104-563: The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is a canonical text of the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda school of Early Buddhism which was originally part of the school's Vinaya pitaka . The Mahāvastu is a composite multi-life hagiography of the Buddha Shakyamuni . Its numerous textual layers are held by scholars to have been compiled between the 2nd century BCE and 4th century CE. The Mahāvastu
208-595: A Buddhist education. Anagarika Dhammapala , Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera , Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera and Henry Steel Olcott (one of the first American western converts to Buddhism) were some of the main figures of the Sri Lankan Buddhist revival. Two new monastic orders were formed in the 19th century, the Amarapura Nikāya and the Rāmañña Nikāya . In Burma, an influential modernist figure
312-637: A dominant religion in the Southeast Asian kingdoms of Sri Ksetra and Dvaravati from about the 5th century CE onwards. The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pāli language are gold plates found at Sri Ksetra dated circa the 5th to 6th century. Before the Theravāda tradition became the dominant religion in Southeast Asia, Mahāyāna, Vajrayana and Hinduism were also prominent. Starting at around
416-526: A moment of consciousness (citta) can be aware of itself as well as its intentional object. This doctrine arose out of their understanding of the Buddha's enlightenment which held that in a single moment of mind the Buddha knew all things. The Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra explains the doctrine of self-reflexive awareness as follows: Some allege that the mind ( citta ) and mental activities ( caitta ) can apprehend themselves ( svabhāva ). Schools like Mahāsāṃghika hold
520-500: A painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine or bathing although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience; and, the ability to "suppress karma ." In spite of this school affiliation however, the Theravadin Bhikkhu Telwatte Rahula concludes in his study of the text that its depiction of the Buddha is not that much different than the depiction of
624-543: A relative or conventional (Skt. saṃvṛti ) truth, and the absolute or ultimate (Skt. paramārtha ) truth. For the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism, the final and ultimate meaning of the Buddha's teachings was "beyond words," and words were merely the conventional exposition of the Dharma. K. Venkata Ramanan writes: The credit of having kept alive the emphasis on the ultimacy of the unconditioned reality by drawing attention to
728-594: A self ( attā ) and conditioned. This is spelled out in the Patisambhidhamagga , which states that dhammas are empty of svabhava ( sabhavena suññam ). According to Ronkin, the canonical Pāli Abhidhamma remains pragmatic and psychological, and "does not take much interest in ontology " in contrast with the Sarvastivada tradition. Paul Williams also notes that the Abhidhamma remains focused on
832-461: A single utterance, all of his sayings being true, his physical body being limitless, his power ( prabhāva ) being limitless, the length of his life being limitless, never tiring of enlightening sentient beings and awakening pure faith in them, having no sleep or dreams, no pause in answering a question, and always in meditation ( samādhi ). A doctrine ascribed to the Mahāsāṃghikas is, "The power of
936-451: A study of the Mahāsāṃghika school will contribute to a better understanding of the early Dhamma-Vinaya than the Theravāda school. Regarding the issue with Mahadeva's doctrine, this seems to have been a later doctrinal dispute within the Mahāsāṃghika community (which happened after the schism). The followers of Mahadeva seem to have been the precursors of the southern Mahāsāṃghika sects, like
1040-471: A work which describes the color of monastic robes (Skt. kāṣāya ) utilized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi (Ch. 大比丘三千威儀). Another text translated at a later date, the Śāriputraparipṛcchā , contains a very similar passage corroborating this information. In both sources, the Mahāsāṃghikas are described as wearing yellow robes. The relevant portion of the Śāriputraparipṛcchā reads: The Mahāsāṃghika school diligently study
1144-556: Is nibbana . The 81 conditioned dhammas are divided into three broad categories: consciousness ( citta ), associated mentality ( cetasika ) and materiality, or physical phenomena ( rupa ). Since no dhamma exists independently, every single dhamma of consciousness, known as a citta , arises associated ( sampayutta ) with at least seven mental factors ( cetasikas ) . In Abhidhamma, all awareness events are thus seen as being characterized by intentionality and never exist in isolation. Much of Abhidhamma philosophy deals with categorizing
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#17327768395091248-538: Is "only for the purposes of description" that they are postulated. Noa Ronkin defines dhammas as "the constituents of sentient experience; the irreducible 'building blocks' that make up one's world, albeit they are not static mental contents and certainly not substances." Thus, while in Theravāda Abhidhamma, dhammas are the ultimate constituents of experience, they are not seen as substances , essences or independent particulars, since they are empty ( suñña ) of
1352-456: Is a Mahasamghika Vinaya work which also provides a history of early Buddhism and its schisms. Some scholars such as Yao and Tse Fu Kuan consider the Ekottara Āgama (Taishō Tripiṭaka 125) to belong to the Mahāsāṃghika school, though this is still up for debate. The Lokānuvartanā sūtra (Chinese: 佛説内藏百寶經, pinyin: fóshuō nèi zàng bǎi bǎo jīng, Taishō Tripiṭaka , Volume 17, text No. 807)
