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114-772: British-Polish historian Norman Davies summarized the situation: "the German army was supporting the Lithuanian nationalists, the Soviets were supporting the Lithuanian communists and the Polish Army was fighting them all." In mid-May, the Lithuanian army, now commanded by General Silvestras Žukauskas , began an offensive against the Soviets in Northeastern Lithuania. By mid-June, the Lithuanians reached

228-475: A tenured faculty position in 1986 (on an 11 against, 10 for and 1 abstaining, vote). The decision was described as "the closest, most acrimonious tenure decision of recent years". After failing to arrange a formal review hearing of the decision, Davies filed a lawsuit against History Professor Harold Kahn and 29 other Stanford professors. This case was dismissed when Davies was unable to depose Kahn. Davies subsequently sought to obtain $ 3 million in damages from

342-521: A Bolshevik counterattack, carried out on May 21. However, the Soviets left Panevėžys without a fight two days later. The Group charged towards Kupiškis and secured Subačius . On May 30, Joniškėlis' partisans broke through the Soviet lines and liberated Rokiškis in Soviet rear; Bolshevik forces, afraid that they could be encircled, left Kupiškis on the night of May 30–31, and Lithuania secured that city on June 1. After Utena's liberation, Saxon Volunteers left

456-518: A Red Army division from neighbouring Latvia. The Bolshevik morale underwent deeper declines and, between March 19 and March 24, their forces left Panevėžys. Lithuanian forces entered the city on March 26, but the Red Army retook it on April 4. The lull between Soviet attacks was used to strengthen and organize the army. On March 5, Lithuanians announced the mobilization of men born in 1887–1889. Lithuanian forces rapidly increased their numbers. By May 3,

570-400: A Russian officer in Lithuanian service, Lithuanians, together with German support, ultimately won on February 13 and liberated Jieznas. The Soviets continued to push for Kaunas. The 3rd and 4th Rifle Regiments (about 2,000 men) attacked Alytus on February 12. Germans did not engage in battle and retreated; not yet fully formed Lithuanian 1st Infantry Regiment could not withstand pressure from

684-722: A common military commander. Later, more units were sent from Russia. The Soviets also recruited partisan groups behind the front lines. Soviet soldiers were poorly supplied and relied on requisitioning food, horses, and clothes from locals. Lithuania could not offer serious resistance as at the time its army consisted only of about 3,000 untrained volunteers. Only local partisans, armed with weapons acquired from retreating Germans, offered brief resistance. Red Army captured one town after another: Zarasai and Švenčionys (Dec. 22), Utena (Dec. 23), Rokiškis and Vilnius (Jan. 5), Ukmergė and Panevėžys (Jan. 9), Šiauliai (Jan. 15), Telšiai (Jan. 25). That accounted for about 2 ⁄ 3 of

798-415: A day later and offered the dictatorial powers to Sleževičius. While refusing to assume dictatorship, Sleževičius agreed to take over as the prime minister, on the condition that his government be granted full legislative powers. The council agreed and officially dissolved the cabinet of Voldemeras on 26 December 1918, after the resignation of its ministers, appointing Sleževičius in his stead. His first term

912-584: A defensive position. This break allowed Lithuanians to better organize and train the volunteers. Northern Lithuania ( Samogitia ) was overtaken by the Soviet International Division (about 3,000 men). Its objective was to reach the Baltic Sea and cut off German supplies to Latvians in their war against the Soviets . Local communists were more active in northern Lithuania as the shortest route for Russian prisoners to return to Russia

1026-471: A difficult time: the fledgling Lithuanian state with no significant armed forces was threatened by the approaching Bolshevik army and General Kyprian Kandratovich , who was the Deputy Minister of Defense, failed to take measures to organize the defense of the country and proposed to move the government to Grodno . Prime Minister Augustinas Voldemaras , who had been appointed just a month before, and

1140-572: A fee. Mobilization of officers was announced only on January 25; about 400 people responded. In Berlin, Smetona and Yčas signed a loan agreement with Germany for 100 million marks . The money was used primarily to build and supply the army. They further negotiated direct German support in the war against the Soviets. Article 12 of the Compiègne Armistice required the Germans to protect Lithuania from possible Soviet attacks, but Germany

1254-616: A history of Wrocław / Breslau, a Silesian city. Titled Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European City , the book was published simultaneously in English, Polish and German, and was later translated into Czech, French and Italian. Davies also writes essays and articles for the mass media. Among others, he has worked for the BBC as well as British and American magazines and newspapers, such as The Times , The New York Review of Books and The Independent . In Poland, his articles appeared in

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1368-524: A joint operation to take Giedraičiai on May 9. The Lithuanian army's chain of command was reformed. On May 7, General Žukauskas assumed command of the entire Lithuanian army and initiated a complete reorganization of the Lithuanian forces into two groups. The first brigade, stationed in Ukmergė, was called the Vilkmergė Group and included a battalion of Saxon Volunteers. Its first commander Kazys Ladiga

1482-445: A library, organized lectures and concerts, and staged over 50 plays. Sleževičius directed several of them, with his staging of Juliusz Słowacki 's "Mindaugas" (1908) and Vincas Nagornockis' "Živilė" (1909) particularly well received. Sleževičius edited several newspapers ( Bendrija , Lietuvos ūkininkas , Lietuvos žinios ) and contributed to others ( Varpas ). He also translated a number of dramas into Lithuanian language and initiated

