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141-601: It came about following a significant lobbying effort by the American Zionist community , particularly through the efforts of Zionist Rabbi Simon Glazer . It was opposed by the State Department ; a prominent anti-Zionist rabbi at the congressional hearings; and the New York Times , which was owned by the anti-Zionist Adolph Ochs . On September 21, 1922, US President Warren G. Harding signed

282-413: A Jerusalem Post article on the 'Megaphone', Israel's Foreign Ministry was (in 2006) "urging supporters of Israel everywhere to become cyberspace soldiers 'in the new battleground for Israel's image.'" Christopher Williams wrote for The Register : "However it is used, Megaphone is effectively a high-tech exercise in ballot-stuffing. We're calling it lobbyware." Since the early 2000s, there have been

423-642: A Jewish state was contemplated. The intended boundaries of Palestine were not specified, and the British government later confirmed that the words "in Palestine" meant that the Jewish national home was not intended to cover all of Palestine. The second half of the declaration was added to satisfy opponents of the policy, who had claimed that it would otherwise prejudice the position of the local population of Palestine and encourage antisemitism worldwide by "stamping

564-810: A letter dated 4 June 1917, giving assurances of sympathy towards the Zionist cause by Jules Cambon , head of the political section of the French foreign ministry. This letter was not published, but was deposited at the British Foreign Office. Following the United States' entry into the war on 6 April, the British Foreign Secretary led the Balfour Mission to Washington, D.C. , and New York , where he spent

705-687: A "further campaign into Palestine when El Arish had been secured." Subsequent pressure from Lloyd George, over the reservations of Robertson, resulted in the recapture of the Sinai for British-controlled Egypt , and, with the capture of El Arish in December 1916 and Rafah in January 1917, the arrival of British forces at the southern borders of the Ottoman Empire. Following two unsuccessful attempts to capture Gaza between 26 March and 19 April,

846-498: A British Cabinet member and a secular Jew who had studied Zionism; Samuel believed Weizmann's demands were too modest. Two days later, Weizmann met Balfour again, for the first time since their initial meeting in 1905; Balfour had been out of government ever since his electoral defeat in 1906, but remained a senior member of the Conservative Party in their role as Official Opposition . A month later, Samuel circulated

987-575: A certain amount of tension with the local population, mainly among the merchant and notable classes, in 1901 the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman central government) gave Jews the same rights as Arabs to buy land in Palestine and the percentage of Jews in the population rose to 7% by 1914. At the same time, with growing distrust of the Young Turks (Turkish nationalists who had taken control of

1128-839: A commanding presence at the American Enterprise Institute , the Center for Security Policy , the Foreign Policy Research Institute , The Heritage Foundation , the Hudson Institute , the Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, and the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs (JINSA). These think tanks are all decidedly pro-Israel and include few, if any, critics of U.S. support for the Jewish state." In 2002,

1269-510: A conference on 7 February 1917 that included Sir Mark Sykes and the Zionist leadership. Subsequent discussions led to Balfour's request, on 19 June, that Rothschild and Chaim Weizmann submit a draft of a public declaration. Further drafts were discussed by the British Cabinet during September and October, with input from Zionist and anti-Zionist Jews but with no representation from the local population in Palestine. By late 1917, in

1410-504: A few days after Sokolow; in the meantime, Sokolow had met Picot and other French officials, and convinced the French Foreign Office to accept for study a statement of Zionist aims "in regard to facilities of colonization, communal autonomy, rights of language and establishment of a Jewish chartered company." Sykes went on ahead to Italy and had meetings with the British ambassador and British Vatican representative to prepare

1551-581: A force on the American scene for the first time; under his leadership it had increased ten-fold to about 200,000. As chair of the American Provisional Executive Committee for General Zionist Affairs, Brandeis raised millions of dollars to relieve Jewish suffering in war-torn Europe, and from that time "became the financial center for the world Zionist movement." The British Balfour Declaration additionally advanced

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1692-486: A general increase in proportional donations to the US Republican party since 1996. OpenSecrets ' 1990–2006 data shows that "pro-Israel interests have contributed $ 56.8 million in individual, group and soft money donations to federal candidates and party committees since 1990." In contrast, Arab-Americans and Muslim PACs contributed slightly less than $ 800,000 during the same (1990–2006) period. In 2006, 60% of

1833-604: A joint memorandum on 5 January 1916. Sykes was a British Conservative MP who had risen to a position of significant influence on Britain's Middle East policy, beginning with his seat on the 1915 De Bunsen Committee and his initiative to create the Arab Bureau . Picot was a French diplomat and former consul-general in Beirut. Their agreement defined the proposed spheres of influence and control in Western Asia should

1974-648: A meeting of Gaster, Weizmann and Sokolow. Gaster recorded in his diary on 16 April 1916: "We are offered French-English condominium in Palest[ine]. Arab Prince to conciliate Arab sentiment and as part of the Constitution a Charter to Zionists for which England would stand guarantee and which would stand by us in every case of friction ... It practically comes to a complete realisation of our Zionist programme. However, we insisted on: national character of Charter, freedom of immigration and internal autonomy, and at

2115-538: A memorandum entitled The Future of Palestine to his Cabinet colleagues. The memorandum stated: "I am assured that the solution of the problem of Palestine which would be much the most welcome to the leaders and supporters of the Zionist movement throughout the world would be the annexation of the country to the British Empire". Samuel discussed a copy of his memorandum with Nathan Rothschild in February 1915,

2256-615: A million copies in the antebellum period. The Blackstone Memorial of 1891 was also a significant Christian Restorationist petition effort, led by William Eugene Blackstone , to persuade Benjamin Harrison , then the president of the United States , to pressure the Ottoman Sultan for the delivery of Palestine to the Jews. Beginning in 1914, the involvement of Louis Brandeis and his brand of American Zionism made Jewish Zionism

2397-604: A month before the latter's death. It was the first time in an official record that enlisting the support of Jews as a war measure had been proposed. Many further discussions followed, including the initial meetings in 1915–16 between Lloyd George, who had been appointed Minister of Munitions in May 1915, and Weizmann, who was appointed as a scientific advisor to the ministry in September 1915. Seventeen years later, in his War Memoirs , Lloyd George described these meetings as being

