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121-667: Tractorul Brașov was a football team from Brașov , Brașov County , Romania . Tractorul Brașov was founded in 1927 under the name of IAR Brașov ( Industria Aeronautică Română Brașov) (English: Romanian Aeronautic Industry Brașov). They won 1935–36 Divizia B , but after lost in League Play-off and miss to qualify in Divizia A for the next season. Their colours were yellow and blue. In 2003, Tractorul Brașov merged with FC Forex Brașov , another team from Brașov who also disbanded in 2011. Bra%C8%99ov According to

242-594: A separate duchy under his brother's suzerainty. Throughout Coloman's reign, the brothers' relationship remained tense, which finally led to the blinding of Álmos and his infant son Béla . Coloman routed two bands of crusaders (the perpetrators of the Rhineland massacres ) who were plundering the Western borderlands, and defeated Petar Snačić in Croatia. The late 14th-century Pacta conventa states that Coloman

363-421: A Slavic suffix -ov . Other linguists proposed various etymologies including an Old Slavic anthroponym Brasa. The first attested mention of this name is Terra Saxonum de Barasu (" Saxon Land of Baras") in a 1252 document issued by Béla IV of Hungary . According to some historians, Corona was name of the city-fortress while Brassó was referring to the county , while others consider both names may refer to

484-422: A ban on sale of native slaves to places abroad. His laws concerning his Muslim subjects aimed at their conversion; for instance, by obliging them to marry their daughters to Christians. The presence of Jewish and Muslim merchants in the kingdom was due to its position as a crossroad of trading routes leading towards Constantinople, Regensburg , and Kiev . Local trade also existed, which enabled Coloman to collect

605-533: A brief period during the latter decades of the 18th century. In 1850, the town had 21,782 inhabitants: 8,874 (40.7%) Germans, 8,727 (40%) Romanians, 2,939 (13.4%) Hungarians. In 1910 there were 41,056 inhabitants: 17,831 (43.4%) Hungarians, 11,786 (28.7%) Romanians, 10,841 (26.4%) Germans. On 29 August 1916, during the First World War , the Romanian Army occupied Brașov. Romanian troops entered

726-506: A feasibility study for the construction of a rail line (8 km) which would connect the airport to the Brașov railway station . With its central location, Brașov is a suitable location from which to explore Romania, and the distances to several tourist destinations (including the Black Sea resorts, the monasteries in northern Moldavia, and the wooden churches of Maramureș ) are similar. It

847-497: A four-decade crisis. Stephen considered his cousin, Vazul , unsuitable for the throne and named his own sister's son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo , as his heir. After Vazul was blinded and his three sons were expelled, Peter succeeded his uncle without opposition in 1038. Peter's preference for his foreign courtiers led to a rebellion, which ended with his deposition in favor of a native lord, Samuel Aba , who

968-525: A further 200 refugees came from Ploiești . In August 1942, 850 Jews between the ages of 18 and 50 were drafted into labour battalions and ordered to work in Brașov, while others were sent to Predeal and Bran . In spring 1943, 250 youths were sent to Suraia camp to build fortifications. By August 1944, the labour battalions were reduced to 250-300 while most of the Jews managed to obtain their freedom. In 1945–1946,

1089-459: A girl to be his wife without the consent of her parents, we decreed that the girl should be returned to her parents, even if he did anything by force to her, and the abductor shall pay ten steers for the abduction, although he may afterwards have made peace with the girl's parents. Stephen I:27, 1000–1038 From a legal perspective, Hungarian society was divided into freemen and serfs , but intermediate groups also existed. All freemen had

1210-635: A group of Cumans to accept Andrew II's suzerainty in 1228 and established a new march in Oltenia (known as the Banate of Szörény ) in 1231. Béla IV succeeded his father in 1235. His attempt to reacquire crown lands alienated by his predecessors created a deep rift between the monarch and the lords just as the Mongols were sweeping westward across the Eurasian steppes . The king was first informed of

1331-473: A group of local lords in 1213. A new uprising broke out while the king was in the Holy Land on his crusade in 1217 and 1218 . Finally, a movement of the royal servants , who were actually free landholders directly subordinated to the sovereign, obliged Andrew II to issue his Golden Bull in 1222. It summarized the royal servants' liberties, including their tax exemption. Its last provision authorized

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1452-527: A list of merchandise brought to Ghent shows that Hungary exported wax and unminted gold and silver. Although threatening letters sent to Béla IV by the khans of the Golden Horde proved that the danger of a new Mongol invasion still existed, he adopted an expansionist foreign policy. Frederick II of Austria died fighting against Hungarian troops in 1246, and Béla IV's son-in-law, Rostislav Mikhailovich , annexed large territories along

1573-659: A new wave of colonization that resulted in the arrival of a number of Germans, Moravians , Poles , and Romanians . The king re-invited the Cumans and settled them in the plains along the Danube and the Tisza . A group of Alans , the ancestors of the Jassic people , seems to have settled in the kingdom around the same time. New villages appeared, consisting of timber houses built side by side in equal parcels of land. For instance,

1694-545: A prince of dubious legitimacy. Andrew became the first monarch to take an oath respecting the liberties of the Church and the nobility before his coronation. He regularly convoked the prelates, the lords, and the noblemen's representatives to assemblies known as Diets , which started to develop into a legislative body. By 1300, when the kingdom had disintegrated into autonomous provinces ruled by powerful noblemen (including Matthew Csák , Ladislaus Kán , and Amadeus Aba ),

1815-475: A provisional crown, but most lords and bishops refused to yield to him because they regarded him as a symbol of the Holy See's attempts to control Hungary. They elected as king the twelve-year-old Wenceslaus of Bohemia , who was descended from Béla IV of Hungary in the female line. The young king could not consolidate his position because many lords, especially those who held domains in the southern region of