1456-616: Is a far greater volume of Theravāda literature in vernacular languages than in Pāli." An important genre of Theravādin literature, in both Pāli and vernacular languages, are the Jataka tales , stories of the Buddha's past lives. They are very popular among all classes and are rendered in a wide variety of media formats, from cartoons to high literature. The Vessantara Jātaka is one of the most popular of these. Most Theravāda Buddhists generally consider Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures to be apocryphal , meaning that they are not authentic words of
1560-556: Is a text preserved in some Sanskrit fragments as well as in Tibetan and Chinese translation. Theravada Theravāda ( / ˌ t ɛr ə ˈ v ɑː ð ə / ; lit. 'School of the Elders') is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism 's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed Theravādins ( anglicized from Pali theravādī ), have preserved their version of Gautama Buddha 's teaching or Dhamma in
1664-543: Is also found among the Mahāsāṃghika tradition, and further evidence of this is given in the Samayabhedoparacanacakra , which describes the doctrines of the Mahāsāṃghikas. These two concepts of contemporaneous bodhisattvas and contemporaneous buddhas were linked in some traditions, and texts such as the Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa use the principle of contemporaneous bodhisattvas to demonstrate
1768-602: Is also the author of a very important compendium of Theravāda doctrine, the Visuddhimagga . Other figures like Dhammapala and Buddhadatta also wrote Theravāda commentaries and other works in Pali during the time of Buddhaghosa. While these texts do not have the same scriptural authority in Theravāda as the Tipiṭaka, they remain influential works for the exegesis of the Tipiṭaka. An important genre of Theravādin literature
1872-479: Is attained in four stages of awakening ( bodhi ): In Theravāda Buddhism, a Buddha is a sentient being who has discovered the path out of samsara by themselves, has reached Nibbana and then makes the path available to others by teaching (known as "turning the wheel of the Dhamma"). A Buddha is also believed to have extraordinary powers and abilities ( abhiññā ), such as the ability to read minds and fly through
1976-972: Is composed of Jātaka and Avadāna tales, accounts of the earlier lives of the Buddha and other bodhisattvas . The Mahāvastu opens with two prologues ( nidānas ), the Nidānanamaskāras (dating to around the 3rd century CE) and the Nidānavastu (c. 1st century CE). Four sections of the Mahāvastu contain texts of the Bahubuddhaka sūtra genre. This includes a bahubuddhasūtra in chapter XXI of Jones' translation, Volume III and Chapter V in Jones Volume I. The Bahubuddhakasūtras are sutras which contain narratives of past Buddhas and these narratives often served as sources for Buddhist doctrines relating to
2080-564: Is said to be defiled. But these defilements, not being of the original nature of the mind, are called adventitious." The Kathāvatthu (III, 3) also cites this idea as a thesis of the Andhakas. According to Vasumitra, the Mahāsāṃghikas held that there were nine dharmas (phenomena, realities) which were unconditioned or unconstructed (asaṃskṛta): According to Bart Dessein, the Mohe sengzhi lu (Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya) provides some insight into
2184-460: Is shorter handbooks and summaries, which serve as introductions and study guides for the larger commentaries. Two of the more influential summaries are Sariputta Thera's Pālimuttakavinayavinicchayasaṅgaha, a summary of Buddhaghosa's Vinaya commentary and Anuruddha's Abhidhammaṭṭhasaṅgaha (a "Manual of Abhidhamma"). Throughout the history of Theravāda, Theravāda monks also produced other works of Pāli literature such as historical chronicles (like
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#17327768395092288-541: Is the Samayabhedoparacanacakra ( The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines , Ch: 異部宗輪論) of Vasumitra (a Sarvāstivāda scholar, c. 2nd century CE), which was translated by Xuanzang . According to this source, some of the key doctrines defended by Indian Mahāsāṃghikas include: The Mahāsāṃghikas advocated the transcendental and supramundane nature of the buddhas and bodhisattvas , and
2392-524: Is the fact that Theravāda rejects the authenticity of the Mahayana sutras (which appeared c. 1st century BCE onwards). Consequently, Theravāda generally does not recognize the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas believed by the Mahāyāna school, such as Amitābha and Vairocana , because they are not found in the canonical scriptures. Modern Theravāda derives from Sri Lankan Branch of
2496-420: Is the language of realism that one encounters. The whole Buddhist practical doctrine and discipline, which has the attainment of Nibbana as its final goal, is based on the recognition of the material world and the conscious living beings living therein. The Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that there is a total of 82 possible types of dhammas, 81 of these are conditioned ( sankhata ), while one is unconditioned, which
2600-541: The Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa ), hagiographies , poetry, Pāli grammars, and " sub-commentaries " (that is, commentaries on the commentaries). While Pāli texts are symbolically and ritually important for many Theravādins, most people are likely to access Buddhist teachings through vernacular literature, oral teachings, sermons, art and performance as well as films and Internet media. According to Kate Crosby, "there
2704-699: The Vimanavatthu and the Buddhavaṃsa . The more recent layer of the Mahāvastu is the Daśabhūmika , a text which contains teachings on a scheme of bodhisattva bhūmis (stages). According to Vincent Tournier, this text was grafted into the Mahāvastu (which itself does not contain any teaching on bodhisattva stages) during the last period of textual formation (ca. 4-6th centuries CE). The Daśabhūmika seems to have originally been considered an appendix or supplement (parivāra, parisara) which later made its way into
