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116-680: Zhang Zhizhong or Chang Chih-chung (27 October 1890 – 10 April 1969) was a Chinese military commander and politician, general in the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China and later a pro- Communist politician in the People's Republic of China . Originally a supporter and close associate of Chiang Kai-shek , Zhang belonged to the left wing of the Kuomintang , advocating policies such as collaboration with

232-652: A grand total of 515 divisions . However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and were not active at the same time. At the apex of the NRA was the National Military Council, also translated as Military Affairs Commission. Chaired by Chiang Kai-Shek, it directed the staffs and commands. It included from 1937 the Chief of the General Staff, General He Yingqin , the General Staff,

348-427: A groups representation. Hong Kong has had a separate delegation since the 9th NPC in 1998, and Macau since the 10th NPC in 2003. The delegates from Hong Kong and Macau are elected via an electoral college rather than by popular vote, but do include significant political figures who are residing in the two regions. Since their transfer of sovereignty, Hong Kong and Macau have been given 36 and 12 deputies elected to

464-505: A joint delegation. The PLA delegation has been amongst the largest since the founding of the NPC, making up anywhere from 4 percent of the total delegates (3rd NPC), to 17 percent (4th NPC). Since the 5th NPC, it has usually held about 9 percent of the total delegate seats, and is consistently the largest delegation in the NPC. In the 14th NPC, for example, the PLA and PAP delegation has 281 deputies;

580-552: A link-up. The war involved over 1,000,000 of which 300,000 became casualties. Chiang's forces proved themselves capable even when outnumbered routing the southern forces by July, however in the north Chiang's forces were defeated and he himself narrowly avoided capture in June only when the northern forces stopped due to the defeat of the southern forces did the north stabilise. Chiang began negotiations for peace with Zhang as an intermediary however Feng and Yan believing themselves to be on

696-1030: A means for the KMT to unify China during the Warlord Era , the National Revolutionary Army fought major engagements in the Northern Expedition against the Chinese Beiyang Army warlords, in the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) against the Imperial Japanese Army and in the Chinese Civil War against the People's Liberation Army . During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of

812-737: A new organisation. The Years below relate to the Minguo calendar which starts in 1911. Therefore, the 22nd year division is the 1933 division. The above template was only applied to divisions serving in Guangxi during the 5th encirclement campaign. A new Plan was devised in 1935 to raise 60 new divisions in 6 month batches with divisions to be raised from divisional districts tied to them, in an aim to enhance cohesion and communication as well as simplifying recruitment, officers however were to be recruited nationally and placed into these divisions to disrupt regional affiliations. The 24th Year New Type division

928-577: A province that they do not live in. Delegates have the legal right to make speeches in the full chamber of the Great Hall of the People during NPC sessions, though they rarely exercise this right. Delegates are allowed to simultaneously hold seats in other bodies of government and the party and the NPC typically includes all of the senior officials in Chinese politics. The CCP maintains control over

1044-526: A set of institutions which monitor local administrative measures for constitutionality. Typically, the Legislative Affairs Committee will review legislation for constitutionality and then inform the enacting agencies of its findings, and rely on the enacting agency to reverse its decision. Although the NPC has the legal authority to annul unconstitutional legislation by a local government, it has never used that power. The NPC's has

1160-412: A similar approach with CCP involvement. According to official accounts, in a normal election, the process of selecting the nominees generally entails repeated discussions between Party leaders, multiple rounds of discussions with CCP members in high-ranking positions and with major non-Party organizations, as well as anti-corruption and political review of the potential candidates. The list of candidates

1276-443: A somewhat greater diversity of views, they do not function as a political opposition . The Election Law requires the composition of NPC delegates to be "broadly representative". Since the beginning of the reform and opening up era in 1978, the each NPC at their last session have released a "decision on the quotas and elections" for the next NPC, allocating a certain number of seats for demographic groups or setting forth guidelines on

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1392-452: A yearly agenda which outlines the work of the NPC in a particular year. This is followed by consultation by experts and approving in principle by the CCP. Afterwards, the legislation undergoes three readings and public consultation. The final approval is done in a plenary session in which by convention the vote is near unanimous. The NPC had never rejected a government bill until 1986, during

1508-504: Is considered a judicial power, in Chinese political theory, constitutional enforcement is considered a legislative power, and Chinese courts do not have the authority to determine constitutionality of legislation or administrative measures. Challenges to constitutionality have therefore become the responsibility of the National People's Congress which has a recording and review mechanism for constitutional issues. The NPC has created