2538-568: A month between mid-April and mid-May. During the trip he spent significant time discussing Zionism with Louis Brandeis , a leading Zionist and a close ally of Wilson who had been appointed as a Supreme Court Justice a year previously. By 13 June 1917, it was acknowledged by Ronald Graham , head of the Foreign Office's Middle Eastern affairs department, that the three most relevant politicians – the Prime Minister,

2679-510: A national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which should prejudice the civil and religious rights of Christian and all other non-Jewish communities in Palestine, and that the holy places and religious buildings and sites in Palestine shall be adequately protected." [italics in the original] Israel lobby in the United States The Israel lobby (or Zionist lobby ) in

2820-585: A number of organizations that focus on what could be called "pro-Israel activism" on college campuses. With the outbreak of the Al-Aqsa Intifada in 2001, these groups became increasingly visible. In 2002 an umbrella organization that includes many of these groups, known as the Israel on Campus Coalition , was formed as a result of what they felt were "the worrisome rise in anti-Israel activities on college campuses across North America". The stated mission of

2961-640: A portion of British East Africa to the Jewish people as a homeland. The scheme, which had been proposed to Herzl by Joseph Chamberlain , Colonial Secretary in Balfour's Cabinet, following his trip to East Africa earlier in the year, had been subsequently voted down following Herzl's death by the Seventh Zionist Congress in 1905 after two years of heated debate in the Zionist Organization. Weizmann responded that he believed

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3102-552: A post-war partition of the Ottoman Empire as a major British war aim, whereas Asquith and his Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey , had favoured its reform. Two days after taking office, Lloyd George told General Robertson , the Chief of the Imperial General Staff , that he wanted a major victory, preferably the capture of Jerusalem, to impress British public opinion, and immediately consulted his War Cabinet about

3243-524: A renewal of strategic assessments and political bargaining over the Middle and Far East. Although other factors played their part, Jonathan Schneer says that stereotypical thinking by British officials about Jews also played a role in the decision to issue the Declaration. Robert Cecil, Hugh O’Bierne and Sir Mark Sykes all held an unrealistic view of "world Jewry", the former writing "I do not think it

3384-554: A session arranged by Charles Dreyfus , his Jewish constituency representative. Earlier that year, Balfour had successfully driven the Aliens Act through Parliament with impassioned speeches regarding the need to restrict the wave of immigration into Britain from Jews fleeing the Russian Empire. During this meeting, he asked what Weizmann's objections had been to the 1903 Uganda Scheme that Herzl had supported to provide

3525-580: A six-month stalemate in Southern Palestine began; the Sinai and Palestine Campaign would not make any progress into Palestine until 31   October 1917. Following the change in government, Sykes was promoted into the War Cabinet Secretariat with responsibility for Middle Eastern affairs. In January 1917, despite having previously built a relationship with Moses Gaster, he began looking to meet other Zionist leaders; by

3666-567: A unified force for Israel's well-being" and working to "strengthen and foster the special US-Israel relationship." Stephen Zunes , in a response to Mearsheimer and Walt, lists " Americans for Peace Now , the Tikkun Community , Brit Tzedek v'Shalom , and the Israel Policy Forum" as "pro-Israel" organizations that, unlike the right-leaning organizations focused on by Mearsheimer and Walt, are opposed to "the occupation ,

3807-554: A year from the Emerson foundation for their efforts. Rabbi Alexander Schindler, the former chair of the Conference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations (a US advocacy group), told an Israeli magazine in 1976, "The Presidents' Conference and its members have been instruments of official governmental Israeli policy. It was seen as our task to receive directions from government circles and to do our best no matter what to affect

3948-521: Is considered a principal cause of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict , often described as the world's most intractable. Controversy remains over a number of areas, such as whether the declaration contradicted earlier promises the British made to the Sharif of Mecca in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence . Early British political support for an increased Jewish presence in the region of Palestine

4089-521: Is especially open to political courtship because, unlike the interests of other minority groups, support for Israel has long been compatible with traditional Republican and Democratic agendas. ... On the other hand, being distinctively unsupportive of Israel can significantly hurt a candidate's chances." " Political campaign contributions ", writes Mitchell Bard, "are also considered an important means of influence; typically, Jews have been major benefactors." According to Bard, objective quantification that

4230-583: Is not possible to list" them all, although many are linked via the National Association of Evangelicals . It is a "powerful religious lobby" that actively supports Israel in Washington. According to the author of Kingdom Coming: The Rise of Christian Nationalism , Michelle Goldberg , "Evangelical Christians have substantial influence on US Middle East Policy, more so than some better-known names such as AIPAC." According to Mitchell Bard,

4371-552: Is often referred to now as the fourth most powerful country in the world, the perceived threat to Israel is not military defeat, it is annihilation. At the same time, American Jews are frightened of what might happen in the United States if they do not have political power. The formal component of the Israel lobby consists of organized lobby groups , political action committees (PACs), think tanks , and media watchdog groups . OpenSecrets , which tracks all lobbies and PACs, describes

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4512-685: Is possible to exaggerate the international power of the Jews." Zionist representatives saw advantage in encouraging such views. James Renton concurs, writing that the British foreign policy elite, including Prime Minister David Lloyd George and Foreign Secretary A.J. Balfour, believed that Jews possessed real and significant power that could be of use to them in the war. Zionism arose in the late 19th century in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. Romantic nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe had helped to set off

4653-581: Is strongly supported by a far larger and more influential Christian movement that shares its goals. In a 2006 article in the London Review of Books , Professors John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt wrote: In its basic operations, the Israel Lobby is no different from the farm lobby, steel or textile workers' unions, or other ethnic lobbies. There is nothing improper about American Jews and their Christian allies attempting to sway US policy:

4794-835: The American Jewish Congress , the Zionist Organization of America , the Israel Policy Forum , the American Jewish Committee , the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism , Americans for a Safe Israel, American Friends of Likud , Mercaz-USA, and Hadassah . Fifty-one of the largest and most important come together in the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations, whose self-described mission includes "forging diverse groups into

4935-461: The Bolshevik faction, but Alexander Kerensky 's Provisional Government had remained in the war; Russia only withdrew after the final stage of the revolution on 7   November 1917 . Balfour met Weizmann at the Foreign Office on 22 March 1917; two days later, Weizmann described the meeting as being "the first time I had a real business talk with him". Weizmann explained at the meeting that