1936-523: A significant Romanian and Bulgarian population (living in the Șchei district), and also some Hungarian population (living in the Blumăna district). The cultural and religious importance of the Romanian church and school in Șchei is underlined by the generous donations received from more than thirty hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as that from Elizabeth of Russia . In the 17th and 19th centuries,

2057-537: A tolerant attitude towards Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Muslim, Jewish, and Hungarian merchants from Hungary regularly visited the fairs at Prague, exchanging gold and Byzantine gold coins for slaves, tin, and fur. To Pereyaslavets , an important emporium on the Lower Danube, the Hungarians brought horses and silver. The Byzantine Church was the first to successfully proselytize among their leaders: in 948

2178-478: Is George Scripcaru from the National Liberal Party (PNL). The Brașov Local Council, elected at the 2024 Romanian local elections , is made up of 27 counselors, with the following party composition: The Brașov local transport network has 44 urban bus and trolleybus lines and 19 metropolitan bus lines. There are also regular bus lines serving Poiana Brașov , a nearby winter resort and part of

2299-464: Is also a large brewery. Brașov has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dfb ). Brașov has a total population of 237,589 ( 2021 census ). Its ethnic composition includes (as of 2011): In 2005, the Brașov metropolitan area was created. With its surrounding localities, Brașov had 371,802 inhabitants as of 2021 . Brașov is administered by a mayor and a local council. The current mayor of Brașov (starting October 21, 2024)

2420-420: Is also reflected in the assemblages of the " Bijelo Brdo culture ", which emerged in the mid-10th century. Archaeological finds—a few objects with short inscriptions—indicate the use of a special runiform script in medieval Hungary. The inscriptions have not been deciphered, and the script was probably never used for administrative or legislative purposes. Although they were pagan, the Hungarians demonstrated

2541-497: Is also the largest city in a mountain resorts area. The old city is very well preserved and is best seen by taking the cable-car to the top of Tâmpa Mountain. Temperatures from May to September fluctuate around 23 °C (73 °F). Brașov benefits from a winter tourism season centred on winter sports and other activities. Poiana Brașov is the most popular Romanian ski resort and an important tourist centre preferred by many tourists from other European states. The city ranks on

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2662-454: Is asked of the prince through his peers, ... no opportunity of defending himself is granted the accused, but the will of the prince alone is held by all as sufficient. Otto of Freising , The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa Béla II's son, Géza II , who ascended the throne in 1141, adopted an active foreign policy. He supported Uroš II of Serbia against Emperor Manuel I Komnenos , and launched at least six military campaigns to

2783-481: Is home to several local media publications such as Transilvania Express, Monitorul Express, Bună Ziua Brașov or Brașovul Tău. Also, several local television stations exist, such as RTT, MIX TV and Nova TV. Kingdom of Hungary (1000%E2%80%931301) The high-medieval Kingdom of Hungary was a regional power in central Europe. It came into existence in Central Europe when Stephen I , Grand Prince of

2904-467: Is the first airport to be developed in post-communist Romania, and the 17th commercial airport in the country. The contract for the construction of the main terminal building, with a total area of 11,780 m (126,799 sq ft), was awarded to the Romanian contractor Bog'Art Bucharest and was signed on 21 August 2019. Construction works for the passenger terminal started on 17 March 2020 and the first commercial flight took place on June 15, 2023. CFR announced

3025-507: Is weak and fragile", he emphasized the advantages of the arrival of foreigners, or "guests". His laws were aimed at the adoption, even by force, of a Christian way of life. He especially protected Christian marriage against polygamy and other traditional customs. Decorated belts and other items of pagan fashion also disappeared. Commoners started to wear long woolen coats, but wealthy men persisted in wearing their silk kaftans decorated with furs. If any warrior debased by lewdness abducts

3146-534: The horka , and around 952 the gyula , were baptized in Constantinople . In contrast, the grand prince Géza who ruled from the early 970s received baptism into the Latin Church . He erected fortresses and invited foreign warriors to develop a new army based on heavy cavalry . Géza also arranged the marriage of his son, Stephen , with Giselle of Bavaria , a princess from the family of

3267-477: The marturina , the traditional in-kind tax of Slavonia, in cash. Coloman exempted those who lived on their own estates from the freemen's pennies, and allowed other freemen to redeem half of the tax through services provided. Modern scholars assume that the earliest Hungarian chronicle was composed under Coloman, but it did not survive. This "primary" chronicle is thought to have been expanded and rewritten in accordance with changing political expectations during

3388-559: The 2021 census , with 237,589 inhabitants, Brașov is the 6th most populous city in Romania. The metropolitan area was home to 371,802 residents. Brașov is located in the central part of the country, about 166 km (103 mi) north of Bucharest and 380 km (236 mi) from the Black Sea . It is surrounded by the Southern Carpathians and is part of the historical region of Transylvania . Historically,

3509-566: The Balkan Peninsula and the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains , transforming their kingdom into one of the major powers of medieval Europe. Rich in uncultivated lands, silver, gold, and salt deposits, Hungary became the preferred destination of mainly German, Italian, and French colonists. These immigrants were mostly peasants who settled in villages, but some were craftsmen and merchants, who established most of

3630-513: The Csák , Kőszegi , and other leading families who attempted to control the central government in the name of the young Ladislaus IV. He was declared to be of age in 1277 at an assembly of the spiritual and temporal lords and of the noblemen's and Cumans' representatives, but he could not strengthen royal authority. Ladislaus IV, whose mother, Elisabeth , was a Cuman chieftain's daughter, preferred his Cuman kin, which made him unpopular. He

3751-592: The Holy Roman emperors to expand their authority over Hungary , jeopardized the new monarchy. The monarchy stabilized during the reigns of Ladislaus I (1077–1095) and Coloman (1095–1116). These rulers occupied Croatia and Dalmatia with the support of a part of the local population. Both realms retained their autonomous position. The successors of Ladislaus and Coloman—especially Béla II (1131–1141), Béla III (1176–1196), Andrew II (1205–1235), and Béla IV (1235–1270)—continued this policy of expansion towards