1596-570: A military campaign against the Soviets but also as the right of self-determination of local Poles, who formed a significant minority in eastern Lithuania. Lithuanians claimed Vilnius as their historical capital and opposed to any federation with Poland, desiring an independent national Lithuanian state. The Lithuanian government in Kaunas saw the Polish presence in Vilnius as an occupation. In addition to

1710-519: A new front line with Poland was open. At first, both Poles and Lithuanians cooperated against the Soviets, but soon the cooperation gave way to increasing hostility. The first clashes between Polish and Lithuanian soldiers occurred on April 26 and May 8 near Vievis . Poland did not recognize Lithuania as its Chief of State Józef Piłsudski wanted a union with Lithuania in hopes of reviving the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (see Międzymorze federation). Poland justified its actions not only as part of

1824-467: A new government. On December 29, he issued the first mass appeal in four languages calling for volunteers for the Lithuanian Army. Sleževičius' government adopted a new policy on land reform, which could be summarized in a slogan "land for those who cultivate it." It meant the land would be taken from large landowners and redistributed first to the volunteers for free and then to small peasants for

1938-413: A possible coup the following night, but Sleževičius did not take any actions. On the evening of 17 December 1926, during the 60th birthday celebrations for President Grinius, the military executed a coup d'état, taking over central military and government offices and arresting officials. Colonel Povilas Plechavičius invited Smetona, a Nationalist who had been aware of the coup beforehand, to take over as

2052-565: A revolutionary government was formed from members of the Communist Party of Lithuania , chaired by Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas . On December 16, the revolutionary government declared the establishment of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic . Between 31 December 1918 and 1 January 1919, the German garrison withdrew from Vilnius and passed authority over the city to a local Polish committee, against

2166-650: Is of Welsh descent. He studied in Grenoble , France, from 1957 to 1958 and then under A. J. P. Taylor at Magdalen College , Oxford , where he earned a BA in history in 1962. He was awarded an MA at the University of Sussex in 1966 and also studied in Perugia , Italy. Davies intended to study for a PhD in the Soviet Union but was denied an entry visa, so he went to Kraków , Poland, instead. Davies studied at

2280-590: The Battle of Warsaw and were pushed back by the Poles. Some historians credit this victory for saving Lithuania's independence from the Soviet coup. On August 26, the Red Army left Vilnius and Lithuanians prepared to defend their borders. As Poland did not recognize the treaty, this led to further hostilities. Eventually, Lithuania lost the Vilnius Region to Poland during the Żeligowski's Mutiny . When mediation by

2394-892: The Bolsheviks , encumbered with the Russian Civil War , sued for peace with the Central Powers and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . They renounced Russian claims to Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine, Lithuania and Poland. However, the Lithuanians were only allowed minimal autonomy and could not establish de facto independence. That changed when Germany lost the war and signed the Compiègne Armistice of 11 November 1918 . Lithuania soon began organizing basic institutions and established its first government led by Augustinas Voldemaras . On November 13, 1918,

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2508-586: The Daugava River . By August 31, on the southern shore of the Daugava, the Soviet held only Grīva, a suburb of Daugavpils. The Bolshevik enemy was driven out from the Lithuanian territory and the narrow front stabilized as Lithuanians and Soviets were separated by the Daugava River. The Lithuanian main forces could be redeployed elsewhere, including protection of the demarcation line with Poland and

2622-912: The Jagiellonian University (since 2003), Lublin , Gdańsk and Warsaw (since 2007), memberships in the Polish Academy of Learning (PAU), the Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea , and the International Honorary Council of the European Academy of Diplomacy, and fellowships of the British Academy and the Royal Historical Society . Davies received an honorary DLitt degree from his alma mater

2736-587: The Jagiellonian University and did research on the Polish–Soviet War . As this war was denied in the official communist Polish historiography of that time, he was obliged to change the title of his dissertation to The British Foreign Policy towards Poland, 1919–20 . After he obtained his PhD in Kraków in 1968, the English text was published in 1972 under the title White Eagle, Red Star. The Polish–Soviet War 1919–20 . From 1971, Davies taught Polish history at

2850-644: The Latvian border and cornered the Soviets among lakes and hills near Zarasai , where the Soviets held out until the end of August 1919. The Soviets and Lithuanians, separated by the Daugava River, maintained their fronts until the Battle of Daugavpils in January 1920. As early as September 1919, the Soviets offered to negotiate a peace treaty, but talks began only in May 1920. The Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty

2964-533: The League of Nations failed to change the situation, Lithuania and Poland were suspended in the state of "no war, no peace" until the Polish ultimatum of 1938 . During all this time, Soviet Russia became Lithuania's strongest ally against Poland. Norman Davies Ivor Norman Richard Davies CMG FBA FRHistS (born 8 June 1939) is a British and Polish historian, known for his publications on

3078-616: The Peasant Union , another breakaway from LDP. Later in 1920, after an armed conflict between Poland and Lithuania erupted, Sleževičius was elected the chairman of the Lithuanian Defense Committee ( Vyriausias Lietuvos gynimo komitetas ), tasked with organizing and supporting the armed forces. Even without a position on the government, Sleževičius remained an influential politician. According to prominent inter-war lawyer Michał Pius Römer , in 1921 Sleževičius

3192-554: The School of Slavonic and East European Studies , where he was professor from 1985 to 1996, when he retired. He subsequently became Supernumerary Fellow at Wolfson College, Oxford , from 1997 to 2006. Throughout his career, Davies has lectured in many countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, China, Poland and in most of the rest of Europe as well. Stanford University 's history department denied Davies