2808-774: The Agamas , the parallel collections used by non-Theravāda schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and partially in Sanskrit , Prakrit , and Tibetan , as well as the various non-Theravāda Vinayas. On this basis, these Early Buddhist texts (i.e. the Nikayas and parts of the Vinaya) are generally believed to be some of the oldest and most authoritative sources on the doctrines of pre-sectarian Buddhism by modern scholars. Much of
2912-593: The Buddha and other bodhisattvas . It is considered a primary source for the notion of a transcendent ( ''lokottara'' ) Buddha, who across his countless past lives developed various abilities such as omniscience (sarvajñana), the lack of any need for sleep or food and being born painlessly without the need for intercourse. The text shows strong parallels with the Pali Mahakhandhaka. The Śariputraparipṛcchā ( Shelifu Wen Jing , 舍利弗問經, Taisho 1465, p. 900b), translated into Chinese between 317 and 420,
3016-464: The Jain cosmology . This entire cyclical multiverse of constant birth and death is called samsara . Outside of this system of samsara is nibbana (lit. "vanishing, quenching, blowing out"), a deathless ( amata ) and transcendent reality, which is a total and final release ( vimutti ) from all suffering ( dukkha ) and rebirth. According to Theravāda doctrine, release from suffering (i.e. nibbana )
3120-410: The Mahāvastu itself. A similar case occurred with the second Avalokitasūtra which shows similarities with Mahayana scriptures . The Mahāvastu is considered a primary source for the notion of a transcendent ( lokottara ) Buddha, common to all Mahāsāṃghika schools. According to the Mahāvastu , over the course of many lives, the once-human-born Buddha developed supramundane abilities including:
3224-462: The Pāli Canon for over two millennia. The Pāli Canon is the most complete Buddhist canon surviving in a classical Indian language , Pāli , which serves as the school's sacred language and lingua franca . In contrast to Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna , Theravāda tends to be conservative in matters of doctrine ( pariyatti ) and monastic discipline ( vinaya ). One element of this conservatism
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3328-548: The Samayabhedoparacanacakra to the Mahāsāṃghikas (Ekavyāvahārika, Lokottaravāda, and Kukkuṭika), twenty concern the supramundane nature of buddhas and bodhisattvas. According to the Samayabhedoparacanacakra , these four groups held that the Buddha is able to know all dharmas in a single moment of the mind. Yao Zhihua writes: In their view, the Buddha is equipped with the following supernatural qualities: transcendence ( lokottara ), lack of defilements, all of his utterances preaching his teaching , expounding all his teachings in
3432-698: The Sixth Buddhist council ( Vesak 1954 to Vesak 1956) to create a new redaction of the Pāli Canon , which was then published by the government in 40 volumes. The Vipassana movement continued to grow after independence, becoming an international movement with centers around the world. Influential meditation teachers of the post-independence era include U Narada , Mahasi Sayadaw , Sayadaw U Pandita , Nyanaponika Thera , Webu Sayadaw , U Ba Khin and his student S.N. Goenka. Meanwhile, in Thailand (the only Theravāda nation to retain its independence throughout
3536-666: The Sri Lankan kings , who saw themselves as the protectors of the religion. Over time, two other sects split off from the Mahāvihāra tradition, the Abhayagiri and Jetavana . While the Abhayagiri sect became known for the syncretic study of Mahayana and Vajrayana texts, as well as the Theravāda canon, the Mahāvihāra tradition did not accept these new scriptures. Instead, Mahāvihāra scholars like Buddhaghosa focused on
3640-758: The Sthāvira nikāya , one of the two major orders that arose after the first schism in the Indian Buddhist community. Theravāda sources trace their tradition to the Third Buddhist council when elder Moggaliputta-Tissa is said to have compiled the Kathavatthu , an important work which lays out the Vibhajjavāda doctrinal position. Aided by the patronage of Mauryan kings like Ashoka , this school spread throughout India and reached Sri Lanka through
3744-706: The Vipassana movement which reinvigorated Theravāda meditation practice, the growth of the Thai Forest Tradition which reemphasized forest monasticism and the spread of Theravāda westward to places such as India and Nepal, along with Buddhist immigrants and converts in the European Union and in the United States . The Theravāda school descends from the Vibhajjavāda , a division within
3848-513: The five aggregates or khandha and the eighteen elements of cognition or dhatus . Theravāda traditionally promotes itself as the Vibhajjavāda "teaching of analysis" and as the heirs to the Buddha's analytical method. Expanding this model, Theravāda Abhidhamma scholasticism concerned itself with analyzing " ultimate truth " ( paramattha-sacca ) which it sees as being composed of all possible dhammas and their relationships. The central theory of
3952-684: The 11th century, Sinhalese Theravāda monks and Southeast Asian elites led a widespread conversion of most of mainland Southeast Asia to the Theravādin Mahavihara school. The patronage of monarchs such as the Burmese king Anawrahta (Pali: Aniruddha, 1044–1077) and the Thai king Ram Khamhaeng ( floruit . late 13th century) was instrumental in the rise of Theravāda Buddhism as the predominant religion of Burma and Thailand. Burmese and Thai kings saw themselves as Dhamma Kings and as protectors of