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3872-588: The Neolithic age (about 9500 BCE). Archaeologists working from the last half of the 19th century discovered continuous traces of human settlements in areas situated in Brașov: Valea Cetății, Pietrele lui Solomon, Șprenghi, Tâmpa, Dealul Melcilor, and Noua. The first three locations show traces of Dacian citadels; Șprenghi Hill housed a Roman -style construction. The last two locations had their names applied to Bronze Age cultures — Schneckenberg ("Hill of

3993-823: The Teutonic Knights fortified the Burzenland to defend the border of the Kingdom of Hungary . On the site of the village of Brașov, the Teutonic Knights built Kronstadt – 'the City of the Crown'. Although the crusaders were evicted by 1225, the colonists they brought in long ago remained, along with local population in three distinct settlements they founded on the site of Brașov: Germans living in Brașov were mainly involved in trade and crafts. The location of

4114-563: The ecclesiastic nobles , Romanian knezes , and other " conditional nobles ") owed services to their lords in exchange for the lands they held. In a growing number of counties, local nobility acquired the right to elect four "judges of the nobles" to represent them in official procedures (or two, in Transylvania and Slavonia). The idea of equating the Hungarian "nation" with the community of noblemen also emerged in this period. It

4235-565: The "Brașov Challenge Cup" tennis competition is held. Colțea Brașov was the football champion in 1928, managing a second place in 1927, in its only 10 years of existence (1921–1931). It was succeeded by Brașovia Brașov . Between 17 and 22 February 2013, the city hosted the 2013 European Youth Winter Olympic Festival . As of 2012 , Brașov is hosting two trail semi-marathons: the Semimaraton Intersport Brașov (held in April) and

4356-557: The 1150s. Aspects of 12th-century French culture could also be detected in Béla's kingdom. His palace at Esztergom was built in the early Gothic style . Achilles and other names known from the Legend of Troy and the Romance of Alexander (two emblematic works of chivalric culture) were also popular among Hungarian aristocrats. According to the consensual scholarly view, "Master P",

4477-449: The 12th century. All scholarly attempts to reconstruct the original text based on chronicles from the 14th and 15th centuries have proved futile. The kingdom was sparsely populated, with an average population density of four or five people per 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi). The Olaszi ("Italians") streets or districts in Eger , Pécs and Várad (Oradea, Romania) point at

4598-809: The Brașov International Marathon (held in April or May). In November 2013, Brașov submitted their bid for the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics . They were up against Lausanne , Switzerland to be awarded the event. In December that year, the city was signed the Youth Olympic Game Candidature Procedure. The host city was to be announced in July 2015, in which Lausanne was selected. • Under construction • Sala Polivalentă (10,059 capacity) - under construction multi-purpose 10,059-seat indoor arena The city of Brașov

4719-618: The Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. Here they found a predominantly Slavic-speaking population. From their new homeland, they launched plundering raids against East Francia , Italy , and other regions of Europe. Their raids were halted by the future Holy Roman Emperor Otto I , who defeated them at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. Hungarians lived in patrilineal families, which were organized into clans that formed tribes . The tribal confederation

4840-559: The Communist era, with special emphasis being placed on heavy industry , attracting many workers from other parts of the country. Heavy industry is still abundant, including Roman , which manufactures MAN AG trucks as well as native-designed trucks and coaches. Although the industrial base has been in decline in recent years, Brașov is still a site for manufacturing hydraulic transmissions, auto parts, ball-bearings, construction materials, hand tools, furniture, textiles and shoe-wear. There

4961-519: The Croatian lord, Paul I Šubić of Bribir , dared to invite the late Charles Martel's son, the twelve-year-old Charles Robert , to Hungary. The young pretender was marching from Croatia towards Buda when Andrew III unexpectedly died on January 14, 1301. With Andrew III's death, the male line of the House of Árpád became extinct, and a period of anarchy began. Charles Robert was crowned king with

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5082-583: The Great Khan Ögödei in March 1242. Nevertheless, the invasion and the famine that followed it had catastrophic demographic consequences. At least 15 percent of the population died or disappeared. Transcontinental trading routes disintegrated, causing the decline of Bács (Bač, Serbia), Ungvár (Uzhhorod, Ukraine ) and other traditional centers of commerce. Local Muslim communities vanished, indicating they had suffered especially heavy losses during

5203-529: The Holy Roman emperors . When Géza died in 997, his son had to fight for his succession with Koppány , the eldest member of the House of Árpád . Assisted by German heavy cavalry, Stephen emerged the victor in the decisive battle of the conflict in 998. He applied for a royal crown to Pope Sylvester II ( r.  999–1003 ), who granted his request with the consent of Emperor Otto III . Stephen

5324-714: The Hungarian army was indeed on a par with the armies of the Byzantine and Holy Roman emperors. While crossing Hungary during the Second Crusade , Otto of Freising noticed Géza's nearly uncontrolled authority over his subjects. Géza promoted the colonization of the border zones. Flemish , German, Italian, and Walloon "guests" arrived in great numbers and settled in the Szepesség region (Spiš, Slovakia) and in southern Transylvania. Abu Hamid refers to mountains that "contain lots of silver and gold", which points at

5445-477: The Hungarians , was crowned king in 1000 or 1001. He reinforced central authority and forced his subjects to accept Christianity . Although all written sources emphasize only the role played by German and Italian knights and clerics in the process, a significant part of the Hungarian vocabulary for agriculture, religion was taken from Slavic languages . Civil wars and pagan uprisings, along with attempts by

5566-509: The Jewish population increased to 3500. Like many other cities in Transylvania, Brașov is also home to a significant ethnic Hungarian minority . During the communist period, industrial development was vastly accelerated. Under Nicolae Ceaușescu 's rule, the city was the site of the 1987 Brașov strike . This was brutally repressed by the authorities and resulted in numerous workers being imprisoned. Industrial development in Brașov started in