3306-682: The history of Europe , Poland and the United Kingdom . He has a special interest in Central and Eastern Europe and is UNESCO Professor at the Jagiellonian University , professor emeritus at University College London , a visiting professor at the Collège d'Europe , and an honorary fellow at St Antony's College, Oxford . He was granted Polish citizenship in 2014. Davies was born to Richard and Elizabeth Davies in Bolton , Lancashire . He

3420-539: The 13th cabinet. The government started work on 15 July 1926. Sleževičius was also the minister of justice and the acting minister of foreign affairs on the coalition cabinet with the Social Democratic Party of Lithuania . The coalition cabinet took important steps in normalizing the situation in Lithuania. The martial law, still in effect in Kaunas and some other locations since the independence,

3534-809: The 20th Regiment was stationed in Gardinas and then in Kėdainiai ; the separate battalion joined the Bermontians . The Baltische Landeswehr , led by General Rüdiger von der Goltz , organized a coup against the Latvian government and captured Riga . On May 23, the Paris Peace Conference , reacting to these events, asked Germany to withdraw its troops from both Latvia and Lithuania as soon as local forces could defend themselves. The last Saxon Volunteers left Lithuania in mid-July. On 8 December 1918,

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3648-566: The 46th Saxon Volunteer Division. On February 22, Lieutenant-General Walter von Eberhardt became its commander. In April–May, German forces were reorganized into the South Lithuania Volunteer Brigade, composed of three regiments, (18th, 19th, and 20th) and a separate battalion in Raseiniai . The 18th Regiment fought alongside Lithuanians; the 19th Regiment guarded the Kaunas area and did not participate in battle;

3762-733: The Allied Supreme Council drew the first demarcation line on June 18, 1919. The line was drawn several kilometres west of the Saint Petersburg–Warsaw railway . Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs rejected it as it required the Polish forces to retreat up to 30–35 km (19–22 mi); Lithuanians were discontent as well, as it left Vilnius and Gardinas under Polish control. As German volunteers were departing from Lithuania (their last units left Kaunas in mid-July), Poland mounted an offensive on 100 km (62 mi) wide front moving 20–30 km (12–19 mi) deeper into

3876-566: The Bolsheviks to Kuršėnai . On February 27, 1919, German volunteers supported by Plechavičius' partisans and Joniškėlis' partisans, defeated the Samogitian Regiment in a battle near Luokė . The regiment disbanded. Before mid-March, the Germans took Kuršėnai, Šiauliai, Radviliškis, Šeduva , Joniškis and stopped. On few occasions, they were aided by Lithuanian partisans and regular units. Joniškėlis' partisans continued to guard

3990-553: The Bolsheviks towards East Prussia worried Germany, and they sent volunteers ( Brigade Schaulen ) commanded by General Rüdiger von der Goltz to free a section of the Libau–Romny Railway line linking Liepāja , Mažeikiai , Radviliškis , and Kėdainiai . It was part of a larger counter-offensive in Latvia. At the end of February, the Lithuanian partisans, supported by German artillery, liberated Mažeikiai and Seda , and pursued

4104-403: The Bolsheviks. The Soviets gathered their forces from calmer fronts and forced Lithuanians to retreat to their former positions. While Lithuanian forces battled the Soviets in northeastern Lithuania, the tension between Poland and Lithuania grew. Direct negotiations between May 28 and June 11, 1919, collapsed as neither side was inclined to compromise. Trying to prevent a direct military conflict,

4218-602: The Chairman of the Council of Lithuania Antanas Smetona left Lithuania for Germany on 20 and 21 December 1918, respectively, in an action that many within the country perceived as fleeing. Stasys Šilingas , who was one of only two remaining members of the Council of Lithuania, declared his assumption of dictatorial powers on 22 December 1918, but failed to win support of the military officers, who demanded his resignation just

4332-713: The German army occupied Lithuania in 1915, Sleževičius left for Russia. Sleževičius remained active with the Lithuanian community, participating in the activities of the Lithuanian Society to Help Those Suffering from War, touring Russia as its representative. In 1917, Sleževičius, together with Felicija Bortkevičienė and other allies, broke away from the LDP to form the Lithuanian Popular Socialist Democratic Party . In 1917, Sleževičius, together with Kazys Grinius , joined

4446-750: The Grand Cross (1st class) of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland . Finally, on 11 November 2012, Davies was decorated with the Order of the White Eagle , Poland's highest civilian award. In 2001, Davies was made a companion of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George for service to Central European history. Davies has been appointed to the advisory board of the European Association of History Educators —EUROCLIO. In 2008, he

4560-473: The Group launched an attack on Utena. The initiative was met by a Soviet counterattack and the Lithuanian forces retreated. Further attacks were stopped for several days to wait for the results of the advance on Kupiškis. The drive towards Utena resumed on May 31, and the city was secured on June 2. The Panevėžys Group launched a drive towards Panevėžys on May 18 and secured the city the following day, but lost it to

4674-526: The Lithuanian Council of Lawyers. Sleževičius was an avid theater lover. Already in Odessa he established a cultural society Rūta which was one of the centers of Lithuanian cultural life in the city. After returning to Lithuania, Sleževičius took part in establishing a cultural society of the same name in Vilnius, acting as its secretary. The society was active between 1908 and 1918 and operated

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4788-636: The Lithuanian SSR was incorporated into the Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia or Litbel. In the occupied territory the Soviets created revolutionary committees and soviets based on structures developed in Russia. Unlike elsewhere, Lithuanian communist organizations were young and had not yet developed a network of supporting local councils. They nationalized commercial institutions and large estates. The land