4056-598: The 19th and 20th centuries, Theravāda Buddhists came into direct contact with western ideologies, religions and modern science. The various responses to this encounter have been called " Buddhist modernism ". In the British colonies of Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) and Burma (Myanmar), Buddhist institutions lost their traditional role as the prime providers of education (a role that was often filled by Christian schools). In response to this, Buddhist organizations were founded which sought to preserve Buddhist scholarship and provide
4160-554: The Abhidhamma is thus known as the " dhamma theory ". "Dhamma" has been translated as "factors" (Collett Cox), "psychic characteristics" (Bronkhorst), "psycho-physical events" (Noa Ronkin) and "phenomena" ( Nyanaponika Thera ). According to the Sri Lankan scholar Y. Karunadasa , a dhammas ("principles" or "elements") are "those items that result when the process of analysis is taken to its ultimate limits". However, this does not mean that they have an independent existence, for it
4264-620: The Bodhisattva was subject to the law of karma. If one attained arhathood, he was free of the karmic law; and once the arhat died, he entered nirvāṇa never to return to the world of saṃsāra. But living in the cycle of saṃsāra, the Bodhisattva was bound to the law of karma. In contrast to this school the Mahāsāṃghika held that the Bodhisattva has already sundered karmic bondage and, therefore, is born in durgati out of his own free will, his deep vow ( praṇidhāna ) of salvation. The concept of many bodhisattvas simultaneously working toward buddhahood
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4368-549: The Buddha in the Pali Canon , since the more docetic and transcendent ideas common to the Lokottaravāda are not widely present in the text. The Nidānanamaskāras prologue introduced the doctrine of the fourfold "phases" of the bodhisattva's career. According to this doctrine, the four stages ( caryās) of the bodhisattva path are: Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika The Mahāsāṃghika ( Brahmi : 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of
4472-560: The Buddha. Consequently, Theravādin generally does not recognize the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas believed by the Mahāyāna school, such as Amitābha and Vairocana , because they are not found in the canonical scriptures. The core of Theravāda Buddhist doctrine is contained in the Pāli Canon, the only complete collection of Early Buddhist Texts surviving in a classical Indic language . These basic Buddhist ideas are shared by
4576-613: The Caitikas. The original center of the Mahāsāṃghika sects was Magadha , but they also maintained important centers such as in Mathura and Karli . The Kukkuṭikas were situated in eastern India around Vārāṇasī and Pāṭaliputra and the Bahuśrutīya in Kośala , Andhra, and Gandhara. The Lokottaravāda subschool itself claimed to be of the 'Middle Country', i.e. Ganges Basin region in
4680-403: The Chinese version calls him Bhagavan . This points to the idea that the Buddha was already awakened before descending down to earth. Similarly, the idea that the lifespan of a Buddha is limitless is also based on very ancient ideas. The Mahāparinirvānasūtra states that the Buddha's lifespan is as long as an eon (kalpa) and that he voluntarily chose to give up his life. Another early source for
4784-692: The Great Sangha ", Chinese : 大眾部 ; pinyin : Dà zhòng bù ) was a major division ( nikāya ) of the early Buddhist schools in India . They were one of the two original communities that emerged from the first schism of the original pre-sectarian Buddhist tradition (the other being the Sthavira nikaya ). This schism is traditionally held to have occurred after the Second Buddhist council , which occurred at some point during or after
4888-580: The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (Chinese: Mohe Sengqi Lü) translated by Faxian (337–422 CE) contains proto-Mahayana elements and "reflects the nascent formation of the Mahāyāna Dharma teachings." The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is the most well known of the Lokottaravāda branch of the Mahāsāṃghika school. It is a preface to their Vinaya Pitaka and contains numerous Jātaka and Avadāna tales, stories of past lives of
4992-473: The Mahāsāṃghika view that a Buddha was a transcendent being is the idea of the thirty-two major marks of a Buddha's body. Furthermore, the Simpsapa sutta states that the Buddha had way more knowledge than what he taught to his disciples. The Mahāsāṃghikas took this further and argued that the Buddha knew the dharmas of innumerable other Buddhas of the ten directions. Of the 48 special theses attributed by
5096-474: The Pali Nikayas, then we should be compelled to conclude that Buddhism is realistic. There is no explicit denial anywhere of the external world. Nor is there any positive evidence to show that the world is mind-made or simply a projection of subjective thoughts. That Buddhism recognizes the extra-mental existence of matter and, the external world is clearly suggested by the texts. Throughout the discourses it
5200-813: The Pāli Tipiṭaka has been transmitted with a high degree of accuracy for well over 1,500 years." There are numerous editions of the Tipiṭaka, some of the major modern editions include the Pali Text Society edition (published in Roman script), the Burmese Sixth Council edition (in Burmese script , 1954–56) and the Thai Tipiṭaka edited and published in Thai script after the council held during
5304-400: The Sangha (the community of monks and nuns)." The language of the Tipiṭaka, Pāli , is a middle-Indic language which is the main religious and scholarly language in Theravāda. This language may have evolved out of various Indian dialects, and is related to, but not the same as, the ancient language of Magadha . An early form of the Tipiṭaka may have been transmitted to Sri Lanka during