1624-533: Is often full-time and carries a salary, and members are not allowed to simultaneously hold positions in executive, judicial, prosecutorial or supervisory posts. As the NPC only meets annually, the NPCSC effectively functions as the national legislature of China for most of the year. It is granted with nearly all the lawmaking powers as the NPC itself, though it lacks the powers to amend the constitution and to appoint or remove national-level personnel. The NPCSC passes

1740-486: Is on recess and the Standing Committee is in session, the same process is repeated by either the party leader in the NPCSC or by one of the party deputies, but following the approval by the NPCSC, the amendments will be presented during the plenary session to all of the deputies for a final vote on the matter. If a fifth or more of the CCP party faction deputies will propose amendments either on their own or with

1856-649: Is the highest organ of state power of the People's Republic of China . The NPC is the only branch of government in China, and per the principle of unified power , all state organs from the State Council to the Supreme People's Court (SPC) are subservient to it. With 2,977 members in 2023, it is the largest legislative body in the world . The NPC is elected for a term of five years. It holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting from 10 to 14 days, in

1972-564: Is then approved first by the CCP's Politburo Standing Committee , and then by its Politburo . If the candidates in question are nominated for a top-level position, in a special plenary session the Central Committee also endorses the nominees just before the NPC session for election by the Congress. Before the plenum ends, the CCP customarily holds a "democratic consultative meeting", formally informing non-CCP organizations, such as

2088-556: The 3rd , 6th , 9th , 14th , 36th , 87th , 88th , and the Training Division . Another German general, Alexander von Falkenhausen , came to China in 1934 to help reform the army. However, because of Nazi Germany's later cooperation with the Empire of Japan, he was later recalled in 1937. For a time, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Communist forces fought as a nominal part of the National Revolutionary Army, forming

2204-576: The Baoding Military Academy from which he graduated in 1916 as an infantry officer. He also briefly attended Shanghai University , studying Social Sciences , but did not take a degree. He then served in the local warlord armies of Yunnan and Guangxi before heeding the call of Nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen and moving to Guangzhou to become an instructor at the Whampoa Military Academy . He participated in

2320-534: The Battle of Shanghai and Battle of Nanjing . The newly provided tanks, armoured cars, and trucks from the Soviet Union and Italy made it possible to create the only mechanized division in the army, the 200th Division . This Division eventually ceased to be a mechanized unit after the June 1938 reorganization of Divisions. The armoured and artillery Regiments were placed under direct command of 5th Corps and

2436-676: The Chinese Army in India called X Force, and Chinese Expeditionary Force in Yunnan, called Y Force . The US government repeatedly threatened to cut off aid to China during World War 2 unless they handed over total command of all Chinese military forces to the US. After considerable stalling, the arrangement only fell through due to a particularly insulting letter from the Americans to Chiang. By

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2552-403: The Chinese Civil War the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) was known to have used penal battalions from 1945 to 1949. A unit made up of deserters and those accused of cowardice, the penal battalion was giving such tasks as scouting ahead of the main forces to check for ambushes, crossing rivers and torrents to see whether they were fordable, and walking across unmapped minefields. The military

2668-664: The Chinese Communist Party were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while retaining separate commands), but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces , with

2784-545: The Common Program , which served as the de facto constitution for the next five years. The conference approved the new national anthem, flag, capital city, and state name, and elected the first government of the People's Republic of China. It was a de facto legislature of the PRC during the first five years of existence. In 1954, the Constitution transferred this function to the National People's Congress. Under

2900-684: The Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army units, but this co-operation later fell apart. Women were also part of the army's corps during the war. In 1937 Soong Mei-ling encouraged women to support the Second Sino-Japanese War effort, by forming battalions, such as the Guangxi Women's Battalion . Troops in India and Burma during World War II included the Chinese Expeditionary Force (Burma) ,

3016-512: The Generalissimo. However, Chinese industry was incapable of producing the artillery or infantry guns in large quantities needed for the 60 division plan and German imports were not forthcoming. Mortars were introduced as substitutes for the infantry guns and later as a substitute for artillery. Horses were also lacking as the new division required many of them and Chinese divisions often used mules oxen or even buffalos as substitutes for

3132-526: The Great Hall of the People on the west side of Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Since Chinese politics functions within a communist state framework based on the system of people's congress , the NPC works under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party . Some observers characterize the branch as a rubber stamp body. Most delegates to the NPC are officially elected by local people's congresses at