4902-605: The Lithuanian government (August 28–29). Due to the threat from Poland, the front with the Soviets was quiet for more than a month. There were minor incidents involving scouts or outpost guards. The Red Army used the time to reorganize and strengthen their forces, using natural barriers, like plentiful lakes, rivers, and hills, enhanced with trenches and barbed wires, to secure their position. They also had field fortifications from World War I about 10 km (6.2 mi) south of Daugavpils . The Soviets had larger forces: Lithuanians had two infantry regiments and five separate battalions;

5016-559: The Lithuanian nationalist cause. He was also involved in a number of cultural and religious activities, organizing courses, concerts and plays, and arranging for religious mass in Lithuanian language. Sleževičius took part in the Russian Revolution of 1905 , maintaining public order together with other volunteers. That same year, he represented Odessa Lithuanians in the Great Seimas of Vilnius and started contributing to

5130-481: The Lithuanian territory on December 12, 1918. About 5,000 of them were Lithuanians. Three divisions were employed: Pskov Division (later renamed as the Lithuanian Division), International Division (later renamed as the 2nd Latvian Rifle Division; included 39th, 41st, 47th, and 60th Regiments), and 17th Division (later renamed as Western Division ; included 5th Vilnius Regiment). The divisions did not have

5244-538: The Lithuanian territory. Preoccupied with the Soviet threat, Lithuania could not organize an effective defence and the Entente intervened again by drawing the second demarcation line, known as the Foch Line , on July 26, 1919. Two major modifications were made: Suwałki Region was assigned to Poland and the entire line was moved about 7 km (4.3 mi) west. Neither Lithuanians, Poles, nor Germans (still present in

5358-547: The Lithuanian territory. The front somewhat stabilized when Soviet forces were stopped near the Venta River by Latvian and German units ( Baltische Landeswehr ). Also, Germans slowed down the withdrawal of their troops after the Spartacist uprising was subdued on January 12. Southern Lithuania was a little better protected as Germans retreated from Ukraine through Gardinas. To prevent fights between retreating Germans and

5472-402: The Lithuanians in the fight against Bolsheviks, eventually pushing them back. The government had wide-ranging powers, proclaiming laws when the Council of Lithuania was not in session. However, these powers brought the government into conflict with the Council. After disagreements, particularly with Šilingas, Sleževičius resigned from his post on 12 March 1919. Just two weeks later, Sleževičius

5586-425: The Polish proposal, Józef Piłsudski decided that further military action was not a solution. Instead, the Lithuanian government itself needed to be replaced by a party more willing to negotiate a compromise. The front stabilized, but bilateral relations worsened in the aftermath of the Sejny Uprising (August 23 – September 9) which in turn ruined the attempted coup d'état by the Polish Military Organisation against

5700-431: The Polish units or the Panevėžys Group. The Panevėžys Group began advancing on August 26 and Polish troops moved along the railroad towards Turmantas . The Lithuanians manoeuvred around the old Russian fortifications, forcing the Red Army to retreat. Converging on Daugavpils, the Lithuanian–Soviet front shortened and the Lithuanians were able to concentrate their forces. On August 28, the Soviets began retreating north across

5814-422: The Red Army and had to retreat towards Marijampolė and Prienai. Antanas Juozapavičius , the first Lithuanian officer to die in the wars, was killed during this battle. On the night of February 14–15, German forces and one company of the Lithuanians returned to Alytus and once more liberated the city. Kaunas was defended and the front stabilized for a while. Soviets were ordered to abandon the offensive and maintain

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5928-490: The Red Army, the Soviets and Germans signed a treaty on January 18. The treaty drew a temporary demarcation line that went through Daugai , Stakliškės , and 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) east of the Kaišiadorys – Jonava – Kėdainiai railway. That barred Bolshevik forces from directly attacking Kaunas , Lithuania's second-largest city. The Red Army would need to encircle Kaunas and attack through Alytus or Kėdainiai . The operation to take Kaunas began on February 7. Kėdainiai

6042-459: The Soviet Russian government renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which had assured Lithuania's independence. The Bolshevik Western Army followed retreating German troops maintaining a distance of 10–15 kilometres (6.2–9.3 mi) between the two armies. Demoralized Germans often left valuable armaments and other equipment to the Soviets. The Soviets attempted to spread the global proletarian revolution and sought to establish Soviet republics in

6156-417: The Soviets had six regiments and one separate battalion. Together, the Lithuanians and the Poles planned to advance to Daugavpils starting August 9, but the plans were delayed until August 23. The Ukmergė Group attacked first and liberated Zarasai on August 25. The Group moved about 30 km (19 mi) into the Soviet-controlled territory, but neither the right nor left flanks were adequately protected by

6270-539: The Soviets in March 1919. They pushed east and north, entering Vilnius Region , the territory claimed by Lithuanians. Between April 19 and 21, Poles captured Vilnius during the Vilna offensive and by May secured their positions. The Polish army forced the Soviets to withdraw their left wing from the territories south of the Neris River . This Polish advance significantly shortened the Lithuanian–Soviet front line and allowed Lithuania to concentrate its forces for operations in northeastern Lithuania. However, it also meant that

6384-399: The Suwałki Region) were content with the new demarcation line. Between July 29 and August 2, Polish troops attacked Lithuanians several times. On August 3, a Polish diplomatic mission in Kaunas declared that Poland has no plans to annex Lithuania and proposed a plebiscite in the contested territories, allowing local inhabitants to determine their future. When the Lithuanian government rejected