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#17327768395095408-484: The Theravāda faith. They promoted the building of new temples, patronized scholarship, monastic ordinations and missionary works as well as attempted to eliminate certain non-Buddhist practices like animal sacrifices. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Theravāda also became established as the state religion in Cambodia and Laos. In Cambodia, numerous Hindu and Mahāyāna temples, most famously Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom , were transformed into Theravādin monasteries. In
5512-400: The Theravāda school. There are also some texts which were late additions that are included in the fifth Nikaya, the Khuddaka Nikāya ('Minor Collection'), such as the Paṭisambhidāmagga (possibly c. 3rd to 1st century BCE) and the Buddhavaṃsa (c. 1st and 2nd century BCE). The main parts of the Sutta Pitaka and some portions of the Vinaya show considerable overlap in content with
5616-450: The Tipiṭaka from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to the 15th Century, and they are incomplete. Complete manuscripts of the four Nikayas are only available from the 17th Century onwards. However, fragments of the Tipiṭaka have been found in inscriptions from Southeast Asia, the earliest of which have been dated to the 3rd or 4th century. According to Alexander Wynne, "they agree almost exactly with extant Pāli manuscripts. This means that
5720-449: The Vibhajyavada tradition, which is in turn a sect of the Indian Sthavira nikāya . This tradition began to establish itself in Sri Lanka from the 3rd century BCE onwards. It was in Sri Lanka that the Pāli Canon was written down and the school's commentary literature developed. From Sri Lanka the Theravāda tradition subsequently spread to Southeast Asia . Theravāda is the official religion of Sri Lanka , Myanmar , and Cambodia , and
5824-401: The bodhisattva path. Parallel examples of Bahubuddhakasūtras have been found in Gandharan Buddhist text collections. One of these manuscripts dates to the 1st century BCE. Another parallel Bahubuddhaka sūtra is the Chinese translation Fo benxing ji jing (Taisho 190). The Mahāvastu 's Jātaka tales are similar to those of the Pali Canon although significant differences exist in terms of
5928-436: The canon, mainly the Abhidhamma and some parts of the Vinaya, contain some distinctive elements and teachings which are unique to the Theravāda school and often differ from the Abhidharmas or Vinayas of other early Buddhist schools . For example, while the Theravāda Vinaya contains a total of 227 monastic rules for bhikkhus , the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (used in East Asian Buddhism ) has a total of 253 rules for bhikkhus (though
6032-418: The collected sūtras and teach the true meaning, because they are the source and the center. They wear yellow robes. The lower part of the yellow robe was pulled tightly to the left. According to Dudjom Rinpoche from the tradition of Tibetan Buddhism , the robes of fully ordained Mahāsāṃghika monastics were to be sewn out of more than seven sections, but no more than twenty-three sections. The symbols sewn on
6136-459: The colonial era), the religion became much more centralized, bureaucratized and controlled by the state after a series of reforms promoted by Thai kings of the Chakri dynasty . King Mongkut (r. 1851–1868) and his successor Chulalongkorn (1868–1910) were especially involved in centralizing sangha reforms. Under these kings, the sangha was organized into a hierarchical bureaucracy led by the Sangha Council of Elders ( Pali : Mahāthera Samāgama ),
6240-417: The countless buddhas of the ten directions." It is also stated, "All buddhas have one body, the body of the Dharma." In the view of Mahāsāṃghikas, advanced bodhisattvas have severed the bonds of karma , and are born out of their own free will into lower states of existence (Skt. durgati ) in order to help liberate other sentient beings. As described by Akira Hirakawa: The Sarvāstivādin also taught that
6344-406: The different consciousnesses and their accompanying mental factors as well as their conditioned relationships ( paccaya ). The Pāli Tipiṭaka outlines a hierarchical cosmological system with various planes existence ( bhava ) into which sentient beings may be reborn depending on their past actions. Good actions lead one to the higher realms, bad actions lead to the lower realms. However, even for
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#17327768395096448-417: The doctrinal position that the canonical Abhidhamma Pitaka was actually taught by the Buddha himself. Modern scholarship in contrast, has generally held that the Abhidhamma texts date from the 3rd century BCE onwards. However some scholars, such as Frauwallner , also hold that the early Abhidhamma texts developed out of exegetical and catechetical work which made use of doctrinal lists which can be seen in
6552-466: The early Mahāsāṃghikas rejected the abhidharmic developments that occurred within Sarvāstivāda circles. As is the case with their Vinayapiṭaka, also their Sutrapiṭaka seems to have consisted of five parts ( āgama ): * Dīrghāgama ,* Madhyamāgama ,* Saṃyuktāgama , * Ekottarāgama and * Kṣudrakāgama . Dessein also mentions that the school probably also had a Bodhisattvapiṭaka, which included material that "in all likelihood consisted of texts that formed part of
6656-434: The early development of the bodhisattva path as an alternative career to that of the arhant, perhaps serving as a foundation for the later developments of the bodhisattva doctrine". According to Zhihua Yao, the following Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya texts are extant in Chinese: Mahāsāṃghika bhiksuni-vinaya , Pratimoksa-sutra , Sphutartha Srighanacarasamgrahatika, Abhisamacarika-Dharma and the Mahavastu . Zhan Ru also notes that