5076-699: The Brookings Institution founded the Saban Center for Middle East Policy , named after Haim Saban , an Israeli-American media proprietor, who donated $ 13 million toward its establishment. Saban has stated of himself, "I'm a one issue guy, and my issue is Israel", and was described by The New York Times as a "tireless cheerleader for Israel." The Centre is directed by AIPAC's former deputy director of research, Martin Indyk . Frontline , an Indian current-affairs magazine, asked rhetorically why

5217-533: The Christian Television Network to the more informal support of the annual Day of Prayer for the Peace of Jerusalem . Informal lobbying also includes the activities of Jewish groups. Some scholars view Jewish lobbying on behalf of Israel as one of many examples of a US ethnic group lobbying on behalf of an ethnic homeland , which has met with a degree of success largely because Israel

5358-572: The Democratic Party 's fundraising and 25% of that for the Republican Party's fundraising came from Jewish-funded PACs. According to a Washington Post estimate, Democratic presidential candidates depend on Jewish sources for as much as 60% of money raised from private sources. According to Mitchell Bard, Israel lobbyists also educate politicians by: taking them to Israel on study missions. Once officials have direct exposure to

5499-642: The Eastern Orthodox in the same regions. This left Britain without a sphere of influence , and thus a need to find or create their own regional "protégés". These political considerations were supported by a sympathetic evangelical Christian sentiment towards the " restoration of the Jews " to Palestine among elements of the mid-19th-century British political elite – most notably Lord Shaftesbury . The British Foreign Office actively encouraged Jewish emigration to Palestine, exemplified by Charles Henry Churchill 's 1841–1842 exhortations to Moses Montefiore ,

5640-458: The Haganah ," he said, referring to the pre-state Jewish armed force. "There was a special American brigade. Nowadays you can't do that. The battle here is the hasbarah war," Youdovin said, using a Hebrew term for public relations . "We're winning, but we're very much concerned about the bad stuff." Indicative of the diversity of opinion in the early 2000s was a 2003 Boston Globe profile of

5781-537: The Haskalah , or "Jewish Enlightenment", creating a split in the Jewish community between those who saw Judaism as their religion and those who saw it as their ethnicity or nation. The 1881–1884 anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire encouraged the growth of the latter identity, resulting in the formation of the Hovevei Zion pioneer organizations, the publication of Leon Pinsker 's Autoemancipation , and

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5922-594: The Megaphone desktop tool , which was designed and promoted by pro-Israel interest groups and diplomats. Regarding the 'Megaphone', the Times Online reported in 2006 that the Israeli Foreign Ministry "ordered trainee diplomats to track websites and chatrooms so that networks of US and European groups with hundreds of thousands of Jewish activists can place supportive messages." According to

6063-691: The Oslo Accords , which split "liberal universalists" and "hard-core Zionists—the Orthodox community and right wing Jews". This division mirrored a similar split for and against the Oslo process in Israel, and led to a parallel rift within the pro-Israel lobby. In 2008, Barack Obama implicitly noted differences within the lobby in his comment that "there is a strain within the pro-Israel community that says, 'unless you adopt an unwavering pro-Likud approach to Israel, that you're anti-Israel,' and that can't be

6204-656: The Russian Empire ) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and, later that year, the Ottoman Empire ). The British Cabinet first discussed Palestine at a meeting on 9   November 1914, four days after Britain's declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire, of which the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem  – often referred to as Palestine  – was a component. At

6345-684: The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine which preceded the Israeli Declaration of Independence , was met with an outpouring of Jewish American support and advocacy in Washington, D.C. U.S. President Harry S. Truman later noted, "The facts were that not only were there pressure movements around the United Nations unlike anything that had been seen there before, but that the White House, too,

6486-403: The University of Chicago and Harvard University , respectively), focusing almost exclusively on Jewish groups, define the core of the lobby to include AIPAC, the Washington Institute for Near East Policy , the Anti-Defamation League and Christians United for Israel . Other key organizations which they state work to benefit Israel, in many cases by influencing American foreign policy, include

6627-401: The administration of George W. Bush that seemed "so eager to please [Bush's] Gulf allies, particularly the Saudis , go out of its way to take the side of Ariel Sharon's Israel? Two public policy organizations give us a sense of an answer: the Washington Institute for Near East Policy (WINEP) and the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs." Frontline reported that "WINEP tended to toe

6768-545: The media watchdog group Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America (CAMERA) is part of the right-wing component of the lobby. In The Case for Peace , Alan Dershowitz , also of Harvard, argues that the most right-leaning pro-Israel groups in the United States are not Jews at all, but Evangelical Christians . Dershowitz cites " Stand for Israel , an organization devoted to mobilizing Evangelical Christian support for Israel" co-founded by "[f]ormer Christian Coalition executive director Ralph Reed ." Although

6909-423: The rhetoric of most groups like Stand for Israel is similar to their Jewish-based counterparts, some individuals have based their support on specific biblical passages, thus they have been vulnerable to criticism from Israelis and US Jews for having "ulterior motives" such as the fulfillment of "prerequisite to the Second Coming " or having "better access for proselytizing among Jews." In April 2008, J Street

7050-424: The settlements , the separation wall , and Washington's unconditional support for Israeli policies ." These organizations, however, are not PACs and therefore, like AIPAC, are prohibited by campaign finance regulations from financially supporting political campaigns of candidates for federal office. Mearsheimer and Walt state in their controversial bestseller, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy , that

7191-462: The "fount and origin" of the declaration; historians have rejected this claim. In late 1915 the British High Commissioner to Egypt , Henry McMahon , exchanged ten letters with Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca , in which he promised Hussein to recognize Arab independence "in the limits and boundaries proposed by the Sherif of Mecca" in return for Hussein launching a revolt against the Ottoman Empire. The pledge excluded "portions of Syria " lying to

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7332-651: The 'background' of those 'Pro-Israel' as, "A nationwide network of local political action committees, generally named after the region their donors come from, supplies much of the pro-Israel money in US politics . Additional funds also come from individuals who bundle contributions to candidates favored by the PACs. The donors' unified goal is to build stronger Israel–United States relations and to support Israel in its negotiations and armed conflicts with its Arab neighbors." According to Mitchell Bard, there are, three key formal lobbying groups: Christians United for Israel give "every pro-Israel Christian and Christian church

