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90-599: The bishopric in Płock was founded about 1075. The first definite reference to the cathedral is in 1102, when Władysław I Herman was buried there. The present Romanesque cathedral was built after 1129 by prince Bolesław III and Bishop Aleksander of Malonne. This was a rebuilding following a fire and took from 1136 until 1144. It was consecrated in 1144 as the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The original bronze doors of

180-685: A Csa climate well inland to ensure hot summers and cold winters. They are generally found in the highly elevated areas of south-eastern Turkey ( Hakkâri ), north-western Iran, northern Iraq, parts of Central Asia , parts of the High Atlas mountain range in central Morocco and very small parts of the Intermountain West in the United States. This climate zone does not exist at all in the Southern Hemisphere, where

270-614: A classification). More extreme and inland humid continental climates, sometimes known as "hyper-continental" climates, are found in northeast China , southern Siberia , Mongolia , Kazakhstan , most of the southern interior of Canada , and the Upper Midwest , where temperatures in the winter resemble those of adjacent subarctic climates (with long, drier, generally very cold winters) but have longer and generally warmer summers (in occasional cases, hot summers). A more moderate variety, found in places like Honshu , east-central China,

360-562: A custom, the elder son and heir of the ruling Kievan monarch was sent to rule Novgorod even as a minor. When the ruling monarch had no such son, Novgorod was governed by posadniks , such as the legendary Gostomysl , Dobrynya , Konstantin , and Ostromir . Yaroslav the Wise was Prince of Novgorod from 1010 to 1019, while his father, Vladimir the Great , was a prince in Kiev. Yaroslav promulgated

450-420: A larger city the other side of Moscow which, between 1932 and 1990, had been renamed Gorky, in honour of Maxim Gorky . Veliky Novgorod is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions , it also serves as the administrative center of Novgorodsky District , even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as

540-533: A major centre of crafts which employed the majority of its population. There were more than 200 distinct professions in 16th century. Bells, cannons and other arms were produced in Novgorod; its silversmiths were famous for the skan' technique used for religious items and jewellery. Novgorod chests were in widespread use all across Russia, including the Tsar's household and the northern monasteries. In 1727, Novgorod

630-516: A marked reduction in wintry precipitation, which increases the chances of a wintertime drought ( w ). Snowfall occurs in all areas with a humid continental climate and in many such places is more common than rain during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the snow cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms , and in North America and Asia an occasional tropical cyclone (or

720-583: A military commander, legislator and jurist. The exact composition of the Veche , too, is uncertain, with some historians, such as Vasily Klyuchevsky , claiming it was democratic in nature, while later scholars, such as Marxists Valentin Ianin and Aleksandr Khoroshev, see it as a "sham democracy" controlled by the ruling elite. In the 13th century, Novgorod, while not a member of the Hanseatic League ,

810-610: A museum of wooden architecture was established in 1964. Over twenty wooden buildings (churches, houses and mills) dating from the 14th to the 19th century were transported there from all around the Novgorod region. 11,400 graves of the German 1st Luftwaffe Field Division are found at the war cemetery in Novgorod, and 1,900 soldiers of the Spanish Blue Division are buried there. Novgorod has connections to Moscow (531 km) and St. Petersburg (189 km) by

900-626: A network of buses and trolleybuses . The trolleybus network, which currently consists of five routes, started operating in 1995 and is the first trolley system opened in Russia after the fall of the Soviet Union . A minor planet , 3799 Novgorod , discovered by the Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh in 1979, is named after the city. Veliky Novgorod is twinned with: Humid continental climate A humid continental climate

990-551: A population of 224,286 ( 2021 Census ) . At its peak during the 14th century, the city was the capital of the Novgorod Republic and was one of Europe's largest cities. The "Великий" part was added to the city's name in 1999. Veliky Novgorod has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ). The city has warm summers with temperatures reaching over 30 °C (86 °F) and relatively cold winters with frequent snowfall. The lowest air temperature ever recorded

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1080-558: A result of its inability to feed its large population, making it dependent on the Vladimir-Suzdal region for grain. The main cities in the area, Moscow and Tver , used this dependence to gain control over Novgorod. Eventually Ivan III forcibly annexed the city to the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1478. The Veche was dissolved and a significant part of Novgorod's aristocracy, merchants and smaller landholding families