5687-588: The Kievan Rus' against the enemies of his brother-in-law Iziaslav II of Kiev . He even recruited Muslim warriors in the Pontic steppes to serve in his army. Abu Hamid al-Gharnati , a Muslim traveler from Al-Andalus who lived in Hungary from 1150 to 1153 stated that Géza was "many times more powerful than that of the Byzantine ruler" as his troops were "innumerable". He overestimated Géza's military power but

5808-805: The Mongol threat by Friar Julian , a Dominican friar who had visited a Hungarian-speaking population in Magna Hungaria , in 1235. In the next years, the Mongols routed the Cumans who dominated the western parts of the Eurasian steppes . A Cuman chieftain, Kuthen , agreed to accept Béla IV's supremacy; thus he and his people were allowed to settle in the Great Hungarian Plain . The Cumans' nomadic lifestyle caused many conflicts with local communities. The locals even considered them as

5929-461: The Mongols' allies. Batu Khan , who was the commander of the Mongol armies invading Eastern Europe , demanded Béla IV's surrender without a fight in 1240. The king refused, and ordered his barons to assemble with their retinue in his camp at Pest . Here, a riot broke out against the Cumans and the mob massacred the Cuman leader, Kuthen. The Cumans soon departed and pillaged the central parts of

6050-428: The Romanian state. Brașov was permanently occupied by Romanian forces on 7 December, as Hungarians gradually withdrew northwards. The King and some Transylvanians suggested that - because of Brașov's central geographical location in the new Romania - it should be considered as the new national capital. Though this did not happen - the inter-war period was a time of flourishing economy and cultural life in general, including

6171-624: The Romanians in Șchei campaigned for national, political, and cultural rights, and were supported in their efforts by Romanians from all other provinces, as well as by the local Greek merchant community. In 1838, they established the first Romanian language newspaper Gazeta Transilvaniei and the first Romanian institutions of higher education: Școlile Centrale Greco-Ortodoxe ("The Greek-Orthodox Central Schools", today named after Andrei Șaguna ). The Holy Roman Emperor and sovereign of Transylvania Joseph II awarded Romanians citizenship rights for

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6292-586: The Saxons in Brașov. However, at the end of World War II many ethnic Germans were forcibly deported to the Soviet Union . A majority of them emigrated to West Germany after Romania had become a communist country . The first Jewish community in Brașov was established in 1828, joining the Neolog association in 1868. Orthodox Jews founded their religious organization in 1877. The Neolog synagogue, seating 800,

6413-617: The Snails"; Early Bronze Age) and Noua ("The New"; Late Bronze Age). Transylvanian Saxons played a decisive role in Brașov's development and were invited by Hungarian kings to develop towns, build mines, and cultivate the land of Transylvania at different stages between 1141 and 1300. The settlers came primarily from the Rhineland , Flanders , and the Moselle region, with others from Thuringia , Bavaria , Wallonia , and even France. In 1211, by order of King Andrew II of Hungary ,

6534-594: The Walloon "guests" in Székesfehérvár , including immunity from the jurisdiction of the local ispán . When Stephen died childless in 1172, his brother, Béla III , ascended the throne. He reconquered Dalmatia and the Szerémség in the 1180s. A contemporary list shows that Béla's total income was the equivalent of 32 tonnes of silver per year, but this number is clearly exaggerated. According to

6655-471: The armies of the Fourth Crusade took Zadar in 1202. Emeric was succeeded in 1204 by his infant son, Ladislaus III . When the young king died in a year, his uncle, Andrew, mounted the throne. Stating that "the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable", he distributed large parcels of royal lands among his partisans. Freemen living in former royal lands lost their direct contact to

6776-473: The author of the Gesta Hungarorum , a chronicle on the Hungarian "land-taking", was Béla's notary. The earliest text written in Hungarian, known as Funeral Sermon and Prayer , was preserved in the late 12th-century Pray Codex . Béla III's son and successor, Emeric , had to face revolts stirred up by his younger brother, Andrew . Furthermore, incited by Enrico Dandolo , Doge of Venice ,

6897-439: The borders, but they were moved to the easternmost regions of Transylvania in the 12th century. Stephen II died childless in 1131. His cousin, Duke Álmos' blind son Béla II, succeeded him. During his reign, the kingdom was administered by his wife, Helena of Serbia , who ordered the massacre of the lords whom she blamed for her husband's mutilation. Boris Kalamanos , an alleged son of King Coloman who attempted to seize

7018-508: The cities of the Kingdom. Their arrival played a key role in the shaping of an urban lifestyle, habits, and culture in medieval Hungary. The location of the kingdom at the crossroads of international trade routes favored the coexistence of several cultures. Romanesque , Gothic , and Renaissance buildings and literary works written in Latin prove the predominantly Roman Catholic character of

7139-626: The city and the county as well. According to Balázs Orbán, the name Corona  – a Latin word meaning "crown" – is first mentioned in the Catalogus Ninivensis in 1235 AD, stating a monastic quarter existed in the territory of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania ( In Hungaria assignata est paternitas Dyocesis Cumanie: Corona ). Pál Binder supposed it is a reference to the St. Catherine's Monastery. Others suggest

7260-541: The city at around five o'clock p.m. and paraded towards the city square. Romanian rule over the city lasted until early October, when the area was retaken by the Central Powers in the Battle of Brassó (7-9 October 1916). The Romanian mayor installed during the brief Romanian occupation was Gheorghe Baiulescu. His term lasted from 29 August, when the city was occupied by the Romanian Army, until 8 October –

7381-509: The city at the intersection of trade routes linking the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe , together with certain tax exemptions, allowed Saxon merchants to obtain considerable wealth and exert a strong political influence. They contributed a great deal to the architectural flavour of the city. Fortifications around the city were erected and continually expanded, with several towers maintained by different craftsmen's guilds, according to