7473-426: The 19th century. In 1844 George Bush , a Christian Zionist and Professor of Hebrew at New York University who was related to the Bush political family , published a book entitled The Valley of Vision; or, The Dry Bones of Israel Revived. In it he denounced "the thralldom and oppression which has so long ground them (the Jews) to the dust," and called for "elevating" the Jews "to a rank of honorable repute among

7614-402: The Allies from July 1918 onwards. Although the United States declared war on Germany in the spring of 1917, it did not suffer its first casualties until 2 November 1917, at which point President Woodrow Wilson still hoped to avoid dispatching large contingents of troops into the war. The Russian forces were known to be distracted by the ongoing Russian Revolution and the growing support for

7755-458: The British as they built their reinforcements in preparation for a renewed attack on Palestine. In early April, Sykes and Picot were appointed to act as the chief negotiators once more, this time on a month-long mission to the Middle East for further discussions with the Sherif of Mecca and other Arab leaders. On 3 April 1917, Sykes met with Lloyd George, Lord Curzon and Maurice Hankey to receive his instructions in this regard, namely to keep

7896-410: The CAMERA media watchdog group in which Mark Jurkowitz observes: "To its supporters, CAMERA is figuratively – and perhaps literally – doing God's work, battling insidious anti-Israeli bias in the media. But its detractors see CAMERA as a myopic and vindictive special interest group trying to muscle its views into media coverage." A former spokesman for the Israeli Consulate in New York City said that

8037-400: The Cabinet. These included the views of government ministers, war allies – notably from President Woodrow Wilson – and in October, formal submissions from six Zionist leaders and four non-Zionist Jews. British officials asked President Wilson for his consent on the matter on two occasions – first on 3 September, when he replied the time was not ripe, and later on 6 October, when he agreed with

8178-611: The Center for Security Policy thinktanks are "underwritten by far-right American Zionists" and that they both "effectively hold there is no difference between US and Israeli national security interests, and that the only way to assure continued safety and prosperity for both countries is through hegemony in the Middle East – a hegemony achieved with the traditional cold war recipe of feints, force, clientism and covert action." Stephen Zunes wrote in 2006 that "mainstream and conservative Jewish organizations have mobilized considerable lobbying resources, financial contributions from

8319-432: The Empire in 1908) and the Second Aliyah , Arab nationalism and Palestinian nationalism was on the rise; and in Palestine anti-Zionism was a characteristic that unified these forces. Historians do not know whether these strengthening forces would still have ultimately resulted in conflict in the absence of the Balfour Declaration. In July 1914 war broke out in Europe between the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and

8460-412: The English are to London as the Jews are to Jerusalem . In January 1914 Weizmann first met Baron Edmond de Rothschild , a member of the French branch of the Rothschild family and a leading proponent of the Zionist movement, in relation to a project to build a Hebrew university in Jerusalem. The Baron was not part of the World Zionist Organization, but had funded the Jewish agricultural colonies of

8601-433: The First Aliyah and transferred them to the Jewish Colonization Association in 1899. This connection was to bear fruit later that year when the Baron's son, James de   Rothschild , requested a meeting with Weizmann on 25   November 1914, to enlist him in influencing those deemed to be receptive within the British government to their agenda of a "Jewish State" in Palestine. Through James's wife Dorothy , Weizmann

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8742-426: The Foreign Conjoint Committee, set up by Jewish organizations to further the interests of foreign Jews) submitted to the Foreign Office, the draft of an assurance (formula) that could be issued by the allies in support of Jewish aspirations: In the event of Palestine coming within the spheres of influence of Great Britain or France at the close of the war, the governments of those powers will not fail to take account of

8883-419: The Foreign Secretary, and the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs , Lord Robert Cecil  – were all in favour of Britain supporting the Zionist movement; on the same day Weizmann had written to Graham to advocate for a public declaration. Six days later, at a meeting on 19   June, Balfour asked Lord Rothschild and Weizmann to submit a formula for a declaration. Over

9024-433: The French onside while "not prejudicing the Zionist movement and the possibility of its development under British auspices, [and not] enter into any political pledges to the Arabs, and particularly none in regard to Palestine". Before travelling to the Middle East, Picot, via Sykes, invited Nahum Sokolow to Paris to educate the French government on Zionism. Sykes, who had prepared the way in correspondence with Picot, arrived

9165-457: The Israel on Campus Coalition is to "foster support for Israel" and "cultivate an Israel friendly university environment". Members of the Israel on Campus Coalition include the Zionist Organization of America , AIPAC, Americans for Peace Now, the Anti-Defamation League, Kesher , the Union of Progressive Zionists ( Ameinu and Meretz USA / Partners for Progressive Israel ). Although these groups are largely united in their support of Israel, there

9306-454: The Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was also received by Paolo Boselli , the Italian prime minister. Sonnino arranged for the secretary general of the ministry to send a letter to the effect that, although he could not express himself on the merits of a program which concerned all the allies, "generally speaking" he was not opposed to the legitimate claims of the Jews. On his return journey, Sokolow met with French leaders again and secured

9447-404: The Jewish "informal lobby" in 2009 as the indirect means through which "Jewish voting behavior and American public opinion " influence " U.S. Middle East policy ". Bard described the motivation underlying the informal lobby as follows: American Jews recognize the importance of support for Israel because of the dire consequences that could follow from the alternative. Despite the fact that Israel

9588-444: The Jewish community, and citizen pressure on the news media and other forums of public discourse in support of the Israeli government." Also in 2006, journalist Michael Massing wrote that "Jewish organizations are quick to detect bias in the coverage of the Middle East, and quick to complain about it. That's especially true of late. As The Jewish Daily Forward observed in late April [2002], 'rooting out perceived anti-Israel bias in

9729-480: The Jewish community." Hyman Bookbinder , a high-ranking official of the American Jewish Committee , once said "Unless something is terribly pressing, really critical or fundamental, you parrot Israel's line in order to retain American support. As American Jews, we don't go around saying Israel is wrong about its policies." Bard noted in 2009 that "by framing the issues in terms of the national interest, AIPAC can attract broader support than would ever be possible if it