6498-435: The Ukrainian Orthodox liturgy . Polish journalist Jan Wróbel called Davies a "liberal Catholic and open-minded patriot". Mykolas Sle%C5%BEevi%C4%8Dius Mykolas Sleževičius (21 February 1882 – 11 November 1939) was a Lithuanian lawyer, political and cultural figure, and journalist. One of the most influential figures in inter-war Lithuania, he served as the prime minister of Lithuania on three occasions. Taking

6612-402: The University of Sussex. Davies is also an honorary citizen of Polish cities of Warsaw , Wrocław , Lublin , and Kraków , and a member of the committee for the Order of the Smile . Edward Bernard Raczyński , President of the Polish government-in-exile , decorated Davies with the Order of Polonia Restituta . On 22 December 1998 President of Poland Aleksander Kwaśniewski awarded him

6726-467: The Vilnius Region, the nearby Suwałki Region was also disputed. The Polish–Lithuanian relations were not immediately hostile but grew worse as each side refused to compromise. Polish advances against the Soviets necessitated changes in Lithuanian strategy. On April 26, General Silvestras Žukauskas , who just recovered from typhus , was designated Chief of the General Staff . He decided to mount an offensive in northeastern Lithuania. The first objective

6840-447: The activities of his party but never again regained his previous influence. Mykolas Sleževičius was born on 21 February 1882 in Drembliai village in Kovno Governorate of the Russian Empire (now part of Raseiniai district municipality , Lithuania ). He was the oldest of two brothers, with Kazimieras Sleževičius, who would grow up to become a geophysicist, born in 1890. That same year, their father, Feliksas Sleževičius died. Despite

6954-479: The beginning of January, but quite a few of them were judged unfit for duty and sent back. By the end of January, German volunteers numbered 4,000. They were unreliable, as the German Revolution increased the popularity of the Spartacus League and Soviet causes. There were several attempts at a coup against the Lithuanian government. These volunteers were stationed in and around Kaunas: Alytus , Jonava , Kėdainiai , and Baisogala . At first, they were organized into

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7068-411: The border issue was successfully mediated by Britain and finally resolved in March 1921. The first Lithuanian–Soviet attempt at negotiations took place on 11 September 1919, after the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of Soviet Russia, Georgy Chicherin , sent a note with a proposal for a peace treaty . However, Lithuania delayed the talks as it feared that negotiations with communist Russia, which

7182-410: The budget for 1927. Cuts to the military were also part of the proposed budget. This, together with the alleged inability of the government to tackle the perceived communist threat and the dismissal of many conservative military officers, alienated the military establishment. Preparations for the coup began in November 1926. In the evening of 16 December, a Soviet diplomat informed Sleževičius about

7296-467: The early death of his father, and with the support from his aunt and uncle, Mykolas Sleževičius left for studies in Jelgava (then known as Mitau), graduating from the Jelgava Gymnasium in 1901. After failing to get accepted to the Riga Polytechnicum (now Riga Technical University ), he started studying law at the Odessa University in 1902. While in Odessa, Sleževičius became politically involved, with Juozas Gabrys taking credit for converting him to

7410-524: The end of December, with the Bolsheviks already in the country, Lithuania was left leaderless. Augustinas Voldemaras , Antanas Smetona , Chairman of the Council of Lithuania, and Martynas Yčas , minister of finance, departed for Germany to ask for financial assistance. General Kiprijonas Kundratavičius , vice minister of defense, suggested a retreat to Gardinas and refused to command the Lithuanian defense. The first cabinet of ministers resigned on December 26, 1918. Mykolas Sleževičius stepped in and organized

7524-432: The entire term. His coalition cabinet, the fourth in Lithuania, established a volunteer army, which became the Lithuanian Armed Forces , and took actions to thwart the aims of the Polish nationalist organization, the Polska Organizacja Wojskowa (POW). The cabinet also laid the foundations for the Lithuanian state institutions, in the areas of government, finance, law and municipalities. Sleževičius' government also prepared

7638-413: The events, Sleževičius left to seek treatment abroad and did not return to work in the Seimas before its dissolution. On 3 January 1927, his resignation from the Central Committee of LVLS was accepted. Kazys Škirpa (LVLS) commented that the "violence of 17 December suddenly parted M. Sleževičius from any kind of political activity, as if he had been euthanized as a political persona". The activities, or

7752-426: The first draft of the land reform, which acted as a key instrument of national defense by promising land in return for military service, aiding the recruitment of personnel to the armed forces. After the resignation of right-wing members of the government and political maneuvering from Voldemaras and Martynas Yčas, the government collapsed and Sleževičius resigned on 7 October 1919. Sleževičius declined to take part in

7866-425: The front along the Mūša River. They were later incorporated into regular Lithuanian military. As the Soviet forces were stopped, the Lithuanian army slowly began preparing itself for an offensive. After the Battle of Kėdainiai, the Panevėžys volunteer regiment had secured its positions and grew in strength. Between mid-February and end of March, it carried out small expeditions into nearby towns. Their main purpose

7980-501: The front and by mid-July departed Lithuania. However, Lithuanian advance continued and, on June 10, Lithuanian forces reached the territory controlled by Latvian partisans (Green Guard) and supplied them with munitions. On June 12, the Soviets counterattacked and Lithuanians were stopped. Another Soviet push came on June 20 and the front stabilized. The Soviets were cornered in a small region around Zarasai . Between July 6 and 12, Lithuanians with some Latvian assistance attempted to drive out

8094-434: The helm of the government at a difficult time in 1918 and again in 1919, Sleževičius has been credited with preparing Lithuania for the fights to come and for laying the foundations of the fledgling state. Sleževičius was elected to the Lithuanian parliament, initially the Constituent Assembly , later the Seimas , on four occasions. In 1926, as a representative of the Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union , Sleževičius became