1170-739: A subarctic climate. In the Southern Hemisphere , it exists in well-defined areas only in the Southern Alps of New Zealand , in the Snowy Mountains of Australia in Kiandra, New South Wales and the Andes Mountains of Argentina and Chile . Since climate regimes tend to be dominated by vegetation of one region with relatively homogenous ecology, those that project climate change remap their results in

1260-526: A thermal profile, but because of semi-arid precipitation portions of it are grouped into the BSk category. In Europe , it is found in much of Central Europe : Germany (in the east and southeast part of the country), Austria (generally below 700 m (2,297 ft)), Poland , Czech Republic , Slovakia , Hungary (generally above 100 m (328 ft)), Croatia (mostly Slavonia region), in much of Eastern Europe : Ukraine (the whole country except

1350-521: A yet earlier stage, but the correlation of this reference with the actual city is uncertain. Originally, Holmgård referred to the stronghold, now only 2 km (1.2 miles) to the south of the center of the present-day city, Rurikovo Gorodische (named in comparatively modern times after the Varangian chieftain Rurik , who supposedly made it his "capital" around 860). Archaeological data suggests that

1440-542: Is -45 °C (-49 °F). The warmest month is July with a daily mean of 18.7 °C (65 °F), the coldest month is February with a daily mean of -6 °C (21 °F). The highest amount of precipitation is on average in June with 73 mm (2.9 inches) of precipitation, the driest is March with 30 mm (1.2 inches) of precipitation. The annual amount of precipitation is 603 mm (23.7 inches) . The Sofia First Chronicle makes initial mention of it in 859, while

1530-447: Is a climatic region defined by Russo-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1900, typified by four distinct seasons and large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers, and cold (sometimes severely cold in the northern areas) and snowy winters. Precipitation is usually distributed throughout the year, but often these regions do have dry seasons. The definition of this climate in terms of temperature

1620-624: Is a marble sarcophagus forming the tomb of two Polish rulers, Władysław I Herman and his son Bolesław III Wrymouth . Following a major fire in 1530, the building was reconstructed by Bishop Andzej Krzycki as a new Renaissance style church (1531–1535). This was the first large Renaissance style cathedral in Poland, although it reused granite ashlar portions of the Romanesque basilica. The architects were Bernardino de Gianotis from Rome , Giovanni Cini da Siena and Philippo da Fiesole. The layout of

1710-442: Is as follows: the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below 0 °C (32.0 °F) or −3 °C (26.6 °F) depending on the isotherm, and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 °C (50 °F). In addition, the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid . The cooler Dfb , Dwb , and Dsb subtypes are also known as hemiboreal climates. Although amount of snowfall

1800-521: Is found in northern Kazakhstan , southern Siberia , parts of Mongolia , northern China , and highland elevations in the Koreas . Like its hot-summer counterpart, these climates are typically dry in the winter and bitterly cold due to the Siberian High (often with winter temperatures comparable to their nearby subarctic climates ), while summers are warm and long enough to avoid classification as

1890-467: Is less extreme than the most inland hyper-continental variety. Using the Köppen climate classification , a climate is classified as humid continental when the temperature of the coldest month is below 0 °C [32.0 °F] or −3 °C [26.6 °F] and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 °C (50 °F). These temperatures were not arbitrary. In Europe,

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1980-565: Is less seasonally uniform in the west. The western states of the western United States (namely Montana , Wyoming , parts of southern Idaho , most of Lincoln County in Eastern Washington , parts of Colorado , parts of Utah , isolated parts of northern New Mexico , western Nebraska , and parts of western North and South Dakota ) have thermal regimes which fit the Dfa climate type, but are quite dry, and are generally grouped with

2070-404: Is not a factor used in defining the humid continental climate, snow during the winter in this type of climate is almost a guarantee, either intermittently throughout the winter months near the poleward or coastal margins, or persistently throughout the winter months elsewhere in the climate zone. Humid continental climates are generally found between latitudes 40° N and 60° N , within

2160-724: Is noted during the autumn of deciduous forests. In the poleward direction, these climates transition into subarctic climates featuring short summers (and usually very cold winters) allowing only conifer trees. Moving equatorword, the hot-summer continental climates grade into humid subtropical climates (chiefly in North America and Asia) while the warm-summer continental climates grade into oceanic climates (chiefly in Europe), both of which have milder winters where average temperatures stay above 0°C (or -3°C). Some continental climates with lower precipitation (chiefly in Central Asia and