9870-402: The Jewish population represented a small minority, approximately 3% of the total, with Muslims representing the largest segment of the population, and Christians the second. Ottoman government in Constantinople began to apply restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine in late 1882, in response to the start of the First Aliyah earlier that year. Although this immigration was creating

10011-405: The Jewish vote in America", according to Jeffrey S. Helmreich of the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs , "lies in the fact that it is a uniquely swayable bloc. ... The issue of support for Israel [by a candidate] has proven capable of spurring a sizable portion of Jews to switch parties—in large enough numbers to tip the scales in national or statewide elections. Moreover, the "Israel swing vote"

10152-537: The Jews as strangers in their native lands". The declaration called for safeguarding the civil and religious rights for the Palestinian Arabs , who composed the vast majority of the local population , and also the rights and political status of the Jewish communities in other countries outside of Palestine. The British government acknowledged in 1939 that the local population's wishes and interests should have been taken into account, and recognised in 2017 that

10293-594: The Lobby's activities are not a conspiracy of the sort depicted in tracts like the Protocols of the Elders of Zion . For the most part, the individuals and groups that comprise it are only doing what other special interest groups do, but doing it very much better. By contrast, pro-Arab interest groups, in so far as they exist at all, are weak, which makes the Israel Lobby's task even easier. The author Mitchell Bard defined

10434-455: The NRA, AARP or other major political lobbies, and claim that much of this criticism is based on antisemitic notions of a Jewish conspiracy . Critics counter that accusations of anti-Semitism are often used cynically by supporters of the Israel lobby to stifle criticism of it. According to Bard, "Jews have devoted themselves to politics with almost religious fervor." He cites that "Jews have

10575-485: The Triple Entente succeed in defeating the Ottoman Empire during World War   I, dividing many Arab territories into British- and French-administered areas. In Palestine, internationalisation was proposed, with the form of administration to be confirmed after consultation with both Russia and Hussein; the January draft noted Christian and Muslim interests, and that "members of the Jewish community throughout

10716-426: The U.S. government began with strong popular support for Israel and governmental reservations about the wisdom of creating a Jewish state; formal inter-government relations remained chilly until 1967. Prior to 1967, the federal government of the United States provided some aid but was generally neutral towards Israel. However, in each year between 1976 and 2004, Israel received the most direct foreign assistance from

10857-499: The U.S. of any nation, approximately 0.1% of the $ 3 trillion U.S. annual budget. The pro-Israel lobby is composed of formal and informal components. Support for Israel is strong among American Christians of many denominations. Informal Christian support for Israel includes a broad range varieties support for Israel ranging from the programming and news coverage on the Christian Broadcasting Network and

10998-415: The U.S. senators William Fulbright and Roger Jepsen , and Adlai Stevenson III in his campaign for Governor of Illinois in 1982. The defeat of Charles H. Percy , Senator for Illinois until 1985, has been attributed to AIPAC-co-ordinated donations to his opponent after he supported the sale of AWACS planes to Saudi Arabia . Donations included $ 1.1 million on anti-Percy advertising by Michael Goland, who

11139-508: The United States comprises individuals and groups who seek to influence the U.S. federal government to better serve the interests of Israel . The largest American pro-Israel lobbying group is Christians United for Israel , which has over seven million members. The American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) is a leading organization within the lobby, speaking on behalf of a coalition of pro-Israel American Jewish groups. The Israel lobby has funded primary campaigns against members of

11280-566: The University issued a statement in Inside Higher Ed calling for academic freedom from political pressure, in particular advocating openness and dialogue with groups identifying as supporters of Israel. In December 2007, several student leaders who advocated pro-Israel films and groups on college campuses were supported by advocacy group StandWithUs as "emissaries of the Jewish state" for their work and would receive up to $ 1,000

11421-495: The Zionist drafting team on its objectives in a letter dated 20 June 1917, one day following his meeting with Rothschild and Balfour. He proposed that the declaration from the British government should state: "its conviction, its desire or its intention to support Zionist aims for the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine; no reference must be made I think to the question of the Suzerain Power because that would land

11562-700: The Zionist movement and gave it official legitimacy. The U.S. Congress passed the first joint resolution stating its support for a homeland in Palestine for the Jewish people on September 21, 1922. The same day, the Mandate of Palestine was approved by the Council of the League of Nations . Zionist lobbying in the United States aided the creation of the State of Israel in 1947–48. The preparation of and voting for

11703-607: The Zionists had a preference for a British protectorate over Palestine, as opposed to an American, French or international arrangement; Balfour agreed, but warned that "there may be difficulties with France and Italy". The French position in regard to Palestine and the wider Syria region during the lead up to the Balfour Declaration was largely dictated by the terms of the Sykes-Picot Agreement and

11844-540: The achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country. The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for

11985-755: The complexities of Israel's predicament and that of the Middle East as a whole. We even ask each candidate to author a 'position paper' on their views of the US-Israel relationship – so it's clear where they stand on the subject." This process has become more targeted over time according to Bard, "In the past, Jewish contributions were less structured and targeted than other interest groups , but this has changed dramatically as Israel-related PACs have proliferated." Among politicians considered unfriendly to Israel who AIPAC has helped defeat include Cynthia McKinney , Paul Findley , Earl F. Hilliard , Pete McCloskey ,

12126-475: The country, its leaders, geography, and security dilemmas, they typically return more sympathetic to Israel. Politicians also sometimes travel to Israel specifically to demonstrate to the lobby their interest in Israel. Thus, for example, George W. Bush made his one and only trip to Israel before deciding to run for President in what was widely viewed as an effort to win pro-Israel voters' support. Mearsheimer and Walt state that "pro-Israel figures have established

12267-656: The declaration should have called for the protection of the Palestinian Arabs' political rights. The declaration had many long-lasting consequences. It greatly increased popular support for Zionism within Jewish communities worldwide , and became a core component of the British Mandate for Palestine , the founding document of Mandatory Palestine . It indirectly led to the emergence of the State of Israel and

12408-518: The declaration was published in the press on 9   November 1917. Immediately following Britain's declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, it began to consider the future of Palestine. Within two months a memorandum was circulated to the War Cabinet by a Zionist member, Herbert Samuel , proposing the support of Zionist ambitions in order to enlist the support of Jews in