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7502-414: The city of Brașov, and the Brașov-Ghimbav International Airport. All are operated by RAT Brașov . Because of its central location, the Brașov railway station is one of the busiest stations in Romania with trains to/from most destinations in the country served by rail. The Brașov-Ghimbav International Airport is an international airport located in nearby Ghimbav , right by the future A3 motorway . It

7623-412: The city was the centre of the Burzenland ( Romanian : Țara Bârsei ), once dominated by the Transylvanian Saxons ( German : Siebenbürger Sachsen ), and a significant commercial hub on the trade roads between Austria (then Archduchy of Austria , within the Habsburg monarchy , and subsequently Austrian Empire ) and Turkey (then Ottoman Empire ). It is also where the national anthem of Romania

7744-453: The city. During the communist period, universiades and Daciads were held, where local sportsmen were obliged to participate. Nowadays, the infrastructure of the city allows other sports to be practiced, such as football, rugby, tennis, cycling, handball, gliding, skiing, skating, mountain climbing, paintball, bowling, swimming, target shooting, basketball, martial arts, equestrian, volleyball or gymnastics. Annually, at "Olimpia" sports ground,

7865-403: The company was renamed Uzina Tractorul Brașov known internationally as Universal Tractor Brașov. A big part of the factory was demolished during 2013 and 2014 giving way to buildings, shopping mall and recreation parks. Aircraft manufacturing resumed in 1968 at first under the name ICA and then under its old name of IAR at a new location in nearby Ghimbav . Industrialization was accelerated in

7986-408: The corpses, they left the place empty. People hiding in the nearby forests came back to find some food. And while they were searching among the stones and the corpses, the [Mongols] suddenly returned and of those living whom they found there, none was left alive. Master Roger , Epistle The kingdom continued to exist. Batu Khan withdrew his entire army when he was informed of the death of

8107-423: The culture; but Orthodox , and even non-Christian ethnic minority communities also existed. Latin was the language of legislation, administration and the judiciary, but "linguistic pluralism" contributed to the survival of many tongues, including a great variety of Slavic dialects. The predominance of royal estates initially assured the sovereign's preeminent position, but the alienation of royal lands gave rise to

8228-607: The development of the new domains emerging in former royal lands. The new landholders granted personal freedom and more favorable financial conditions to those who arrived in their estates, which also enabled the peasants who decided not to move to improve their position. Béla IV granted privileges to more than a dozen towns, including Nagyszombat (Trnava, Slovakia) and Pest . A 1264 list of luxury goods—oriental velvet, silk, jewels, gems, and Flemish broadcloth —sold to Béla IV's heir Stephen indicates that imported goods were primarily paid for using silver and salt. Likewise,

8349-401: The early 1080s. Ladislaus promulgated laws that prescribed draconian punishments against criminals. His laws also regulated the payment of customs duties, of tolls payable at fairs and fords, and of the tithes . He forbade Jews from holding Christian serfs, and introduced laws aiming at the conversion of local Muslims, who were known as Böszörménys . No one shall buy or sell except in

8470-549: The emergence of a self-conscious group of lesser landholders, known as " royal servants ". They forced Andrew II to issue his Golden Bull of 1222 , "one of the first examples of constitutional limits being placed on the powers of a European monarch" ( Francis Fukuyama ). The kingdom received a major blow from the Mongol invasion of 1241–42 . Thereafter, Cuman and Jassic groups settled in the central lowlands, and colonists arrived from Moravia , Poland , and other nearby countries. The erection of fortresses by landlords, promoted by

8591-451: The employment of Muslims and Jews in royal administration. This ban was confirmed when Andrew II, urged by the prelates, issued the Golden Bull's new variant in 1231, which authorized the archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate him in case of his departure from its provisions. For non-Christians who continued to be employed in the royal household, Archbishop Robert of Esztergom placed the kingdom under interdict in 1232. Andrew II

8712-596: The height of the Battle of Brașov. On 9 October, at the end of the battle, the previous mayor Karl Ernst Schnell was reinstated. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the 1 December 1918 Proclamation of the Union of Alba Iulia , adopted by deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania, Banat, Crișana and Maramureș during the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia declared the union of Transylvania into

8833-463: The hermits Benedict and Andrew Zorard —the earliest Hungarian hagiography —around this time. The young king and his cousins cooperated for almost a decade; for instance, they jointly defeated the Pechenegs plundering Transylvania in 1068. The power conflict in the royal family caused a new civil war in 1071. It lasted up to Solomon's abdication in favor of one of his cousins, Ladislaus , in

8954-479: The importance of mining and gold panning already around 1150. He also writes of slave trading, mentioning that he bought an attractive slave girl for ten denars, but beautiful slave women were sold for three denars after military campaigns. Archaeological evidence indicates that the large asymmetric heavy plows, capable to turn the soil over, first appeared when the new settlers arrived. As the heavy plows spread, long narrow fields, more suitable to their use, replaced

9075-468: The inter-war period, with one of the largest factories being the aeroplane manufacturing plant ( IAR Brașov), which produced the first Romanian fighter planes used during World War II. After signing the armistice with USSR on September 12, 1944, the factory started repairing trucks, and in October 1945 it began manufacturing agricultural tractors. IAR 22 was the first Romanian-made wheeled tractor. In 1948

9196-601: The invasion. Small villages also disappeared, but archaeological data indicate that the total destruction of settlements was less often than it used to be assumed. The abandonment of most villages, well-documented from the second half of the 13th century, was the consequence of a decades-long integration process with peasants moving from the small villages to larger settlements. After the Mongol withdrawal, Béla IV abandoned his policy of recovering former crown lands. Instead, he granted large estates to his supporters, and urged them to construct stone-and-mortar castles. He initiated