8208-514: The islands of Great Britain and Ireland, respectively. Each book is a narrative interlarded with numerous sidepanel discussions of microtopics. In 2000, Davies' Polish publishers Znak published a collection of his essays and articles under the title Smok wawelski nad Tamizą ("The Wawel Dragon on the Thames "). In 2002, at the suggestion of the city's mayor, Bogdan Zdrojewski , Davies and his former research assistant, Roger Moorhouse , co-wrote

8322-475: The lack of activities, of Sleževičius and Grinius during the coup would come under intense criticism during the following years of authoritarian rule. Only in January 1929 did Sleževičius return to the activities of LVLS, making a speech in front of the party assembly defending his actions during the coup and placing the blame for the coup on the Christian Democrats. Sleževičius argued that resigning

8436-466: The liberal Catholic weekly Tygodnik Powszechny . Davies' book Rising '44 . The Battle for Warsaw describes the Warsaw Uprising . It was followed by Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory (2006). In 2008 Davies participated in the documentary film The Soviet Story . Davies holds a number of honorary titles and memberships, including honorary doctorates from the universities of

8550-535: The list of literature Nobel Prize candidates. The information was announced during author's meeting in Gniezno , Poland. Davies disagrees with the historical policy of the Law and Justice party . He stated in 2017 that "PiS wants to politicize history to a degree unseen in the last 25 years". Davies himself argues that "Holocaust scholars need have no fears that rational comparisons might threaten that uniqueness. Quite

8664-585: The newspaper Lietuvos ūkininkas . After receiving a law degree in 1907, Sleževičius returned to Lithuania and joined the Lithuanian Democratic Party (LDP). For the following five years, he practiced the legal profession, participated in cultural activities (particularly in theater performances of the Rūta Society ) and served as the chief editor of Lietuvos ūkininkas (1907–12), and another newspaper Lietuvos žinios (1910–12). When

8778-436: The official headcount reached 440 officers and 10,729 privates. However, only about half of them were properly trained, armed, and assigned to military units. In February–April, Lithuanian soldiers were actively undergoing training, the chain of command was streamlined, new military units formed. Lithuania also received new shipments of arms and munitions. Soldiers received first uniforms. The first organized Lithuanian offensive

8892-569: The opposite." and that "one needs to re-construct mentally the fuller picture in order to comprehend the true enormity of Poland's wartime cataclysm, and then to say with absolute conviction 'Never Again'." Davies married Maria Korzeniewicz, a Polish scholar born in Dąbrowa Tarnowska . He lives in Oxford and Kraków, and has two sons. His uncle Donny died in the Munich air disaster . Davies

9006-546: The planned attacks against the Bermontians in northern Lithuania. In September 1919, joint Polish and Latvian forces took Daugava's southern shore, including Grīva. The Lithuanian–Soviet front remained open until the Battle of Daugavpils when Latvian and Polish forces captured Daugavpils in January 1920. The Lithuanians did not participate in these operations. The Lithuanians claimed the territory, taken by their soldiers, for themselves despite Latvian protests. This led to several skirmishes between Latvian and Lithuanian troops, but

9120-472: The pleas of the Lithuanian administration. The Lithuanian and Belarusian Self-Defence , which aligned itself with Poland , took over the posts. The Lithuanian government withdrew to Kaunas , the temporary capital of Lithuania . On January 5, 1919, Vilnius was taken by the Soviets after a five-day fight with Polish paramilitary platoons led by general Władysław Wejtko . Kapsukas and his government arrived in Vilnius from Daugavpils on January 7. On February 27,

9234-477: The political system. The elections to the Seimas that finally took place in 1936 did not live up to democratic standards, with opposition parties outlawed in 1935 and opposition candidates, including Sleževičius, prevented from standing. Sleževičius was a prominent lawyer in inter-war Lithuania. After the coup, he worked as a lawyer for various organizations, was a member (from 1925) and the Chairman (from 1938) of

9348-632: The president. Sleževičius resigned as the prime minister and Grinius was forced to appoint Voldemaras, another Nationalist figure, as his replacement. Grinius soon resigned and the Seimas, based on the votes of the Christian Democrats, elected Smetona as the new president. While initially maintaining the façade of constitutionality, Smetona dismissed the Third Seimas in April 1927, not calling for fresh elections for more than 9 years. The coup effectively ended Sleževičius' political career. Already ill during

9462-619: The presidium of the newly established Supreme Council of Lithuania in Russia, based in Voronezh . Buoyed by the Act of Independence of Lithuania , the Council encouraged ideas of Lithuanian sovereignty, issued passports and assisted Lithuanians in returning to their homeland. For his activities, Sleževičius was briefly imprisoned by the Bolsheviks in 1918. He was released after a month in prison and fled to Moscow, eventually returning to Lithuania on 19 December 1918. Sleževičius returned to Lithuania at

9576-531: The prime minister for a third time. His government introduced important changes aimed at normalizing the situation in Lithuania, but the reforms faced resistance from the Catholic clergy, military officers and the parliamentary opposition. The resistance culminated in a military coup d'état in December 1926, which brought to power the authoritarian rule of Antanas Smetona . Sleževičius continued participating in

9690-564: The publishing of the Lithuanian Encyclopedia. Sleževičius was married to Domicėlė Sleževičienė who worked as a dentist. The pair had no children of their own, but had an adopted daughter Marytė Sleževičiūtė-Mackevičienė. Marytė married Mečislovas Mackevičius, who would later serve as the minister of justice on the Provisional Government of Lithuania in 1941. Mykolas Sleževičius' brother Kazys Sleževičius