3248-819: The Northern Expedition , and after the Nationalists established the new republican government in Nanjing , became the Commandant of the Central Military Academy in 1929, a post he held for 8 years, until 1937. This was a highly important and sensitive assignment, as Zhang was given the task of moulding the beliefs and ideology of the young officer candidates. He joined in Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek 's successful campaign against Yan Xishan and Feng Yuxiang , and led

3364-581: The Xinhai Revolution and the Warlord Era of the Republic of China, "Dare to Die Corps" ( traditional Chinese : 敢死隊 ; simplified Chinese : 敢死队 ; pinyin : gǎnsǐduì ) were frequently used by Chinese armies. China deployed these suicide units against the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War . "Dare to Die" troops were used by warlords in their armies to conduct suicide attacks . "Dare to Die" corps continued to be used in

3480-518: The anti-communist Nazi Party and the anti-communist KMT were soon engaged in close cooperation . With Germany training Chinese troops and expanding Chinese infrastructure, while China opened its markets and natural resources to Germany. Max Bauer was the first adviser to China. In 1934, Gen. Hans von Seeckt , acting as adviser to Chiang, proposed an "80 Division Plan" for reforming the entire Chinese army into 80 divisions of highly trained, well-equipped troops organised along German lines. The plan

3596-657: The eight minor political parties , of the proposed nominees and soliciting their views on the candidates. Full Central Committee endorsement for lower-level positions, such as regular NPCSC members, the State Council Secretary-General and departmental heads, and all members of the Special Committees and their committee chairpersons, is also expected. During the NPC session, the official in the Presidium in charge of personnel explains

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3712-654: The 200th Division became a motorized Infantry Division within the same Corps. This Corps fought battles in Guangxi in 1939–1940 and in the Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road in 1942 reducing the armoured units due to losses and mechanical breakdown of the vehicles. On paper China had 3.8 million men under arms in 1941. They were organized into 246 "front-line" divisions, with another 70 divisions assigned to rear areas. Perhaps as many as forty Chinese divisions had been equipped with European-manufactured weapons and trained by foreign, particularly German and Soviet, advisers. The rest of

3828-425: The 5th Army in the 1932 battle at Shanghai against Japan, and participated in setting up air-defense at the capital of Nanjing, including Jurong airbase . Later, as the head of the 9th Army Group ( 第九集團軍 ), Zhang personally supervised the defense of Shanghai against Japan in 1937. During these years, Zhang was generally regarded as one of Chiang's trusted confidants. Later in the Second Sino-Japanese War , Zhang

3944-857: The Anti-Monopoly Law. The NPC meets for about two weeks each year at the same time as the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference , usually in the Spring. The combined sessions have been known as the Two Sessions ( Lianghui ). Between these sessions, NPC's power are exercised by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress . During the Two Sessions,

4060-587: The Army's officers passed through the Whampoa Military Academy , and the first commandant, Chiang Kai-shek , became commander-in-chief of the Army in 1925 before launching the successful Northern Expedition. Other prominent commanders included Du Yuming and Chen Cheng . The end of the Northern Expedition in 1928 is often taken as the date when China's Warlord era ended, though smaller-scale warlord activity continued for years afterwards. In 1927, after

4176-655: The Bankruptcy Law proceedings, wherein a revised bill was passed in the same session. An outright rejection without a revised version being passed occurred in 2000 when a Highway Law was rejected, the first occurrence in sixty years of history. Moreover, in 2015, the NPC refused to pass a package of bills proposed by the State Council, insisting that each bill require a separate vote and revision process. The time for legislation can be as short as six months, or as long as 15 years for controversial legislation such as

4292-429: The CCP a leadership role, and the NPC therefore does not serve as a forum of debate between government and opposition parties as is the case with Western parliaments. This has led to the NPC being described as a rubber stamp legislature or as only being able to affect issues of low sensitivity and salience to the CCP. Legislation typically passes quickly, but there are notable examples where laws do not get through

4408-475: The CCP leadership approves the legislation in principle, and in which the legislation is then introduced by government ministers or individual NPC delegates, constitutional amendments are drafted and debated within the party, approved by the CCP Central Committee and then presented by party deputies under the Standing Committee to the whole of the NPC during its yearly plenary session. If Congress

4524-570: The Central Military Commission, other government organs or by the deputies themselves either of the standing committee or those of the committees within the NPC. The primary role of the CCP in the legislative process largely is exercised during the proposal and drafting of any legislation. Before the NPC considers legislation, there are working groups which study the proposed topic, and CCP leadership must first agree to any legislative changes before they are presented to either