6760-399: The efforts of missionary monks like Mahinda . In Sri Lanka, it became known as the Tambapaṇṇiya (and later as Mahāvihāravāsins) which was based at the Great Vihara (Mahavihara) in Anuradhapura (the ancient Sri Lankan capital). According to Theravāda sources, another one of the Ashokan missions was also sent to Suvaṇṇabhūmi ("The Golden Land"), which may refer to Southeast Asia. By
6864-507: The end of the communist regime the Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile. In contrast, communist rule in Laos was less destructive since the Pathet Lao sought to make use of the sangha for political ends by imposing direct state control. During the late 1980s and 1990s, the official attitudes toward Buddhism began to liberalise in Laos and there was a resurgence of traditional Buddhist activities such as merit-making and doctrinal study. The modern era also saw
6968-412: The essential real Buddha was equated with the Dharmakāya . The Mahāsāṃghika Lokānuvartanā sūtra makes numerous supramundane claims about the Buddha, including that: Like the Mahāyāna traditions, the Mahāsāṃghikas held the doctrine of the existence of many contemporaneous buddhas throughout the ten directions. In the Mahāsāṃghika Lokānuvartana Sūtra , it is stated, "The Buddha knows all the dharmas of
7072-450: The exegesis of the Pali scriptures and on the Abhidhamma . These Theravāda sub-sects often came into conflict with each other over royal patronage. The reign of Parākramabāhu I (1153–1186) saw an extensive reform of the Sri Lankan sangha after years of warfare on the island. Parākramabāhu created a single unified sangha which came to be dominated by the Mahāvihāra sect. Epigraphical evidence has established that Theravāda Buddhism became
7176-418: The fallibility of arhats . Xing also notes that the Acchariyābbhūtasutta of the Majjhimanikāya along with its Chinese Madhyamāgama parallel version is the most prominent evidence for the ancient source of the Mahāsāṃghika view of the Buddha. The sutra mentions various miracles performed by the Buddha before his birth and after. While the Pāli sutta uses the term bodhisattva for the Buddha before his birth,
7280-409: The first century BCE, Theravāda Buddhism was well established in the main settlements of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura . The Pali Canon, which contains the main scriptures of the Theravāda, was committed to writing in the first century BCE. Throughout the history of ancient and medieval Sri Lanka, Theravāda was the main religion of the Sinhalese people and its temples and monasteries were patronized by
7384-426: The first schism and the creation of the Mahāsāṃghika as a separate community is 116 years after the Buddha's nirvana. Some Buddhist historical sources mention that the cause for schism was a dispute over vinaya (monastic rule), mainly the desire of certain Sthaviras (elders) to add extra rules to make the vinaya more rigorous. Other sources, especially Sthavira sources like those of the Sarvastivada school, argue that
7488-505: The following view: It is the nature of awareness ( jñāna ) and so forth to apprehend, thus awareness can apprehend itself as well as others. This is like a lamp that can illuminate itself and others owing to its nature ( svabhāva ) of luminosity. Some Mahāsāṃghikas also held that the mind's nature ( cittasvabhāva ) is fundamentally pure ( mulavisuddha ), but it can be contaminated by adventitious defilements. Vasumitra's Nikayabheda-dharmamati-chakra-sastra also discusses this theory, and cites
7592-626: The format of this school's textual canon. They appear to have had a Vinaya in five parts, an Abhidharmapiṭaka , and a Sutrapiṭaka : Of these texts, their Vinaya was translated into Chinese by Buddhabhadra and Faxian between 416 and 418 CE in the Daochang Monastery in Nanjing, capital of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. In this text, their Abhidharma is defined as "the sūtrānta in nine parts" ( navāṅga ). This suggests that
7696-434: The gods ( devas ) in the higher realms like Indra , there is still death, loss and suffering. The main categories of the planes of existence are: These various planes of existence can be found in countless world systems ( loka-dhatu ), which are born, expand, contract and are destroyed in a cyclical nature across vast expanses of time (measures in kappas). This cosmology is similar to other ancient Indian systems, such as
7800-519: The highest body of the Thai sangha. Mongkut also led the creation of a new monastic order, the Dhammayuttika Nikaya, which kept a stricter monastic discipline than the rest of the Thai sangha (this included not using money, not storing up food and not taking milk in the evening). The Dhammayuttika movement was characterized by an emphasis on the original Pali Canon and a rejection of Thai folk beliefs which were seen as irrational. Under
7904-619: The leadership of Prince Wachirayan Warorot , a new education and examination system was introduced for Thai monks. The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. The main forest movements of this era are the Sri Lankan Forest Tradition and the Thai Forest Tradition , founded by Ajahn Mun (1870–1949) and his students. Theravāda Buddhism in Cambodia and Laos went through similar experiences in
8008-418: The main cause was a doctrinal issue. They blame a figure named Mahadeva with arguing for five divisive points, four of which see arhatship as a lesser kind of spiritual attainment (which still has ignorance and desire). Andrew Skilton has suggested that the problems of contradictory accounts about the first schism are solved by the Mahāsāṃghika Śāriputraparipṛcchā , which is the earliest surviving account of
8112-534: The main dominant Buddhist variant found in Laos and Thailand . It is practiced by minorities in India , Bangladesh , China , Nepal , North Korea , Vietnam , the Philippines , Indonesia , Malaysia , and Taiwan . The diaspora of all of these groups, as well as converts around the world, also embrace and practice Theravāda Buddhism. During the modern era, new developments have included Buddhist modernism ,