2250-710: Is the Savior church at Nereditsa (1198). In the 13th century, tiny churches of the three-paddled design were in vogue. These are represented by a small chapel at the Peryn Monastery (1230s) and St. Nicholas' on the Lipnya Islet (1292, also notable for its 14th-century frescoes). The next century saw the development of two original church designs, one of them culminating in St Theodor's church (1360–1361, fine frescoes from 1380s), and another one leading to

2340-532: Is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast , Russia . It is one of the oldest cities in Russia, being first mentioned in the 9th century. The city lies along the Volkhov River just downstream from its outflow from Lake Ilmen and is situated on the M10 federal highway connecting Moscow and Saint Petersburg . UNESCO recognized Novgorod as a World Heritage Site in 1992. The city has

2430-701: Is to be found in northern China including Manchuria and parts of North China , south-east Russia , and over much of the Korean Peninsula ; it has the Köppen classification Dwa . Much of central Asia , northwestern China , and southern Mongolia has a thermal regime similar to that of the Dfa climate type, but these regions receive so little precipitation that they are more often classified as steppes ( BSk ) or deserts ( BWk ). Dsa climates are rare; they are generally restricted to elevated areas adjacent to mid-latitude Mediterranean climate regions with

2520-404: The Veche can be drawn up, the city-state's exact political constitution remains unknown. The boyars and the archbishop ruled the city together, although where one official's power ended and another's began is uncertain. The prince, although his power was reduced from around the middle of the 12th century, was represented by his namestnik , or lieutenant, and still played important roles as

2610-490: The city of oblast significance of Veliky Novgorod —an administrative unit with status equal to that of the districts . As a municipal division , the city of oblast significance of Veliky Novgorod is incorporated as Veliky Novgorod Urban Okrug . The city is known for the variety and age of its medieval monuments. The foremost among these is the Saint Sophia Cathedral , built between 1045 and 1050 under

2700-701: The Baltic region since the late 12th century. Novgorod went to war 26 times with Sweden and 11 times with the Livonian Brothers of the Sword . The German knights , along with Danish and Swedish feudal lords, launched a series of uncoordinated attacks between 1240 and 1242. Novgorodian sources mention that a Swedish army was defeated in the Battle of the Neva in 1240. The Baltic German campaigns ended in failure after

2790-633: The Battle on the Ice in 1242. After the foundation of the castle of Viborg in 1293 the Swedes gained a foothold in Karelia . On 12 August 1323, Sweden and Novgorod signed the Treaty of Nöteborg , regulating their border for the first time. In the 15th century, Novgorod faced significant struggles with food scarcity , which lasted for a decade in the mid-15th century. This scarcity had profound implications for

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2880-698: The Black Sea coast), Belarus , Russia (mostly central part of European Russia ), south and central parts of the Nordic countries not bathed by the Atlantic Ocean or North Sea : Sweden (historical regions of Svealand and Götaland ), Denmark , Finland (south end, including the three largest cities ), Norway (most populated area), all Baltic States : Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania and also in parts of: Romania (generally above 100 m (328 ft)), Bosnia and Herzegovina , Turkey and in

2970-482: The Cairngorm Mountains of Scotland , (generally above 100 m (328 ft)). It has little warming or precipitation effects from the northern Atlantic. The cool summer subtype is marked by mild summers, long cold winters and less precipitation than the hot summer subtype; however, short periods of extreme heat are not uncommon. Northern Japan has a similar climate. In Asia, this climate type

3060-484: The Dfa climate type is present near the Black Sea in southern Ukraine , the Southern Federal District of Russia , southern Moldova , Serbia , parts of southern Romania , and Bulgaria , but tends to be drier and can be even semi-arid in these places. In East Asia, this climate exhibits a monsoonal tendency with much higher precipitation in summer than in winter, and due to the effects of

3150-538: The Korean Peninsula , parts of Eastern Europe , parts of southern Ontario , much of the American Midwest , and the Northeast US , the climate combines hotter summer maxima and greater humidity (similar to those found in adjacent humid subtropical climates ) and moderately cold winters and more intermittent snow cover (averaging somewhat below freezing, too cold for a more temperate classification), and