4640-668: The Chinese military. The Kuomintang used one to put down an insurrection in Canton. Many women joined them in addition to men to achieve martyrdom against China's opponents. A "dare to die corps" was effectively used against Japanese units at the Battle of Taierzhuang . They used swords. Suicide bombing was also used against the Japanese. A Chinese soldier detonated a grenade vest and killed 20 Japanese soldiers at Sihang Warehouse . Chinese troops strapped explosives like grenade packs or dynamite to their bodies and threw themselves under Japanese tanks to blow them up. This tactic

4756-444: The Chinese. However, even though this 1937 reorganisation maintained division strength at slightly under 11,000 men, less than 4,000 (the frontline personnel) were issued small arms such as rifles. In 1938 a further reform was brought about by He Yingqin at the behest of Chiang Kai-shek. He's report called for an integrated numbering and designation of units from the regimental level up and a standardised financial and supply system and

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4872-659: The Communists against Japan and nationalization of foreign-owned businesses. In 1949 he defected from the Nationalists, becoming a follower of Mao Zedong , and went on to hold high office in the new Communist government, serving as Vice Chairman of the National Defense Council (1954–1969) and Vice Chairman of the National People's Congress (1965–1969). He was born in Chaohu , Anhui, and attended

4988-662: The Constitution. Amendments to the Constitution must be proposed by the NPC Standing Committee or one-fifth or more of the NPC deputies. In order for the Amendments to become effective, they must be passed by a two-thirds majority vote of all deputies. The NPC is also responsible for supervising the enforcement of the constitution. The CCP leadership plays a large role in the approval of constitutional amendments. In contrast to ordinary legislation, which

5104-754: The Director of the Political Department of the Military Affairs Commission , another highly sensitive position, indicating Chiang's continued trust in him. He was Governor of Xinjiang in 1946 and 1947. After his retirement he remained in Xinjiang. The whole time he had to deal with the Ili Rebellion . In 1949, Zhang was made the chief negotiator of the Nationalists for peace talks with the Communists in Beijing. After

5220-778: The First National Congress of the Chinese Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies was held on 7 November 1931, in Ruijin , Jiangxi on the 14th anniversary of the October Revolution with another Soviet Congress that took place in Fujian on 18 March 1932, the 61st Anniversary of the Paris Commune . A Second National Congress took place from 22 January to 1 February 1934. During

5336-407: The Guangxi clique controlled two: the Wuhan and Beiping; under Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi , respectively. Li Jishen , who was related to the Guangxi clique, loosely controlled the Guangzhou council; and a sixth council in Shenyang was under Zhang Xueliang . Chiang was faced with two options one was to immediately centralise the other to gradually do so, in the spirit of the expedition itself which

5452-401: The Guangxi clique to ally to face Chiang as Chiang had taken revenue sources from Yan. The anti-Chiang coalition had forces totalling 700,000 against Chiang's 300,000. Their plan was to seize Shandong and contain Chiang south of the Long-hai railway and the Beijing-wuhan railway then they would advance along the railway lines seizing Xuzhou and Wuhan whilst southern forces did the same to force

5568-472: The Kuomintang, CCP, Young China Party , and China Democratic League , as well as independent delegates, attended the conference in Chongqing, temporary capital of China. A second Political Consultative Conference took place in September 1949, inviting delegates from various friendly parties to attend and discuss the establishment of a new state (PRC). This conference was then renamed the People's Political Consultative Conference. The first conference approved

5684-419: The NPC "is a carefully crafted pageant intended to convey the image of a transparent, responsive government." One of the NPC's members, Hu Xiaoyan, told BBC News in 2009 that she has no power to help her constituents. She was quoted as saying, "As a parliamentary representative, I don't have any real power." Formally, there are four main functions and powers of the NPC: The NPC has the sole power to amend

5800-465: The NPC is responsible for carrying out united front work. The NPC conducts outreach campaigns with foreign legislatures and parliamentarians for relationship-building and promotion of major CCP policy initiatives. The Election Law restricts the NPC's maximum size to 3,000 deputy seats. Under the people's congress system , the NPC is elected by the 32 people's congresses at the province-level ; people's congresses are indirectly elected at all levels by