8216-468: The material in the earlier portions is not specifically "Theravādan", but the collection of teachings that this school's adherents preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey , while the Theravādans may have added texts to their Tipiṭaka (such as the Abhidhamma texts and so on), they generally did not tamper with the earlier material. The historically later parts of
8320-462: The matter of dispute was indeed a matter of vinaya, and have noted that the account of the Mahāsāṃghikas is bolstered by the vinaya texts themselves, as vinayas associated with the Sthaviras do contain more rules than those of the Mahāsāṃghika vinaya. Modern scholarship therefore generally agrees that the Mahāsāṃghika vinaya is the oldest. According to Skilton, future historians may determine that
8424-634: The modern era. Both had to endure French colonialism, destructive civil wars and oppressive communist governments. Under French Rule , French indologists of the École française d'Extrême-Orient became involved in the reform of Buddhism, setting up institutions for the training of Cambodian and Lao monks, such as the Ecole de Pali which was founded in Phnom Penh in 1914 . While the Khmer Rouge effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions, after
8528-500: The necessity of contemporaneous buddhas throughout the ten directions. It is thought that the doctrine of contemporaneous buddhas was already old and well established by the time of early Mahāyāna texts such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra , due to the clear presumptions of this doctrine. The Mahāsāṃghikas held that the teachings of the Buddha were to be understood as having two principal levels of truth:
8632-416: The non-substantiality of the basic elements of existence ( dharma - śūnyatā ) belongs to the Mahāsāṃghikas. Every branch of these clearly drew the distinction between the mundane and the ultimate, came to emphasize the non-ultimacy of the mundane and thus facilitated the fixing of attention on the ultimate. Some Mahāsāṃghikas held a theory of self-awareness or self-cognition ( svasaṃvedana ) which held that
8736-628: The north of India. The Mahāsāṃghikas and the Lokottaravāda subschool also had centres in the Gandhara region. The Ekavyāvahārika are not known from later times. The Caitika branch was based in the Coastal Andhra region and especially at Amarāvati and Nāgārjunakoṇḍā . This Caitika branch included the Pūrvaśailas, Aparaśailas, Rājagirikas, and the Siddhārthikas. Finally, Madhyadesa
8840-531: The origin of the Mahāsāṃghikas to the Second Buddhist council . Traditions regarding the Second Council are confusing and ambiguous, but it is agreed that the overall result was the first schism in the Sangha between the Sthavira nikāya and the Mahāsāṃghika nikāya, although it is not agreed upon by all what the cause of this split was. According to Jan Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, the best date for
8944-492: The other Early Buddhist schools as well as by Mahayana traditions . They include central concepts such as: The orthodox standpoints of Theravāda in comparison to other Buddhist schools are presented in the Kathāvatthu ("Points of Controversy"), as well as in other works by later commentators like Buddhaghosa. Traditionally, the Theravāda maintains the following key doctrinal positions, though not all Theravādins agree with
9048-440: The overall structure is the same). These differences arose from the systematization and historical development of doctrines and monasticism in the centuries after the death of the Buddha. The Abhidhamma-pitaka contains "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalized language." Its texts present a new method, the Abhidhamma method, which attempts to build a single consistent philosophical system (in contrast with
9152-471: The practicalities of insight meditation and leaves ontology "relatively unexplored". Ronkin does note however that later Theravāda sub-commentaries ( ṭīkā ) do show a doctrinal shift towards ontological realism from the earlier epistemic and practical concerns. On the other hand, Y. Karunadasa contends that the tradition of realism goes back to the earliest discourses, as opposed to developing only in later Theravada sub-commentaries: If we base ourselves on
9256-528: The reign of Ashoka , which saw a period of Buddhist missionary activity. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom for religious texts in those days) for some centuries, the texts were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. Theravāda is one of the first Buddhist schools to commit its Tipiṭaka to writing. The recension of the Tipiṭaka which survives today is that of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara sect. The oldest manuscripts of
9360-522: The reign of Kalashoka . The Mahāsāṃghika nikāya developed into numerous sects which spread throughout ancient India . Some scholars think that the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya ( monastic rule ) represents the oldest Buddhist monastic source. While the Mahāsāṃghika tradition is no longer in existence, many scholars look to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition as an early source for some ideas that were later adopted by Mahāyāna Buddhism . Some of these ideas include
9464-599: The reign of Rama VII (1925–35). There is also a Khmer edition, published in Phnom Penh (1931–69). The Pāli Tipitaka consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka , Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka . Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the collection, its composition dating from around the 3rd century BCE onwards. The Pāli Abhidhamma was not recognized outside