3240-669: The Novgorod First Chronicle first mentions it in 862, when it was purportedly already a major Baltic -to- Byzantium station on the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks . The Charter of Veliky Novgorod recognizes 859 as the year when the city was first mentioned. Novgorod is traditionally considered to be a cradle of Russian statehood. The oldest archaeological excavations in the middle to late 20th century, however, have found cultural layers dating back to

3330-588: The Savior church on Ilyina street (1374, painted in 1378 by Feofan Grek ). The Savior' church in Kovalevo (1345) was originally frescoed by Serbian masters, but the church was destroyed during the war. While the church has since been rebuilt, the frescoes have not been restored. During the last century of the republican government, some new churches were consecrated to Saints Peter and Paul (on Slavna, 1367; in Kozhevniki, 1406), to Christ's Nativity (at

3420-679: The Treaty of Stolbovo . The conflict led to further depopulation: the number of homesteads in the city decreased from 1158 in 1607 to only 493 in 1617, with the Sofia side described as 'deserted'. Novgorod only regained a measure of its former prosperity towards the end of the century, when such ambitious buildings as the Cathedral of the Sign and the Vyazhischi Monastery were constructed. The most famous of Muscovite patriarchs, Nikon ,

3510-578: The Ural Mountains , making it one of the largest states in medieval Europe, although much of the territory north and east of Lakes Ladoga and Onega was sparsely populated and never organized politically. One of the most important local figures in Novgorod was the posadnik , or mayor, an official elected by the public assembly (called the Veche ) from among the city's boyars , or aristocracy. The tysyatsky , or "thousandman", originally

3600-443: The federal highway M10 . There are public buses to Saint Petersburg and other destinations. The city has direct railway passenger connections with Moscow ( Leningradsky Rail Terminal , by night trains), St. Petersburg ( Moscow Rail Terminal and Vitebsk Rail Terminal , by suburban trains ), Minsk ( Belarus ) ( Minsk Passazhirsky railway station , by night trains) and Murmansk . The city's former commercial airport Yurievo

3690-573: The 12th century originally on the orders of Bishop Nikita (died 1108) (the "porches" or side chapels were painted in 1144 under Archbishop Nifont ) and renovated several times over the centuries, most recently in the nineteenth century. The cathedral features famous bronze gates, which now hang in the west entrance, allegedly made in Magdeburg in 1156 (other sources see them originating from Płock in Poland ) and reportedly snatched by Novgorodians from

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3780-547: The 12th century. Later German merchantmen also established tradinghouses in Novgorod. Scandinavian royalty would intermarry with Russian princes and princesses. After the great schism , Novgorod struggled from the beginning of the 13th century against Swedish , Danish , and German crusaders. During the Swedish-Novgorodian Wars , the Swedes invaded lands where some of the population had earlier paid tribute to Novgorod. The Germans had been trying to conquer

3870-591: The Canadian Prairie Provinces and below 40°N in the high Appalachians . In Europe, this subtype reaches its most northerly latitude in Bodø at the 67°N . High-altitude locations such as Flagstaff, Arizona , Aspen, Colorado and Los Alamos, New Mexico in the western United States exhibit local Dfb climates. The south-central and southwestern Prairie Provinces also fits the Dfb criteria from

3960-624: The Cathedral along with the entire Wzgórze Tumskie ("Tumskie Hill") was listed by the President of Poland as a Historic Monument of Poland. 52°32′28″N 19°41′23″E  /  52.5410813°N 19.6898128°E  / 52.5410813; 19.6898128 Velikiy Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( / v ə ˈ l iː k i ˈ n ɒ v ɡ ə r ɒ d / və-LEE-kee NOV-gə-rod ; Russian : Великий Новгород , IPA: [vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj ˈnovɡərət] ; lit.   ' Great Newtown ' ), also known simply as Novgorod ( Новгород ),

4050-636: The Cathedral of the Mother of God of the Sign (1688), the St. Nicholas Cathedral of Vyaschizhy Monastery (1685). Nevertheless, the styles of some parochial churches were still in keeping with local traditions: e.g., the churches of Myrrh-bearing Women (1510) and of Saints  Boris and Gleb (1586). In Vitoslavlitsy, along the Volkhov River and the Myachino Lake , close to the Yuriev Monastery ,