5916-414: The NPC respectively. The NPC has included a "Taiwan" delegation since the 4th NPC in 1975, in line with the PRC's position that Taiwan is a province of China. Prior to the 2000s, the Taiwan delegates in the NPC were mostly Taiwanese members of the Chinese Communist Party who fled Taiwan after 1947. They are now either deceased or elderly, and in the last three Congresses, only one of the "Taiwan" deputies

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6032-408: The NPC, and negative votes have become more commonplace since its inception. According to academic Rory Truex of the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs , NPC "deputies convey citizen grievances but shy away from sensitive political issues, and the government in turn displays partial responsiveness to their concerns." According to Austin Ramzy, writing for The New York Times ,

6148-437: The NPCSC. There are currently 10 special committees, which are: These are organized in like manner as the Standing Committee. The legislative process of the NPCSC works according to a five-year work plan drafted by the Legislative Affairs Commission. Within the work plan, a specific piece of legislative is drafted by a group of legislators or administrative agencies within the State Council, these proposals are collected into

6264-408: The NRA is as follows: (Note that a unit is not necessarily subordinate to one immediately above it; several army regiments can be found under an army group, for example.) The commander-in-chief of the NRA from 1925 to 1947 was Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. Military Affairs Commission The NRA used multiple divisional organisations as different threats emerged as well as other factors necessitated

6380-495: The National Revolutionary Army, trained in China (not by Westerners) and led by Ma Clique Muslim generals, frightened the European observers with their appearance and fighting skills in battle. Europeans like Sven Hedin and Georg Vasel were in awe of the appearance Chinese Muslim NRA divisions made and their ferocious combat abilities. They were trained in harsh, brutal conditions. The 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) , trained entirely in China without any European help,

6496-524: The Northern Expedition, the National Revolutionary Army was bloated and required downsizing and demobilisation: Chiang himself stating that soldiers are like water, capable of both carrying the state, and sinking it. This was reflected in the enormous troop figures with 1,502,000 men under arms, of which only 224,000 came under Chiang's direct control; these, however, were the official figures as Chiang stated later he possessed over 500,000 and Feng Yuxiang who officially possessed 269,000 in reality had 600,000 thus

6612-549: The Salween offensive each division was allotted 36 bazookas though actual numbers ran below requirements and rockets were in short supply. en route The Chinese army due to sustained combat was grossly under-strength and whilst Chiang promised over 110,000 additional reinforcements. Further reinforcements after this were not forthcoming due to ongoing combat. Nonetheless, Y-Force grew to over 300,000 men with rifles, mortars and machine guns in abundance. National People%27s Congress The National People's Congress ( NPC )

6728-415: The Standing Committee, ten special committees have been established under the NPC to study issues related to specific fields. They include full time staff, who meet regularly to draft and discuss legislative work and policy proposals and the deputies assigned to the committees. A large portion of legislative work in China are effectively delegated to these committees in between the bimonthly plenary sessions of

6844-422: The State Council, or its own deputies either of the NPCSC or its committees. These include legislation on the report on the plan for national economic and social development and on its implementation, the national budget, and other matters. The Basic Laws of both the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and the Macao Special Administrative Region, and the laws creating Hainan Province and Chongqing Municipality and

6960-702: The US, reported that many US military officers saw US monopoly on Far Eastern trade as a rightful reward for fighting the Pacific war, a sentiment echoed by US elected officials. After the drafting and implementation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947, the National Revolutionary Army was transformed into the ground service branch of the Republic of China Armed Forces – the Republic of China Army (ROCA). The NRA throughout its lifespan recruited approximately 4,300,000 regulars, in 370 Standard Divisions (正式師), 46 New Divisions (新編師), 12 Cavalry Divisions (騎兵師), eight New Cavalry Divisions (新編騎兵師), 66 Temporary Divisions (暫編師), and 13 Reserve Divisions (預備師), for

7076-502: The War Ministry, the military regions, air and naval forces, air defence and garrison commanders, and support services Around 14 Million were conscripted from 1937 to 1945. Also, New Divisions were created to replace Standard Divisions lost early in the war and were issued the old division's number. Therefore, the number of divisions in active service at any given time is much smaller than this. The average NRA division had 5,000–6,000 troops; an average army division had 10,000–15,000 troops,

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7192-459: The appointment of loyal commanders. A new division table was also organised: the 27th Year (1938) division, which created the field army as a fixed unit, abolished divisional artillery (often a paper force due to the chronic shortage of field artillery) and coordinated artillery support at the army level; although the division remained at roughly 11,000 men strong this template was not followed with few divisions being re-organised on this pattern due to

