras was one of the northern border military strongholds which was fortified. His seal which dates to the period 1081–1092
12947-691: Was a drastic change as well. Many Christians were killed, forced to convert, or forced to flee. Some Christians fled to the Christian kingdoms in the north and west and helped fuel the Reconquista . Christians under the Almohad rule generally chose to relocate to the Christian principalities (most notably the Kingdom of Asturias ) in the north of the Iberian Peninsula , whereas Jews decided to stay in order to keep their properties, and many of them feigned conversion to Islam, while continuing to believe and practice Judaism in secrecy . During
13068-536: Was burnt again by the Serbian army in 1127–1129. Its last commander was a Kritoplos who was then punished by the Emperor for the fall of the fortress. In 1149, Manuel I Comnenus recovered the fortress of Ras and Galič, and next year continued to successfully fight off Serbians and Hungarians, with the Serbs swearing loyalty to the Byzantines. Somewhere in the next decades, Serbians conquered and started to fully control Ras, with Stefan Nemanja in celebration building
13189-801: Was called the Mortara case . During World War II in Yugoslavia , Orthodox Serbs were forcibly converted to Catholicism by the Ustashe . Indian Christians have alleged that Hindu groups in southern Chhattisgarh have forced Christian converts from Hinduism to revert to Hinduism. In the aftermath of the violence, American Christian evangelical groups have claimed that Hindu groups are forcibly reverting Christian converts from Hinduism back to Hinduism. It has also been alleged that these same Hindu groups have used allurements to convert poor Muslims and Christians to Hinduism against their will. Apart from
13310-421: Was changed to the disadvantage of the Muslims, as most of those who inhabited the cities were Serbs. The Muslims continued to lose their economic status, continuing the trend inherited from the time of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the agrarian reform in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The emigration of the Muslims to Turkey also continued, caused by the general underdevelopment of the region, disagreement with
13431-447: Was found in 2018 near the site. It is possble that Vukan, Grand Prince of Serbia have temporarily taken Ras and other watchtowers in the early 1090s, but although John Ducas regained most of them, in 1093 Vukan "ravaged the neighbouring towns and districts. He even got as far as Lipjan, which he deliberately burnt down", but when Alexios came close, Vukan escaped to Zvečan and started peace negotiations, and reportedly his attack on
13552-820: Was increasingly expected for all Arabs to be Muslims and pressure was put on many to convert. The Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I said to Shamala, the Christian Arab leader of the Banu Taghlib : "As you are a chief of the Arabs you shame them all by worshipping the cross; obey my wish and turn Muslim." He replied, 'How so? I am chief of Taghlib, and I fear lest I become a cause of destruction to them all if I and they cease to believe in christ" Enraged Al-Walid had him dragged away on his face and tortured; afterward he commanded him again to convert to Islam or else prepare to "eat his own flesh." The Christian Arab again refused, and
13673-486: Was inhabited mainly by Orthodox Serbs (69 villages with 624 households) and Bosnian Muslims (46 villages with 655 households). Seventeen villages had a population of both Orthodox Serbs and Bosnian Muslims. Albanians (505 households) lived exclusively in the town of Sjenica . The kaza of Novi Pazar had 1,749 households in 244 Serb villages and 896 households in 81 Albanian villages. Nine villages inhabited by both Serbs and Albanians had 173 households. The town of Novi Pazar had
13794-614: Was initially not harassed because the city didn't have any considerable concentration of German forces, but on March 2, 1942 the city's Jews were rounded up by the German army and killed in extermination camps (the men in Bubanj and the women and children in Sajmište ). 1943 year saw the creation of the SS-Police "Self-Defence" Regiment Sandžak , being formed by joining three battalions of Albanian collaborationist troops with one battalion of
13915-630: Was largely ignored as local politics shaped control over the area. Prijepolje which formally was within the Italian area of rule in Montenegro was in fact under the NDH -affiliated Sulejman Pačariz , while Novi Pazar in the German sphere was led by the Albanian nationalist Aqif Bluta . Clashes between Albanians and Serbs in south Sandžak began in April 1941. In other cities of Sandžak similar battles between different factions played out. Otto von Erdmannsdorf ,
14036-646: Was less a relapse to the pre-Islamic Arabian religion than termination of a political contract they had made with Muhammad . Some of these tribal leaders claimed prophethood, bringing themselves in direct conflict with the Muslim Caliphate. Two out of the four schools of Islamic law, i.e. Hanafi and Maliki schools, accepted non-Arab polytheists to be eligible for the dhimmi status. Under this doctrine, Arab polytheists were forced to choose between conversion and death. However, according to perception of most Muslim jurists, all Arabs had embraced Islam during
14157-595: Was on the Serbian or Bulgarian side of the border, as well whether in DAI was meant a fortress or an area. The consideration that the Serbian border was further to the Southeast of Ras is poorly substantiated. Newer research indicates that the principal settlement of Ras and its region in the 9th and 10th century was part of the First Bulgarian Empire . Bulgarian borderline was at Pešter plateau and to
14278-496: Was rare in Islamic history, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. Muslim rulers were often more interested in conquest than conversion. Ira Lapidus points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" as appealing to the masses. He writes that: The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated the intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were made at
14399-477: Was recognized by the Byzantines in 1190 after an indecisive war between Isaac II Angelos and Stefan Nemanja . However, the Bulgarian-Serbian border in the late 12th and early 13th century probably was still "very fluid". The town which had developed near the fortress of Ras and the territory which comprised its bishopric were the first significant administrative unit which Serb rulers acquired from
14520-469: Was spread by force in the areas under the control of the Ottoman sultan through the devşirme system of child levy enslavement, by which indigenous European Christian boys from the Balkans (predominantly Albanians , Bulgarians , Croats , Greeks , Romanians , Serbs , and Ukrainians ) were taken, levied, subjected to forced circumcision and forced conversion to Islam , and incorporated into
14641-614: Was then divided between the two countries. This led to the displacement of many Slavic Muslims and Albanians, who migrated to Ottoman Turkey as muhajir . After the war, Sandžak became a part of the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs . The region acted as a bridge between the Muslims in the West in Bosnia and Herzegovina and those in the East in Kosovo and North Macedonia. However,
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