12549-623: The declaration was taken by the British War Cabinet on 31 October 1917. This followed discussion at four War Cabinet meetings (including the 31 October meeting) over the space of the previous two months. In order to aid the discussions, the War Cabinet Secretariat, led by Maurice Hankey, the Cabinet Secretary and supported by his Assistant Secretaries – primarily Sykes and his fellow Conservative MP and pro-Zionist Leo Amery – solicited outside perspectives to put before

12690-404: The early 2020s. Those who donated to AIPAC are often important political contributors in their own right. In addition, AIPAC helps connect donors with candidates, especially to the network of pro-Israel political action committees. AIPAC president Howard Friedman says "AIPAC meets with every candidate running for Congress. These candidates receive in-depth briefings to help them completely understand

12831-539: The end of the month he had been introduced to Weizmann and his associate Nahum Sokolow , a journalist and executive of the World Zionist Organization who had moved to Britain at the beginning of the war. On 7   February 1917, Sykes, claiming to be acting in a private capacity, entered into substantive discussions with the Zionist leadership. The previous British correspondence with "the Arabs"

12972-564: The establishment of State of Israel , the Jewish state that he proposed, without having gained the political standing required to carry out his agenda. Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann , later President of the World Zionist Organisation and first President of Israel , moved from Switzerland to the UK in 1904 and met Arthur Balfour – who had just launched his 1905–1906 election campaign after resigning as Prime Minister – in

13113-627: The establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine , then an Ottoman region with a small minority Jewish population. The declaration was contained in a letter dated 2   November 1917 from the United Kingdom's Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild , a leader of the British Jewish community , for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland . The text of

13254-481: The first major wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine – retrospectively named the " First Aliyah ". In 1896, Theodor Herzl , a Jewish journalist living in Austria-Hungary , published the foundational text of political Zionism, Der Judenstaat ("The Jews' State" or "The State of the Jews"), in which he asserted that the only solution to the " Jewish Question " in Europe, including growing anti-Semitism,

13395-504: The former U.S. president Bill Clinton , the advisor Jeremy Ben Ami , and the policy analyst Daniel Levy, and supported by prominent Israeli politicians and high-ranking officers, J Street supports politicians who favor diplomatic solutions over military ones, including with Iran ; multilateral over unilateral approaches to conflict resolution ; and dialogue over confrontation with a wide range of countries and actors. The means through which Israel lobby groups exert influence are similar to

13536-472: The formula, as well as: The scheme might be made far more attractive to the majority of Jews if it held out to them the prospect that when in course of time the Jewish colonists in Palestine grow strong enough to cope with the Arab population they may be allowed to take the management of the internal affairs of Palestine (with the exception of Jerusalem and the holy places) into their own hands. Sykes, having seen

13677-494: The governments of the United Kingdom, France, and Russia secretly concluded the Sykes–Picot Agreement , which Balfour described later as a "wholly new method" for dividing the region, after the 1915 agreement "seems to have been forgotten". This Anglo-French treaty was negotiated in late 1915 and early 1916 between Sir Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot , with the primary arrangements being set out in draft form in

13818-733: The highest percentage voter turnout of any ethnic group " and that of the American Jewish population "roughly 94 percent live in thirteen key electoral college states" which alone "are worth enough electoral votes to elect the president. If you add the non-Jews shown by opinion polls to be as pro-Israel as Jews, it is clear Israel has the support of one of the largest veto groups in the country." Bard goes on to say that for United States congressmen "there are no benefits to candidates taking an openly anti-Israel stance and considerable costs in both loss of campaign contributions and votes from Jews and non-Jews alike." "Most important fact about

13959-583: The historic interest that country possesses for the Jewish community. The Jewish population will be secured in the enjoyment of civil and religious liberty, equal political rights with the rest of the population, reasonable facilities for immigration and colonisation, and such municipal privileges in the towns and colonies inhabited by them as may be shown to be necessary. On 11 March, telegrams were sent in Grey's name to Britain's Russian and French ambassadors for transmission to Russian and French authorities, including

14100-460: The impact of campaign contributions have on "legislative outcomes, particularly with regard to Israel-related issues" is difficult. This is because raw analysis of contributions statistics do not take into account "non-monetary factors" and whether or not "a candidate is pro-Israel because of receiving a contribution, or receives a donation as a result of taking a position in support of Israel." AIPAC did not give donations directly to candidates until

14241-491: The interpretation of these agreements is one which is impossible to end, because they were intended to bear more than one interpretation." In terms of British politics, the declaration resulted from the coming into power of Lloyd George and his Cabinet , which had replaced the H. H. Asquith led-Cabinet in December 1916. Whilst both Prime Ministers were Liberals and both governments were wartime coalitions , Lloyd George and Balfour, appointed as his Foreign Secretary, favoured

14382-530: The joint resolution of approval to establish a Jewish National Home in Palestine , per the 1917 Balfour Declaration . The full text is as follows: "Favoring the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled . That the United States of America favors the establishment in Palestine of

14523-516: The lead-up to the Balfour Declaration, the wider war had reached a stalemate, with two of Britain's allies not fully engaged: the United States had yet to suffer a casualty, and the Russians were in the midst of a revolution with Bolsheviks taking over the government. A stalemate in southern Palestine was broken by the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917. The release of the final declaration

14664-478: The leader of the British Jewish community. Such efforts were premature, and did not succeed; only 24,000 Jews were living in Palestine on the eve of the emergence of Zionism within the world's Jewish communities in the last two decades of the 19th century. With the geopolitical shakeup occasioned by the outbreak of the First World War , the earlier calculations, which had lapsed for some time, led to

14805-485: The line from advocacy to outright intimidation . One highly publicized accusation comes from the former U.S. president Jimmy Carter , who complained of great difficulty in gaining access to a number of universities to discuss his new book Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid which criticized certain Israeli policies. In October 2007, a group of 300 academics about 300 academics under the name The Ad Hoc Committee to Defend