4140-640: The Cemetery, 1387), to St. John the Apostle's (1384), to the Twelve Apostles (1455), to St Demetrius (1467), to St. Simeon (1462), and other saints. Generally, they are not thought to be as innovative as the churches from the previous period. Several shrines from the 12th century (i.e., in Opoki) were demolished brick by brick and then reconstructed exactly as they used to be, several of them in

4230-562: The Gorodishche, the residence of the knyaz (prince), dates from the mid-9th century, whereas the town itself dates only from the end of the 10th century; hence the name Novgorod, "new city", from Old East Slavic новъ and городъ ( nov and gorod ); the Old Norse term Nýgarðr is a calque of an Old Russian word. First mention of this Norse etymology to the name of the city of Novgorod (and that of other cities within

4320-654: The Grand Duchy of Moscow. During the era of Old Rus' State , Novgorod was a major trade hub at the northern end of both the Volga trade route and the " route from the Varangians to the Greeks " along the Dnieper river system. A vast array of goods were transported along these routes and exchanged with local Novgorod merchants and other traders. The farmers of Gotland retained the Saint Olof trading house well into

4410-419: The Massacre, Ivan the Terrible sacked the city, slaughtered thousands of its inhabitants, and deported the city's merchant elite and nobility to Moscow, Yaroslavl and elsewhere. The last decade of the 16th century was a comparatively favourable period for the city as Boris Godunov restored trade privileges and raised the status of Novgorod bishop. The German trading post was reestablished in 1603. Even after

4500-491: The Novgorodians dismissed their prince Vsevolod Mstislavich . The year is seen as the traditional beginning of the Novgorod Republic . The city was able to invite and dismiss a number of princes over the next two centuries, but the princely office was never abolished and powerful princes, such as Alexander Nevsky , could assert their will in the city regardless of what Novgorodians said. The city state controlled most of Europe's northeast, from lands east of today's Estonia to

4590-399: The Romanesque cathedral (now in Velikiy Novgorod ) have figurative bas-reliefs depicting the verses of the so-called "Roman Confession of Faith", and the figure of Alexander of Malonne, bishop of Płock. The doors were made in the Magdeburg workshop about 1150. In the cathedral there is now a bronze replica of the doors, made in the 1980s. In the Royal Chapel on the north side of the cathedral

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4680-429: The Swedish town of Sigtuna in 1187. More recent scholarship has determined that the gates were most likely purchased in the mid-15th century, apparently at the behest of Archbishop Euthymius II (1429–1458), a lover of Western art and architectural styles. The Novgorod Kremlin , traditionally known as the Detinets , also contains the oldest palace in Russia (the so-called Chamber of the Facets, 1433), which served as

4770-407: The UNESCO World Heritage Site list as the Historic Monuments of Novgorod and Surroundings . As of 2020, regular archeological rescue work continues across the site. In 1999, the city was officially renamed Veliky Novgorod (literally 'Great Novgorod'), thus partly reverting to its medieval title "Lord Novgorod the Great". This reduced the temptation to confuse Veliky Novgorod with Nizhny Novgorod ,

4860-403: The Western United States) grade into semi-arid climates with similar temperatures but low precipitation. A hot summer version of a continental climate features an average temperature of at least 22 °C (71.6 °F) in its warmest month. Since these regimes are restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, the warmest month is usually July or August. High temperatures during the warmest month tend to be in

4950-420: The central and northeastern portions of North America , Europe , and Asia . Occasionally, they can also be found at higher elevations above other more temperate climate types. They are rare in the Southern Hemisphere , limited to isolated high altitude locations, due to the larger ocean area at that latitude, smaller land mass, and the consequent greater maritime moderation. In the Northern Hemisphere, some of

5040-478: The chief square of Novgorod). The Yuriev Monastery (one of the oldest in Russia, 1030) contains a tall, three-domed cathedral from 1119 (built by Mstislav's son, Vsevolod , and Kyurik, the head of the monastery). A similar three-domed cathedral (1117), probably designed by the same masters, stands in the Antoniev Monastery , built on the orders of Antony , the founder of that monastery. There are now some fifty medieval and early modern churches scattered throughout