9317-597: The kingdom's borders. A wide zone known as gyepü was intentionally left uninhabited for defensive purposes along the frontiers. Stephen developed a state similar to the monarchies of contemporary Western Europe . Counties , the basic units of administration, were districts organized around fortresses and headed by royal officials known as ispáns , or counts. Most of the early medieval fortresses were made of earth and timber. Stephen founded dioceses and at least one archbishopric , and established Benedictine monasteries. He prescribed that every tenth village

9438-415: The kingdom's southern frontiers. Conflicts between the elderly monarch and his heir caused a civil war in the 1260s . Béla IV and his son jointly confirmed the liberties of the royal servants and started referring to them as noblemen in 1267. By that time, "true noblemen" were legally differentiated from other landholders. They held their estates free from any obligation, but everybody else (even

9559-597: The kingdom, continued to support Charles Robert. Wenceslaus left Hungary for Bohemia in mid-1304. After he inherited Bohemia in 1305, he abandoned his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III, Duke of Bavaria . Otto, who was a grandson of Béla IV of Hungary, was crowned king, but only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons regarded him as the lawful monarch. He was captured in Transylvania by Ladislaus Kán, who forced him to leave Hungary. The majority of

9680-616: The kingdom. The main Mongol army arrived through the northeastern passes of the Carpathian Mountains in March 1241. Royal troops met the enemy forces at the river Sajó , where the Mongols won a decisive victory in the battle of Mohi on April 11, 1241. From the battlefield, Béla IV fled first to Austria , where Duke Frederick II held him for ransom. Thereafter, the king and his family found refuge in Klis Fortress in Dalmatia. The Mongols first occupied and thoroughly plundered

9801-455: The legal capacity to own property, to sue, and to be sued. Most of them were bound to the monarch or to a wealthier landlord, and only "guests" could freely move. Among freemen living in lands attached to a fortress, the castle warriors served in the army, and the castle folk cultivated the lands, forged weapons, or rendered other services. All freemen were to pay a special tax, the freemen's pennies —eight denars per person per year—to

9922-438: The list, more than 50 percent of his revenues derived from the annual renewal of the silver currency, and from trade-related duties. Austrian custom tariffs of the period indicate that Hungary was a major supplier of grain, leather, timber, wine, wax, honey, fish, cattle, sheep, pigs, copper, tin, lead, iron, and salt. Royal revenues were due either to the royal chamber or to the king as landowner. The distinction between them

10043-608: The local clergy with liturgical books, and the kings regularly donated codices to monasteries. The earliest extant literary works were composed in Latin during Stephen's reign. Bishop Gerard of Csanád , who had come from Venice, completed a Latin commentary on a chapter in the Book of Daniel in Hungary. Stephen's views on state administration were summarized around 1015 in a mirror for princes known as Admonitions . Stating that "the country that has only one language and one custom

10164-587: The lords and prelates elected Charles Robert king at a Diet on October 10, 1307. He was crowned king with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár by the Archbishop of Esztergom, as required by customary law, on August 27, 1310. During the next decade, he launched a series of military campaigns against the oligarchs to restore royal authority. Charles Robert reunited the kingdom after

10285-496: The lowlands, but a native claimant, Petar Snačić , resisted in the Petrova Mounts . Nevertheless, Croatia and Hungary remained closely connected for more than nine centuries. Ladislaus I appointed his nephew, Álmos , to administer Croatia. Although a younger son, Álmos was also favored by the king against his brother, Coloman , for the succession. Even so, Coloman succeeded his uncle in 1095, while Álmos received

10406-404: The market. If, in violation of this anyone buys stolen property, everyone shall perish: the buyer, the seller, and the witnesses. If, however, they agreed to sell something of their own, they shall lose that thing and its price, and the witnesses shall lose as much too. But if the deal was made in the market, and agreement shall be concluded in front of a judge, a toll-gatherer, and witnesses, and if

10527-421: The medieval custom. Part of the fortification ensemble was recently restored using UNESCO funds, and other projects are ongoing. At least two entrances to the city, Poarta Ecaterinei (or Katharinentor ) and Poarta Șchei (or Waisenhausgässertor ), are still in existence. The city centre is marked by the mayor's former office building ( Casa Sfatului ) and the surrounding square ( piața ), which includes one of

10648-441: The monarchs after the withdrawal of the Mongols , led to the development of semi-autonomous "provinces" dominated by powerful magnates . Some of these magnates even challenged the authority of Andrew III (1290–1301), the last male descendant of the native Árpád dynasty . His death was followed by a period of interregnum and anarchy. Central power was re-established only in the early 1320s. The Magyars, or Hungarians , conquered

10769-507: The monarchs. Peasants known as udvornici were exempt from this tax, being somewhat transitory between the status of freemen and of serf. Serfs theoretically lacked the legal status available to freemen, but in practice they had their own property: they cultivated their masters' land with their own tools, and kept 50–66 percent of the harvest for themselves. Stephen's laws and charters suggest that most commoners lived in sedentary communities which formed villages. An average village

10890-451: The monarchs. Zadar , Split , and other Dalmatian towns also accepted Coloman's suzerainty in 1105, but their right to elect their own bishops and leaders remained unchanged. In Croatia and Slavonia, the sovereign was represented by governors bearing the title ban . Likewise, a royal official, the voivode , administered Transylvania , the eastern borderland of the kingdom. The central administration's highest offices developed from

11011-598: The name derives from the old coat of arms of the city, as it is symbolized by the German name Kronstadt meaning "Crown City". The two names of the city, Kronstadt and Corona , were used simultaneously in the Middle Ages , along with the Medieval Latin Brassovia . Another historical name used for Brașov is Stephanopolis , from "Stephanos", crown, and "polis", city. On 22 August 1950, Brașov