14946-703: The line of whatever party came to power in Israel" while "JINSA was the U.S. offshoot of the right-wing Likud Party." According to Frontline, JINSA had close ties to the administration of George W Bush in that it "draws from the most conservative hawks in the U.S. establishment for its board of directors" including the U.S. vice president , Dick Cheney , and the Bush administration appointees John Bolton , Douglas Feith , Paul Wolfowitz , Lewis Libby , Zalmay Khalilzad , Richard Armitage , and Elliott Abrams . Jason Vest, writing in The Nation , alleges that both JINSA and

15087-559: The means through which other similar lobbies, such as the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) and the AARP (formerly known as "American Association of Retired Persons"), exert influence. A number of commentators have asserted that the Israel lobby has undue or pervasive influence over U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East. However, other commentators note that no similar volume of criticism exists concerning

15228-457: The measure of our friendship with Israel." Commentary magazine notes, "It was an odd choice of words— Likud has not been Israel's governing party for more than three years—but what Obama clearly meant was that an American politician should not have to express fealty to the most hard-line ideas relating to Israel's security to be considered a supporter of Israel's." The American foreign-policy scholars John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt (of

15369-465: The media has become for many American Jews the most direct and emotional outlet for connecting with the conflict 6,000 miles away.'" The April 2002 Forward article related how one individual felt: "There's a great frustration that American Jews want to do something," said Ira Youdovin, executive vice president of the Chicago Board of Rabbis . "In 1947, some number would have enlisted in

15510-632: The meeting David Lloyd George , then Chancellor of the Exchequer , "referred to the ultimate destiny of Palestine". The Chancellor, whose law firm Lloyd George, Roberts and Co had been engaged a decade before by the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland to work on the Uganda Scheme , was to become Prime Minister by the time of the declaration, and was ultimately responsible for it. Weizmann's political efforts picked up speed, and on 10   December 1914 he met with Herbert Samuel ,

15651-399: The nations of the earth" by restoring the Jews to the land of Israel where the bulk would be converted to Christianity. This, according to Bush, would benefit not only the Jews, but all of mankind, forming a "link of communication" between humanity and God. "It will blaze in notoriety ...". "It will flash a splendid demonstration upon all kindreds and tongues of the truth." The book sold about

15792-428: The next few weeks, a 143-word draft was prepared by the Zionist negotiating committee, but it was considered too specific on sensitive areas by Sykes, Graham and Rothschild. Separately, a very different draft had been prepared by the Foreign Office, described in 1961 by Harold Nicolson – who had been involved in preparing the draft – as proposing a "sanctuary for Jewish victims of persecution". The Foreign Office draft

15933-616: The opportunity to stand up and speak up for Israel." According to the group's founder and head, Pastor John Hagee , the members "ask the leadership of our government to stop putting pressure on Israel to divide Jerusalem and the land of Israel." In his 2006 book The Restoration of Israel: Christian Zionism in Religion, Literature, and Politics , the sociologist Gerhard Falk describes the Evangelical Christian groups that lobby on behalf of Israel as being so numerous that "it

16074-775: The presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower , Israel's concerns were not at the forefront. Other problems in the Middle East and the Soviet Union were paramount, and Israel's American supporters were not as active as they had been. AZCPA formed a pro-Israel lobbying committee to counter rumors that the Eisenhower administration was going to investigate the American Zionist Council . AZCPA's executive committee decided to change their name from American Zionist Committee for Public Affairs to American Israel Public Affairs Committee . The relationship between Israel and

16215-461: The release of the declaration. Excerpts from the minutes of these four War Cabinet meetings provide a description of the primary factors that the ministers considered: Declassification of British government archives has allowed scholars to piece together the choreography of the drafting of the declaration; in his widely cited 1961 book, Leonard Stein published four previous drafts of the declaration. The drafting began with Weizmann's guidance to

16356-443: The result of this lobbying of the media was: "Of course, a lot of self-censorship goes on. Journalists, editors, and politicians are going to think twice about criticizing Israel if they know they are going to get thousands of angry calls in a matter of hours. The Jewish lobby is good at orchestrating pressure." In addition to traditional media, Israeli public relations during this time period were also supported with software called

16497-460: The same time full rights of citizenship to [illegible] and Jews in Palestine." In Sykes' mind, the agreement which bore his name was outdated even before it was signed – in March 1916, he wrote in a private letter: "to my mind the Zionists are now the key of the situation". In the event, neither the French nor the Russians were enthusiastic about the proposed formulation and eventually on 4 July, Wolf

16638-433: The telegram, had discussions with Picot and proposed (making reference to Samuel's memorandum ) the creation of an Arab Sultanate under French and British protection, some means of administering the holy places along with the establishment of a company to purchase land for Jewish colonists, who would then become citizens with equal rights to Arabs. Shortly after returning from Petrograd, Sykes briefed Samuel, who then briefed

16779-495: The tone of the right-leaning component of the Israel lobby results from the influence of the leaders of the two top lobby groups: AIPAC and the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations. They go on to list, as right-leaning think tanks associated with the lobby, the Washington Institute for Near East Policy , the American Enterprise Institute , and the Hudson Institute . They also state that

16920-535: The two Jewish groups aim to present policy makers with unified and representative messages via the aggregation and filtering of the diversity of opinions held by smaller pro-Israel lobby groups and the wider American Jewish community. The diverse spectrum of opinions held by American Jewry is reflected in the many formal pro-Israel groups, and as such some analysts make a distinction within the Israel lobby between right-leaning and left-leaning groups. This diversity became more pronounced following Israel's acceptance of

17061-588: The two major political parties in the U.S. (the Republican Party and the Democratic Party ) who are viewed as hostile to Israel's interests. A Christian belief in the return of the Jews to the Holy Land has roots in the United States, which pre-date both the establishment of the Zionist movement and the establishment of Israel. Lobbying by these groups, to influence the U.S. government in ways similar to Zionist ideology, dates back to at least

17202-607: The war, which began following the April 1915 Treaty of London , did not include involvement in the Middle Eastern sphere until the April 1917 Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne ; at this conference, Lloyd George had raised the question of a British protectorate of Palestine and the idea "had been very coldly received" by the French and the Italians. In May and June 1917, the French and Italians sent detachments to support

17343-575: The way for Sokolow once again. Sokolow was granted an audience with Pope Benedict XV on 6 May 1917. Sokolow's notes of the meeting – the only meeting records known to historians – stated that the Pope expressed general sympathy and support for the Zionist project. On 21 May 1917 Angelo Sereni, president of the Committee of the Jewish Communities , presented Sokolow to Sidney Sonnino ,