5130-429: The city and its surrounding areas. Some of them were blown up by the Nazis and subsequently restored. The most ancient pattern is represented by those dedicated to Saints Pyotr and Pavel (on the Swallow's Hill, 1185–1192), to Annunciation (in Myachino, 1179), to Assumption (on Volotovo Field , 1180s) and to St. Paraskeva-Piatnitsa (at Yaroslav's Court , 1207). The greatest masterpiece of early Novgorod architecture

5220-465: The city is mentioned as the capital of Gardariki . Many Viking kings and yarls came to Novgorod seeking refuge or employment, including Olaf I of Norway , Olaf II of Norway , Magnus I of Norway , and Harald Hardrada . No more than a few decades after the 1030 death and subsequent canonization of Olaf II of Norway, the city's community had erected in his memory Saint Olaf's Church in Novgorod . The Gotland town of Visby functioned as

5310-414: The city was occupied by the German Army . Its historic monuments were systematically obliterated. The Red Army liberated the city on 19 January 1944. Out of 2,536 stone buildings, fewer than forty remained standing. After the war, thanks to plans laid down by Alexey Shchusev , the central part was gradually restored. In 1992, the chief monuments of the city and the surrounding area were inscribed on

5400-409: The city, leading to political disturbances and forcing Alexander Nevsky to punish a number of town officials (he cut off their noses ) for defying him as Grand Prince of Vladimir (soon to be the khan's tax-collector in Russia) and his Mongol overlords. In the 14th century, raids by Novgorod pirates , or ushkuiniki , sowed fear as far as Kazan and Astrakhan , assisting Novgorod in wars with

5490-400: The classification symbol defines seasonal rainfall as follows: while the third letter denotes the extent of summer heat: Within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the Great Lakes , Gulf of Mexico and adjacent western subtropical Atlantic . Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate ( f ), while others may see

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5580-425: The continents either do not penetrate low enough in latitude or taper too much to have any place that gets the combination of snowy winters and hot summers. Marine influences are very strong around 40°S and such preclude Dfa , Dwa , and Dsa climates from existing in the southern hemisphere. Also known as hemiboreal climate , areas featuring this subtype of the continental climate have an average temperature in

5670-471: The first written code of laws (later incorporated into Russkaya Pravda ) among the Eastern Slavs and is said to have granted the city a number of freedoms or privileges, which they often referred to in later centuries as precedents in their relations with other princes. His son, Vladimir of Novgorod , sponsored construction of the great Saint Sophia Cathedral , more accurately translated as the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom, which stands to this day. In Norse sagas

5760-413: The head of the town militia but later a commercial and judicial official, was also elected by the Veche . Another important local official was the Archbishop of Novgorod who shared power with the boyars. Archbishops were elected by the Veche or by the drawing of lots , and after their election, were sent to the metropolitan for consecration. While a basic outline of the various officials and

5850-409: The high 20s to low 30s °C (80s °F), while average January afternoon temperatures are near or well below freezing. Frost-free periods typically last 4 to 7 months in this climate regime. Within North America , this climate includes portions of the central and eastern United States from east of 100°W to south of about the 44°N to the Atlantic . Precipitation increases further eastward in this zone and

5940-439: The humid continental climate covers a much larger area than the hot subtype. In North America, the climate zone covers from about 42°N to 50°N latitude mostly east of 100°W , including parts of Southern Ontario , the southern half of Quebec , The Maritimes , and Newfoundland , as well as the northern United States from eastern North Dakota east to Maine . However, it can be found as far north as 54°N , and further west in

6030-421: The humid continental climates, typically in around Hokkaido , Sakhalin Island , northeastern mainland Europe , Scandinavia , Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland are closer to the sea and heavily maritime-influenced and comparable to oceanic climates , with relatively cool summers, significant year-round precipitation (including high amounts of snow) and winters being just below the freezing mark (too cold for such

6120-431: The incorporation into the Russian state Novgorod land retained its distinct identity and institutions, including the customs policy and administrative division. Certain elective offices were quickly restored after having been abolished by Ivan III. During the Time of Troubles , Novgorodians submitted to Swedish troops led by Jacob De la Gardie in the summer of 1611. The city was restituted to Muscovy six years later by