9568-709: The robes were the endless knot (Skt. śrīvatsa ) and the conch shell (Skt. śaṅkha ), two of the Eight Auspicious Signs in Buddhism. The Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub (1290–1364) wrote that the Mahāsāṃghikas used Prākrit , the Sarvāstivādins Sanskrit, the Sthaviravādins used Paiśācī and the Saṃmitīya used Apabhraṃśa . An important source for the doctrines of the Mahāsāṃghika
9672-515: The schism. In this account, the council was convened at Pāṭaliputra over matters of vinaya , and it is explained that the schism resulted from the majority (Mahāsaṃgha) refusing to accept the addition of rules to the Vinaya by a smaller group of elders (Sthaviras). The Mahāsāṃghikas therefore saw the Sthaviras as being a breakaway group which was attempting to modify the original Vinaya and to make it more strict. Scholars have generally agreed that
9776-515: The spread of Theravāda Buddhism around the world and the revival of the religion in places where it remains a minority faith. Some of the major events of the spread of modern Theravāda include: According to Kate Crosby, for Theravāda, the Pāli Tipiṭaka , also known as the Pāli Canon is "the highest authority on what constitutes the Dhamma (the truth or teaching of the Buddha) and the organization of
9880-433: The sutra passage which the Mahāsāṃghikas drew on to defend it. The passage is quoted by Vasumitra as: The self-nature of the mind ( cittasvabhāva ) is luminous ( prabhāsvara ). It is the adventitious impurities ( āgantukopakleśa ) that defile it. The self substance of the mind is eternally pure. The commentary to Vasumitra by Kuiji adds the following: "It is because afflictions ( kleśa) are produced which soil it that it
9984-464: The suttas, called matikas. There are numerous Theravāda works which are important for the tradition even though they are not part of the Tipiṭaka. Perhaps the most important texts apart from the Tipiṭaka are the works of the influential scholar Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century CE), known for his Pāli commentaries (which were based on older Sri Lankan commentaries of the Mahavihara tradition). He
10088-465: The suttas, which present numerous teachings given by the Buddha to particular individuals according to their needs). Because the Abhidhamma focuses on analyzing the internal lived experience of beings and the intentional structure of consciousness, it has often been compared to a kind of phenomenological psychology by numerous modern scholars such as Nyanaponika , Bhikkhu Bodhi and Alexander Piatigorsky . The Theravāda school has traditionally held
10192-817: The tales' details. Other parts of the Mahāvastu have more direct parallels in the Pali Canon including from the Digha Nikaya ( DN 19, Mahāgovinda Sutta ), the Majjhima Nikaya ( MN 26, Ariyapariyesana Sutta ; and, MN 36, Mahasaccaka Sutta ), the Khuddakapātha , the Dhammapada (ch. 8, Sahassa Vagga ; and, ch. 25, Bhikkhu Vagga ), the Sutta Nipata ( Sn 1.3, Khaggavisā ṇ a Sutta ; Sn 3.1, Pabbajjā Sutta ; and, Sn 3.2, Padhāna Sutta ),
10296-462: The tathāgatas is unlimited, and the life of the buddhas is unlimited." According to Guang Xing, two main aspects of the Buddha can be seen in Mahāsāṃghika teachings: the true Buddha who is omniscient and omnipotent, and the manifested forms through which he liberates sentient beings through his skillful means (Skt. upāya ). For the Mahāsāṃghikas, the historical Gautama Buddha was merely one of these transformation bodies (Skt. nirmāṇakāya ), while
10400-608: The traditional point of view: Theravāda scholastics developed a systematic exposition of the Buddhist doctrine called the Abhidhamma . In the Pāli Nikayas, the Buddha teaches through an analytical method in which experience is explained using various conceptual groupings of physical and mental processes, which are called "dhammas". Examples of lists of dhammas taught by the Buddha include the twelve sense 'spheres' or ayatanas ,
10504-471: The view that the Buddha was a fully transcendent being (term " lokottaravada ", "transcendentalism"), the idea that there are many contemporaneous Buddhas and bodhisattvas throughout the universe, the doctrine of the inherent purity and luminosity of the mind ( Skt: prakṛtiś cittasya prabhāsvarā ), the doctrine of reflexive awareness ( svasamvedana ) and the doctrine of prajñapti-matra (absolute nominalism or pure conceptualism). Most sources place
10608-455: Was first published in the West in an editio princeps by Émile Senart between 1882 and 1897. This edition is in a language which has been termed Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit . The text is a composite one which includes past life narratives, stories of previous Buddhas , stories of Gautama Buddha 's final life, embedded early Buddhist sutras and two prologues ( nidānas ). Over half of the text
10712-720: Was home to the Prajñaptivādins . The ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Krishna Valley , including Amarāvati, Nāgārjunakoṇḍā and Jaggayyapeṭa , "can be traced to at least the third century BCE, if not earlier." The cave temples at the Ajaṇṭā Caves , the Ellora Caves , and the Karla Caves are associated with the Mahāsāṃghikas. Between 148 and 170 CE, the Parthian monk An Shigao came to China and translated
10816-641: Was king Mindon Min (1808–1878), known for his patronage of the Fifth Buddhist council (1871) and the Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda (still the world's largest book) with the intention of preserving the Buddha Dhamma. Burma also saw the growth of the " Vipassana movement ", which focused on reviving Buddhist meditation and doctrinal learning . Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) was one of the key figures in this movement. After independence, Myanmar held
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