17484-412: The west of "the districts of Damascus, Homs , Hama and Aleppo ". In the decades after the war, the extent of this coastal exclusion was hotly disputed since Palestine lay to the southwest of Damascus and was not explicitly mentioned. The Arab Revolt was launched on June   5th, 1916, on the basis of the quid pro quo agreement in the correspondence. However, less than three weeks earlier

17625-523: The wider war. A committee was established in April 1915 by British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to determine their policy towards the Ottoman Empire including Palestine. Asquith, who had favoured post-war reform of the Ottoman Empire, resigned in December 1916; his replacement David Lloyd George favoured partition of the Empire. The first negotiations between the British and the Zionists took place at

17766-566: The world have a conscientious and sentimental interest in the future of the country." Prior to this point, no active negotiations with Zionists had taken place, but Sykes had been aware of Zionism, was in contact with Moses Gaster – a former President of the English Zionist Federation – and may have seen Samuel's 1915 memorandum. On 3 March, while Sykes and Picot were still in Petrograd, Lucien Wolf (secretary of

17907-559: Was a major internal conflict in 2007 when the right-wing Zionist Organization of America unsuccessfully attempted to remove the left-wing Union of Progressive Zionists from the coalition after the latter group sponsored lectures by a group of former Israel Defense Forces soldiers who criticized the Israeli Occupation of the West Bank and Gaza . There are some who feel that pro-Israel activism on college campuses can cross

18048-476: Was also a major contributor to AIPAC. The former executive director of AIPAC Tom Dine was quoted as saying, "All the Jews in America, from coast to coast, gathered to oust Percy. And the American politicians - those who hold public positions now, and those who aspire - got the message". A summary of pro-Israel campaign donations for the period of 1990–2008 collected by OpenSecrets indicates current totals and

18189-462: Was authorised on 31 October; the preceding Cabinet discussion had referenced perceived propaganda benefits amongst the worldwide Jewish community for the Allied war effort. The opening words of the declaration represented the first public expression of support for Zionism by a major political power. The term "national home" had no precedent in international law, and was intentionally vague as to whether

18330-475: Was based upon geopolitical calculations. This support began in the early 1840s and was led by Lord Palmerston , following the occupation of Syria and Palestine by separatist Ottoman governor Muhammad Ali of Egypt . French influence had grown in Palestine and the wider Middle East, and its role as protector of the Catholic communities began to grow , just as Russian influence had grown as protector of

18471-517: Was complicated from 23 November 1915 by increasing French awareness of the British discussions with the Sherif of Mecca. Prior to 1917, the British had led the fighting on the southern border of the Ottoman Empire alone, given their neighbouring Egyptian colony and the French preoccupation with the fighting on the Western Front that was taking place on their own soil. Italy's participation in

18612-551: Was discussed at the meeting; Sokolow's notes record Sykes' description that "The Arabs professed that language must be the measure [by which control of Palestine should be determined] and [by that measure] could claim all Syria and Palestine. Still the Arabs could be managed, particularly if they received Jewish support in other matters." At this point the Zionists were still unaware of the Sykes-Picot Agreement , although they had their suspicions. One of Sykes' goals

18753-506: Was established, describing itself as the only federal "pro-peace, pro-Israel" PAC. Its platform explicitly supports a two-state solution. Its claimed goal is to provide political and financial support to candidates for federal office from US citizens who believe a new direction in US policy will advance US interests in the Middle East and promote real peace and security for Israel. Founded by

18894-527: Was informed that "the present moment is inopportune for making any announcement." These wartime initiatives, inclusive of the declaration, are frequently considered together by historians because of the potential, real or imagined, for incompatibility between them, particularly in regard to the disposition of Palestine. In the words of Professor Albert Hourani , founder of the Middle East Centre at St Antony's College, Oxford : "The argument about

19035-472: Was inherited by Walter.   Prior to the declaration, about 8,000 of Britain's 300,000 Jews belonged to a Zionist organisation. Globally, as of 1913 – the latest known date prior to the declaration – the equivalent figure was approximately 1%. The year 1916 marked four centuries since Palestine had become part of the Ottoman Empire , also known as the Turkish Empire. For most of this period,

19176-449: Was perceived to represent only the interests of Israel. This does not mean AIPAC does not have a close relationship with Israeli officials, it does, albeit unofficially. Even so, the lobby some times comes into conflict with the Israeli government." Balfour Declaration His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate

19317-489: Was strongly opposed by the Zionists, and was discarded; no copy of the draft has been found in the Foreign Office archives. Following further discussion, a revised – and at just 46 words in length, much shorter – draft declaration was prepared and sent by Lord Rothschild to Balfour on 18 July. It was received by the Foreign Office, and the matter was brought to the Cabinet for formal consideration. The decision to release

19458-482: Was subjected to a constant barrage. I do not think I ever had as much pressure and propaganda aimed at the White House as I had in this instance. The persistence of a few of the extreme Zionist leaders—actuated by political motives and engaging in political threats—disturbed and annoyed me." In the 1950s, the American Zionist Committee for Public Affairs was created by Isaiah L. Kenen . During

19599-524: Was the establishment of a state for the Jews. A year later, Herzl founded the Zionist Organization , which at its first congress called for the establishment of "a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law". Proposed measures to attain that goal included the promotion of Jewish settlement there, the organisation of Jews in the diaspora , the strengthening of Jewish feeling and consciousness, and preparatory steps to attain necessary governmental grants. Herzl died in 1904, 44 years before

19740-551: Was the mobilization of Zionism to the cause of British suzerainty in Palestine, so as to have arguments to put to France in support of that objective. During the period of the British War Cabinet discussions leading up to the declaration, the war had reached a period of stalemate. On the Western Front the tide would first turn in favour of the Central Powers in spring 1918 , before decisively turning in favour of

19881-518: Was to meet Rózsika Rothschild , who introduced him to the English branch of the family  – in particular her husband Charles and his older brother Walter , a zoologist and former Member of Parliament (MP). Their father, Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild , head of the English branch of the family, had a guarded attitude towards Zionism, but he died in March 1915 and his title

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