6210-436: The late 10th century, the time of the Christianization of Rus' and a century after it was allegedly founded. Archaeological dating is fairly easy and accurate to within 15–25 years, as the streets were paved with wood, and most of the houses made of wood, allowing tree ring dating . The Varangian name of the city Holmgård or Holmgard ( Holmgarðr or Holmgarðir ) is mentioned in Norse Sagas as existing at

6300-490: The leading trading center in the Baltic before the Hansa League . At Novgorod in 1080, Visby merchants established a trading post which they named Gutagard (also known as Gotenhof). Later, in the first half of the 13th century, merchants from northern Germany also established their own trading station in Novgorod, known as the Peterhof . At about the same time, in 1229, German merchants at Novgorod were granted certain privileges, which made their position more secure. In 1136,

6390-419: The main meeting hall of the archbishops; the oldest Russian bell tower (mid-15th century), and the oldest Russian clock tower (1673). The Palace of Facets, the bell tower, and the clock tower were originally built on the orders of Archbishop Euphimius II, although the clock tower collapsed in the 17th century and had to be rebuilt and much of the palace of Euphimius II is no longer standing. Among later structures,

6480-501: The mid-fifteenth century, again under Archbishop Yevfimy II (Euthymius II), perhaps one of the greatest patrons of architecture in medieval Novgorod. Novgorod's conquest by Ivan III in 1478 decisively changed the character of local architecture. Large commissions were thenceforth executed by Muscovite masters and patterned after cathedrals of Moscow Kremlin : e.g., the Savior Cathedral of Khutyn Monastery (1515),

6570-533: The most remarkable are a royal palace (1771) and a bronze monument to the Millennium of Russia , representing the most important figures from the country's history (unveiled in 1862). Outside the Kremlin walls, there are three large churches constructed during the reign of Mstislav the Great . St. Nicholas Cathedral (1113–1123), containing frescoes of Mstislav's family, graces Yaroslav's Court (formerly

6660-518: The new cathedral was based on the Renaissance basilicas of Rome ( Sant'Agostino , Santa Maria del Popolo ). However the external architecture remains in the style of North Italian brick churches, more similar to local late Gothic ones in Masovia , and may be the result of rebuilding work about 1560 by Giovanni Battista of Venice , who added the spacious choir and two western towers. The building

6750-420: The oldest Slavic book written north of Bulgaria, and the oldest inscription in a Finnic language ( Birch bark letter no. 292 ) were unearthed. Some of the most ancient Russian chronicles ( Novgorod First Chronicle ) were written in the scriptorium of the archbishops who also promoted iconography and patronized church construction. The Novgorod merchant Sadko became a popular hero of Russian folklore . Novgorod

6840-425: The patronage of Vladimir Yaroslavich, the son of Yaroslav the Wise ; Vladimir and his mother, Anna Porphyrogenita , are buried in the cathedral. It is one of the best preserved churches from the 11th century. It is also probably the oldest structure still in use in Russia and the first one to represent original features of Russian architecture (austere stone walls, five helmet-like domes). Its frescoes were painted in

6930-528: The population and the city's stability during that time, including its downfall. Novgorod was a hub for trade, attracting German merchants in substantial numbers, around 200 German merchants resided in the trade city in the 1430s, comprising about 1% of the total population of Novgorod at that time. The interactions between these merchants and the local population contributed to the nature of Novgorod during that time, influencing its economic prosperity and cultural diversity. The city's downfall occurred partially as

7020-537: The remnants thereof). Though humidity levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the "humid" designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as semi-arid or arid . By definition, forests thrive within this climate. Biomes within this climate regime include temperate woodlands, temperate grasslands, temperate deciduous or evergreen forests, coniferous forests, and coniferous swamps. Within wetter areas, maple , spruce , pine , fir , and oak can be found. Fall foliage

7110-585: The steppe ( BSk ) climates. In the eastern and Midwestern United States, Pennsylvania , Ohio , Illinois , Indiana , southern New York , most of Connecticut and Rhode Island , and eastern Massachusetts fall into the hot-summer humid continental climate. In Canada, this climate type exists only over portions of Southern Ontario . In the Eastern Hemisphere, this climate regime is found within interior Eurasia and east-central Asia. Within Europe,