9804-506: The region. They saw Baltic states as a barrier or a bridge into Western Europe, where they could join the German and the Hungarian revolutions . By the end of December 1918, Bolshevik forces reached eastern Lithuania. Augustinas Voldemaras , the first Prime Minister of Lithuania , did not believe that forming the military was a priority and advocated Lithuanian neutrality . He trusted that German mercenaries would protect Lithuania until

9918-479: The right of a faculty member to discuss with his colleagues the candidate's qualifications thoroughly and candidly, in confidence and without fear of compelled disclosure, is of such paramount value that it ought not to be impaired." The court upheld the university's right to decide on faculty appointments on the basis of any criteria. Davies is a visiting professor at the Collège d'Europe . Davies' first book, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–20

10032-573: The signing of the Soviet–Lithuanian Non-Aggression Pact . The treaty had been conceived and negotiated by the previous Christian Democratic government of Leonas Bistras , but was signed by Sleževičius, with Christian Democrats voting against. The Christian Democrats and the Catholic Church was further alienated when the government proposed to cut the salaries for the clergy and the subsidies for Catholic schools as part of

10146-541: The subsequent government headed by Ernestas Galvanauskas . Already in 1919 Sleževičius had prepared the groundwork for the parliamentary elections. In April 1920, he was elected as the representative of II (Kaunas) constituency to the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania , tasked with drafting the Constitution of Lithuania . His Lithuanian Popular Socialist Democratic Party (LSLDP) formed a block with

10260-403: The university, arguing he had been the victim of discrimination on the grounds of his political views (with the claim being " defamation ," " breach of contract " and "tortious interference" with a business). The court ruled that because of California's right of privacy "even if we assume that... a candidate may be denied tenure for improper" [e.g., defamatory] "reasons, we are of the opinion that

10374-603: The upcoming Paris Peace Conference could establish peace. Residents organized local self-defense units to defend themselves from the retreating Germans. The first laws regarding the army were not issued until November 23. Some Lithuanians, who had served in the Russian army during the World War, returned to Lithuania and started organizing battalions in Kaunas , Gardinas , Alytus . They lacked guns, ammunition, and officers. At

10488-459: The war against Poland. This compromised Lithuania's declared neutrality and further deepened the Polish–Lithuanian crisis. On 14 July 1920, the Soviets occupied Vilnius but did not transfer the city to the Lithuanian administration as agreed in the peace treaty. Instead, the Soviets planned a coup to overthrow the Lithuanian government and establish a Soviet republic. However, the Soviets lost

10602-410: The war. On February 10, joint Lithuanian and German forces captured Šėta and forced the Red Army to retreat. The operation's success lifted the Lithuanian army's morale and prevented the Red Army from encircling Kaunas from the north. On February 9, Soviet 7th Rifle Regiment (900 men) seized Jieznas , south of Kaunas. The battle of Jieznas lasted three days, and, after the setback of the betrayal by

10716-615: Was "one of the most powerful men in the country". In the elections of 1922 , Sleževičius was elected to the First Seimas , but LSLDP ended up with only 1% of the vote and 5 seats. On 24 November 1922, the party merged with the Peasant Union to form the Lithuanian Popular Peasants' Union (LVLS), with Sleževičius presiding over the political group in the Seimas. The First Seimas was short-lived and LVLS

10830-461: Was a difficult one: the Polish army took Vilnius in January 1919, forcing the government to flee to Kaunas , while the Bolshevik forces were also advancing. Sleževičius worked to secure assistance from Germany, which still had forces left in Lithuania, while at the same time mobilizing the Lithuanian forces. on 8 January 1919, the German government communicated that its forces would cooperate with

10944-662: Was also interested in maintaining its influence in the region and weakening Russia. At first they tried to organize volunteers from the retreating soldiers of the 10th German Army , commanded by General Erich von Falkenhayn . However, the soldiers were tired and demoralized and wanted to return home as soon as possible. Recruitment continued in Germany, especially in Saxony . The volunteers were paid 30 marks per month plus 5 marks per day and had to sign up for three months. The first Saxon volunteers, as they became known, arrived in Kaunas at

11058-435: Was asked to lead the government again, which he accepted only on the condition that the Council of Lithuania elected a president to replace it as the collegial head of state. The Council agreed, electing Smetona as the first President of Lithuania , prompting Prime Minister Pranas Dovydaitis to resign. Sleževičius was appointed as the prime minister on 12 April 1919 and also served as the acting minister of foreign affairs for

11172-430: Was attacked by the 2nd Rifle Regiment of the Lithuanian (former Pskov) Division (about 1,000 men). Lithuanian forces from Panevėžys, commanded by Jonas Variakojis , and from Kėdainiai numbered only about 200 men. Lithuanians withstood Red Army advance near Kėdainiai and with German support repelled it. On February 8, during the course of a reconnaissance mission, Povilas Lukšys became the first Lithuanian soldier to die in

11286-536: Was awarded the Order of the Cross of St Mary's Land 3rd Class by the Republic of Estonia . Davies also received Knight of Freedom Award in 2006 for his promotion of Polish history and the values represented by General Casimir Pulaski . In 2012, he received the Aleksander Gieysztor Prize for his promotion of Polish cultural heritage abroad. In 2019 he was accepted by Swedish Academy to

11400-491: Was carried out on April 3–8, 1919. Lithuanians decided to take advantage of large Polish attacks against the Soviets in the area near Gardinas to test enemy strength and liberate Vilnius. The southern group, formed based on the 1st Infantry Regiment and led by Kazys Ladiga , was to attack from Alytus along the Daugai – Valkininkai line. The northern group, formed on the basis on the 2nd Infantry Regiment and led by Juozas Butkus ,