11132-436: The obligatory use of written petitions. Landowners also started to put their transactions into writing, which led to the appearance of the so-called " places of authentication ", such as cathedral chapters and monasteries authorized to issue deeds . Their emergence also evidences the employment of an educated staff. Indeed, students from the kingdom studied at the universities of Paris , Oxford , Bologna , and Padua from

11253-541: The oldest buildings in Brașov, the Hirscher Haus. Nearby is the "Black Church" ( Biserica Neagră ), which some claim to be the largest Gothic style church in Southeastern Europe . In 1689, a great fire destroyed the walled city almost entirely, and its rebuilding lasted several decades. Besides the German (Saxon) population living in the walled city and in the northern suburbs, Brașov had also

11374-421: The pagans in 1046. His cooperation with his brother, Béla , a talented military commander, ensured the Hungarians' victory over Emperor Henry III, who attempted to conquer the kingdom two times: in 1050 and 1053. A new civil war broke out when Duke Béla claimed the crown for himself in 1059, but his three sons accepted the rule of Solomon , Andrew I's son, in 1063. Bishop Maurus of Pécs wrote his Life of

11495-462: The peasants' daily diet. Monasteries introduced the systematic growing of fruit trees. In their orchards, the trees were planted in holes dug at regular intervals. Even peasants were allowed to hunt and fish in the royal forests that covered large territories in the kingdom. Animal husbandry remained an important sector of agriculture, and millet and oats were produced for fodder. Both written sources and archaeological evidence indicate that famine

11616-478: The presence of "guests" speaking a Western Romance language , while the Németi ("Germans") and Szászi ("Saxons") place names imply German-speaking colonists throughout the entire kingdom. Most subjects of the early medieval Hungarian monarchs were peasants. They only cultivated the most fertile lands, and moved further out when the lands became exhausted. Wheat was the most widely produced crop, but barley ,

11737-406: The purchased goods later appear to be stolen, the buyer shall escape penalty ... Ladislaus II:7, 1077–1095 The death of Ladislaus's brother-in-law King Zvonimir of Croatia , in 1089 or 1090, created an opportunity for him to claim Croatia for himself. Ladislaus's sister, Helena , and several noblemen (mainly from northern Croatia) supported his claim. Ladislaus's troops occupied

11858-513: The raw material for home brew, was also grown. Winegrowing flourished and vineyards existed in virtually all settlements with the exception of the highlands. The highest-ranking wines were produced in the Szerémség region (now Srem in Serbia), but the wines of Buda Hills , Hegyalja , Sopron , and Pressburg (Bratislava, Slovakia) were also popular. Fresh or dried fruits were common elements of

11979-583: The royal household's leading positions. Initially responsible for the management of the royal domains, the palatine emerged as the king's deputy by the early 12th century. His managerial tasks were transferred to a new official who quickly gained the functions of a chief justiciar as judge royal . Like Ladislaus I, Coloman proved to be a great legislator, but he prescribed less severe punishments than his uncle had done. He ordered that transactions between Christians and Jews were to be put into writing. He prohibited them to hold Christian slaves and introduced

12100-480: The scarcely-inhabited forests of the Western Carpathians (in present-day Slovakia) developed a network of settlements under Béla IV. Huts disappeared, and new rural houses consisting of a living room, a kitchen and a pantry were built. The most advanced agricultural techniques, including asymmetric heavy ploughs, also spread throughout the kingdom. Internal migration was likewise instrumental in

12221-410: The second place in terms of tourism arrivals countrywide, after the capital Bucharest . Brașov is twinned with: The city has a long tradition in sports, the first sport associations being established at the end of the 19th century (Target shooting Association, Gymnastics School). The Transylvanian Sports Museum is among the oldest in the country and presents the evolution of consecrated sports in

12342-447: The secular and spiritual lords to "resist and speak against" the sovereign "without the charge of high treason ". Around this time, the structure of charters of grant underwent a significant change with the introduction of a narrative section about the beneficiaries' heroic acts in the king's service. These lengthy accounts contain more information about Hungary's 13th-century history than the chronicles. The Golden Bull also prohibited

12463-425: The sovereign, which threatened their legal status. Royal revenues decreased, which led to the introduction of new taxes and their farming out to Muslims and Jews. The new methods of raising funds for the royal treasury created widespread unrest. Andrew II was strongly influenced by his wife, Gertrude of Merania . She openly expressed her preference for her German compatriots, which led to her assassination by

12584-484: The territories east of the river Danube. An eyewitness account of the devastation of eastern Hungary was compiled by Master Roger , archdeacon of the cathedral chapter at Várad. The Mongols crossed the Danube when it was frozen in early 1242. On learning of their acts, Hermann, abbot of the Austrian Niederaltaich Abbey recorded that "the Kingdom of Hungary, which had existed for 350 years,

12705-419: The throne from Béla II, received no internal support. If anyone of the rank of count has even in a trivial matter offended against the king or, as sometimes happens, has been unjustly accused of this, an emissary from the court, though he be of very lowly station and unattended, seizes him in the midst of his retinue, puts him in chains, and drags him off to various forms of punishment. No formal sentence

12826-505: The traditional small square fields in the villages. Géza was succeeded in 1162 by his eldest son, Stephen III . His uncles, Ladislaus II and Stephen IV , claimed the crown for themselves. Emperor Manuel I Komnenos took advantage of the internal conflicts and forced the young king to cede Dalmatia and the Szerémség to the Byzantines in 1165. Stephen III set an example for the development of towns by granting liberties to