7200-488: The strong Siberian High much colder winter temperatures than similar latitudes around the world, however with lower snowfall, the exception being western Japan with its heavy snowfall. Tōhoku , between Tokyo and Hokkaidō and Western coast of Japan also has a climate with Köppen classification Dfa , but is wetter even than that part of North America with this climate type. A variant which has dry winters and hence relatively lower snowfall with monsoonal type summer rainfall

7290-464: The territory of the then Kievan Rus' ) occurs in the 10th-century policy manual De Administrando Imperio by Byzantine emperor Constantine VII . In 882, Rurik's successor, Oleg of Novgorod , conquered Kiev and founded the state of Kievan Rus' . Novgorod's size as well as its political, economic, and cultural influence made it the second most important city in Kievan Rus'. According to

7380-435: The warmest month below 22 °C (72 °F). Summer high temperatures in this zone typically average between 21–28 °C (70–82 °F) during the daytime and the average temperatures in the coldest month are generally well or far below the −3 °C (27 °F) (or 0 °C (32.0 °F)) isotherm. Frost-free periods typically last 3–5 months. Heat spells lasting over a week are rare. The warm summer version of

7470-455: The −3 °C (27 °F) average temperature isotherm (line of equal temperature) was near the southern extent of winter snowpack . In the United States, it is more common to use the 0 °C [32.0 °F] isotherm instead. The 10 °C (50 °F) average temperature was found to be roughly the minimum temperature necessary for tree reproduction and growth. Wide temperature ranges are common within this climate zone. Second letter in

7560-579: Was active in Novgorod between 1648 and 1652. The Novgorod Land became one of the Old Believers ' strongholds after the Schism . The city remained an important trade centre even though it was now eclipsed by Archangelsk , Novgorodian merchants were trading in the Baltic cities and Stockholm while Swedish merchants came to Novgorod where they had their own trading post since 1627. Novgorod continued to be

7650-435: Was decommissioned in 2006, and the area has now been redeveloped into a residential neighbourhood. The still existing Krechevitsy Airport does not serve any regular flights since mid-1990s although there is a plan to turn Krechevitsy into a new operational airport by 2025. The nearest international airport is St. Petersburg's Pulkovo , some 180 kilometres (112 miles) north of the city. Local transportation consists of

7740-529: Was deported to central Russia. The Hanseatic League kontor was closed in 1494 and the goods stored there were seized by Muscovite forces. At the time of annexation, Novgorod became the third largest city under Muscovy and then the Tsardom of Russia (with 5,300 homesteads and 25–30 thousand inhabitants in the 1550s) and remained so until the famine of the 1560s and the Massacre of Novgorod in 1570. In

7830-506: Was made the administrative center of Novgorod Governorate of the Russian Empire , which was detached from Saint Petersburg Governorate (see Administrative divisions of Russia in 1727–1728 ). This administrative division existed until 1927. Between 1927 and 1944, the city was a part of Leningrad Oblast , and then became the administrative center of the newly formed Novgorod Oblast . On 15 August 1941, during World War II ,

7920-783: Was never conquered by the Mongols during the Mongol invasion of Rus . The Mongol army turned back about 200 kilometers (120 mi) from the city, not because of the city's strength, but probably because the Mongol commanders did not want to get bogged down in the marshlands surrounding the city. However, the grand princes of Moscow, who acted as tax collectors for the khans of the Golden Horde, did collect tribute in Novgorod, most notably Yury Danilovich and his brother, Ivan Kalita . In 1259, Mongol tax-collectors and census-takers arrived in

8010-561: Was restored in 1903, when the present front elevation facing west and the towers was re-designed by the architect in charge of the restoration, Stefan Szyller. Between the world wars, the interior was decorated with additional frescoes by Władysław Drapiewski and Czesław Idźkiewicz , local student of Józef Mehoffer graduating from the Academy in Kraków . In 2018, due to its historical, artistic, scientific, material and landscape values ,

8100-528: Was the easternmost kontor , or entrepôt , of the league, being the source of enormous quantities of luxury ( sable , ermine , fox , marmot ) and non-luxury furs (squirrel pelts). Throughout the Middle Ages, the city thrived culturally. A large number of birch bark letters have been unearthed in excavations, perhaps suggesting widespread literacy. It was in Novgorod that the Novgorod Codex ,

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