11514-704: Was initially a member of the Congregational Church in Bolton, but converted to Roman Catholicism . His mother was a devout Christian and a nonconformist Protestant . In an interview for Aleteia in 2018, Davies stated that he converted to Roman Catholicism in Poland and believed in divine providence based on the doctrine of providence of St Augustine . He also expressed his respect for the Ukrainian Orthodox Church and once attended

11628-576: Was isolated from European politics, would damage its relationships with the Allied Powers that had not yet recognized Lithuania. The talks began only in May 1920 and were highly influenced by the events in the Polish–Soviet War . The Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty was concluded on July 12. Russia recognized Lithuania's independence and its right to the Vilnius Region ; in exchange, Lithuania granted Soviet forces unrestricted movement during

11742-432: Was lifted, political freedoms restored and a broad amnesty for political prisoners was declared. The decisions were heavily criticized by the opposition which alleged that the government was playing into the hands of communists and other enemies of the state. On November 21, a student demonstration against the perceived "Bolshevization" was forcibly dispersed by the police. Allegations of pro-communist stance continued with

11856-736: Was ordered to push along the Utena – Zarasai line. The second brigade, called the Panevėžys Group , was charged with capturing Panevėžys and then pushing along the Kupiškis – Rokiškis – Obeliai line. The group, initially commanded by Jonas Variakojis , was aided by Joniškėlis' partisans from the north. The Ministry of Defense and the General Staff were also reorganized. On May 18, the reorganized army carried out its first operation. The Vilkmergė Group captured Kurkliai and Anykščiai . On May 22,

11970-451: Was published in 1972. His 1981 book God's Playground , a comprehensive overview of Polish history, was published officially in Poland only after the fall of communism . In 1984, Davies published Heart of Europe , a briefer, more essay-like history of Poland, in which the chapters are arranged in reverse chronological order. In the 1990s, Davies published Europe: A History (1996) and The Isles: A History (1999), about Europe and

12084-477: Was required to pay 1,000,000, Utena – 200,000, villagers – 10 rubles. Such policies alienated the local population and contributed to the eventual defeat of the Soviets. For example, in February, Kapsukas sent a telegram to Moscow arguing that conscription of local Lithuanians to the Red Army would only encourage Lithuanians to volunteer for the Lithuanian army. Soviet troops (about 18,000 to 20,000 men) approached

12198-546: Was signed on July 12, 1920. Soviet Russia fully recognized independent Lithuania. Lithuania became part of the Russian Empire after the final partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. During World War I, Lithuania was occupied by Germany and made part of Ober Ost . On February 16, 1918, the Council of Lithuania declared independence from both Germany and Russia. Three weeks later,

12312-526: Was successful in the elections of 1923 , winning 17.9% of the vote and 16 seats, the largest single party in the Second Seimas . The elections of 1926 proved to be even more successful for LVLS, with the party winning 22.2% of the vote and 22 seats in the Third Seimas . Sleževičius was once again reelected to the parliament and was invited by the newly elected President Kazys Grinius to form

12426-557: Was the only way to avoid significant bloodshed and that he had not believed that the Christian Democrats would open the doors for authoritarian rule. In 1931, he was again elected to the Central Committee of the party. Throughout the authoritarian rule, Sleževičius and his party maintained commitment to parliamentary democracy and called for new elections to the Seimas. Sleževičius participated in events and political groups with like minded individuals, but did not manage to affect

12540-600: Was through Samogitia. Their biggest achievement was forming a 1,000-man Samogitian Regiment , commanded by Feliksas Baltušis-Žemaitis , in the city of Šiauliai . The regiment included Russian POWs , German deserters, and criminals. There were no units of regular Lithuanian army in Samogitia except for partisans in Skuodas , rallied by Povilas Plechavičius and his brother Aleksandras , and in Joniškėlis . The movement of

12654-428: Was to attack from Kaišiadorys along the Žasliai – Vievis line. Germans did not participate. Both regiments were initially successful, but the Soviets gathered their forces and stopped the advance. As Lithuanian flanks were not defended, they decided to abandon the offensive. Soviets also accused Germans of violating the demarcation line set on January 18 and pressured them to retreat. Poland started an offensive against

12768-400: Was to be used for collective farming instead of being redistributed to small farmers. The Soviet propagated internationalism and atheism in a country of staunch Catholics and determined nationalists. Soviets were supported by the industrial working class, but it was too small in Lithuania. The Soviets demanded large war contributions from captured cities and villages. For example, Panevėžys

12882-527: Was to demoralize the enemy forces and boost the confidence of locals and Lithuanian volunteers. As a reward for its successful operations, the volunteer regiment was named the Separate Panevėžys Battalion ( Lithuanian : Panevėžio atskirasis batalionas ) on March 22. Demoralization campaign was successful: the Bolshevik forces stationed in Panevėžys and Kupiškis rebelled and were quelled only by

12996-613: Was to take over Ukmergė . On May 3, the Separate Panevėžys Volunteer Regiment, supported by the 18th Regiment of Saxon Volunteers, had secured the town. The operation was risky as for a while Kėdainiai was unprotected opening a path to Kaunas, but also very successful: some 500 Soviet soldiers were taken prisoner and about 50 Poles, captured by the Soviets in the battles near Vilnius, were liberated and returned to Poland. On May 7, Lithuanians entered Širvintos , where they found Polish troops. Lithuanians and Poles mounted

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