12947-1201: Was renamed Orașul Stalin ( lit. Stalin City ) after Joseph Stalin . Constantin Ion Parhon , the nominal Head of State at the time, decreed the city be renamed "in honour of the great genius of working humanity, the leader of the Soviet people, the liberator and beloved friend of our people, Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin". The city’s name reverted to Brașov in 1960. [REDACTED] Kingdom of Hungary 1235–1526 [REDACTED] Eastern Hungarian Kingdom 1526–1570 [REDACTED] Principality of Transylvania 1570–1711 [REDACTED] Grand Principality of Transylvania 1711–1804 [REDACTED]   Austrian Empire 1804–1867 [REDACTED]   Austria-Hungary 1867–1918 ( de jure Hungary until 1920 ) [REDACTED]   Kingdom of Romania 1920–1947 ( de facto from 1918 ) [REDACTED]   Romanian People's Republic 1947–1965 [REDACTED]   Socialist Republic of Romania 1965–1989 [REDACTED]   Romania 1989–present The oldest traces of human activity and settlements in Brașov date back to

13068-685: Was an exceptional phenomenon in medieval Hungary. Unsuccessful wars with the Republic of Venice , the Byzantine Empire, and other neighboring states characterized the reign of Coloman's son, Stephen II , who succeeded his father in 1116. The earliest mention of the Székelys —a Hungarian-speaking community of free warriors—is in connection with the young king's first war against the Duchy of Bohemia . The Székelys lived in scattered groups along

13189-645: Was built between 1899 and 1905. During the interwar period , the communities had separate institutions, but opened a jointly managed school in 1940. Zionist organizations appeared already in 1920. By 1930, Jews numbered 2594 individuals, or 4% of the total population. In autumn 1940, during the National Legionary State , the antisemitic Iron Guard nationalized all Jewish institutions and seized most shops owned by Jews. In 1941, Jews were drafted for service in forced labour battalions. Those from throughout southern Transylvania were concentrated in Brașov;

13310-478: Was crowned king of Croatia after concluding an agreement with twelve local noblemen. Although most probably a forgery, the document reflects the actual status of Croatia proper, which was never incorporated into Hungary. In contrast, the region known as Slavonia , between the Petrova Mounts and the river Dráva , became closely connected to Hungary. Here many Hungarian noblemen received land grants from

13431-487: Was crowned the first king of Hungary on either December 25, 1000, or January 1, 1001. He consolidated his rule through a series of wars against semi-independent local rulers, including his maternal uncle, Gyula , and the powerful tribal chief, Ajtony . He proved his kingdom's military strength when he repelled an invasion by Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor , in 1030. Marshlands, other natural obstacles, and barricades made of stone, earth, or timber provided defense at

13552-464: Was destroyed". [The Mongols] burnt the church [in Várad], together with the women and whatever there was in the church. In other churches they perpetrated such crimes to the women that it is better to keep silent ... Then they ruthlessly beheaded the nobles, citizens, soldiers and canons on a field outside the city. ... After they had destroyed everything, and an intolerable stench arose from

13673-491: Was even accused of initiating a second Mongol invasion in 1285, although the invaders were routed by the royal troops. When Ladislaus IV was murdered in 1290, the Holy See declared the kingdom a vacant fief . Although Rome granted the kingdom to his sister's son, Charles Martel , crown prince of the Kingdom of Naples , the majority of the Hungarian lords chose Andrew , the grandson of Andrew II and son of

13794-508: Was first expressed in Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hungarorum , a chronicle written in the 1280s. The wealthiest landholders forced the lesser nobles to join their retinue, which increased their power. One of the barons, Joachim of the Gutkeled clan, even captured Stephen V's heir, the infant Ladislaus , in 1272. Stephen V died some months later, causing a new civil war between

13915-465: Was first sung. According to Dragoș Moldovanu, the name of Brașov came from the name of local river named Bârsa (also pronounced as "Bărsa") that was adopted by Slavs and transformed to Barsa, and later to Barsov, finally to Brasov. According to Pál Binder, the current Romanian and the Hungarian name Brassó ( [ˈbrɒʃʃoː] ) are derived from the Turkic word barasu , meaning "white water" with

14036-537: Was forced to take an oath, which included his promise to respect the privileged position of clergymen and to dismiss all his Jewish and Muslim officials. A growing intolerance against non-Catholics is also demonstrated by the transfer of the Orthodox monastery of Visegrád to the Benedictines in 1221. Andrew II made several attempts to occupy the neighboring Principality of Halych . His son, Béla , persuaded

14157-557: Was headed by the grand prince , always a member of the family descending from Árpád , the Hungarians' leader around the time of their "land-taking". Contemporary authors described the Hungarians as nomads , but Ibn Rusta and others added that they also cultivated arable land. The great number of borrowings from Slavic languages prove that the Hungarians adopted new techniques and a more settled lifestyle in Central Europe. The cohabitation of Hungarians and local ethnic groups

14278-420: Was made up of no more than 40 semi-sunken timber huts with a corner hearth . The huts were surrounded by large courtyards. Ditches separated them, keeping the animals away and enabling the growing of grains and vegetables. Many of the villages were named after a profession, implying that the villagers were required to render a specific service to their lords. Stephen I survived his son, Emeric , which caused

14399-522: Was of fundamental importance because the ispáns received one third of the chamber revenues collected in their counties. In-kind taxes were typically imposed on vineyards, and herds of pigs or oxen. Some privileged communities paid lump sum taxes to the royal chamber. Examples include the foreign settlers in Transylvania, who were to pay 15,000 marks per year. Béla emphasized the importance of making records on judicial proceedings, which substantiates reports in later Hungarian chronicles of his order regarding

14520-513: Was related to the royal family. Supported by Emperor Henry III , Peter returned and expelled Samuel in 1044. During his second rule, Peter accepted the emperor's suzerainty. His rule ended with a new rebellion , this time aimed at the restoration of paganism. There were many lords who opposed the destruction of the Christian monarchy. They proposed the crown to Andrew , one of Vazul's sons, who returned to Hungary, defeated Peter and suppressed

14641-567: Was to build a parish church . The earliest churches were simple wood constructions, but the royal basilica at Székesfehérvár was built in Romanesque style. With the introduction of the Catholic church hierarchy, Latin emerged as the dominant language of ecclesiastic life and state administration, although some royal charters were likely written in Greek. The bishops were required to supply

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