7308-486: The building of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River were all passed by the NPC in plenary session, legislation passed by the Standing Committee when it is in recess carry the same weight as those of the whole of the Congress. In performing these responsibilities either as a whole chamber or by its Standing Committee, the NPC acts in accordance with the Constitution and the laws of the People's Republic in acting on these issues in aid of legislation. In practice, although

7424-425: The bulk of its forces forming the Republic of China Army , which retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949. The NRA was founded by the KMT in 1925 as the military force destined to unite China in the Northern Expedition . Organized with the help of the Comintern and guided under the doctrine of the Three Principles of the People , the distinction among party, state and army was often blurred. A large number of

7540-449: The candidates for the top state offices, and organizes the constitutional oath of office ceremonies. Its functions are defined in the Organic Law of the NPC , but not how it is composed. The NPC Standing Committee is the permanent body of the NPC, elected by the legislature to meet regularly while it is not in session. It consists of a chairman , vice chairpersons , a secretary-general , as well as regular members. NPCSC membership

7656-460: The composition of deputies of people's congresses, especially in the National People's Congress. By law, all elections at all levels must adhere to the leadership of the CCP. Although CCP approval is, in effect, essential for membership in the NPC, approximately a third of the seats are by convention reserved for non-CCP members. This includes technical experts and deputies of the eight minor parties. While these members provide technical expertise and

7772-446: The congress at the level below, except at the county and township level. Additionally, delegations are allocated to the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, as well as the claimed province of Taiwan . Membership to the congress is part-time in nature and carries no pay, with deputies spending around 49 weeks per year at their home provinces. NPC members may be elected to represent

7888-408: The constant campaigning of the Central Army and the refusal of the warlords to adopt the new organisation. Nonetheless, the division still proved too large and they were reformed into triangular divisions (a division with a divisional HQ and 3 infantry regiments rather than the previous square division with 2 brigades each with 2 regiments); this 1938 organisation remained the most common formation until

8004-428: The constitution, the NPC is the highest organ of state power in China, and all four Chinese constitutions have granted it a large amount of lawmaking power. The presidency , the State Council , the PRC Central Military Commission , the Supreme People's Court , the Supreme People's Procuratorate , and the National Supervisory Commission are all formally under the authority of the NPC. The constitution guarantees

8120-403: The dissolution of the First United Front between the Nationalists and the Communists, the ruling KMT purged its leftist members and largely eliminated Soviet influence from its ranks. Chiang Kai-shek then turned to Germany , historically a great military power, for the reorganization and modernization of the National Revolutionary Army. The Weimar Republic sent advisers to China, but because of

8236-453: The end of the war although it was modified with 16 divisions receiving Anti-tank companies and 20 receiving anti-aircraft companies. Artillery remained in a chronic shortage only partially remedied by the production of 82mm mortars, but these mortars were far from universal even by the end of the war. Further changes were made in the 1942 re-organisation with the 1938 division losing all of its non-combat formations. These formations were moved to

8352-503: The end of the war, US influence over the political, economic, and military affairs of China were greater than any foreign power in the last century, with American personnel appointed in every field, such as the Chief of Staff of the Chinese military, management of the Chinese War Production Board and Board of Transport, trainers of the secret police, and Chiang's personal advisor. Sir George Sansom, British envoy to

8468-673: The equivalent of a Japanese division. Not even the German-trained divisions were on par in terms of manpower with a German or Japanese division, having only 10,000 men. The United States Army's campaign brochure on the China Defensive campaign of 1942–45 said: The NRA only had small number of armoured vehicles and mechanised troops. At the beginning of the war in 1937 the armour were organized in three Armoured Battalions, equipped with tanks and armoured cars from various countries. After these battalions were mostly destroyed in

8584-728: The event, only 693 deputies were elected with the Chinese Red Army taking 117 seats. In 1945 after World War II , the CCP and the Kuomintang held a Political Consultative Conference with the parties holding talks on post-World War II political reforms. This was included in the Double Tenth Agreement , which was implemented by the Nationalist government , who organized the first Political Consultative Assembly from 10 to 31 January 1946. Representatives of

8700-551: The failure of the negotiations, he remained in Beijing and announced his withdrawal from the Kuomintang. After that, he was instrumental in persuading his close friend General Tao Zhiyue (then the Nationalist Governor of Xinjiang ) to also defect to the Communists, an action which greatly helped in the mostly peaceful incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China . Mao Zedong greatly appreciated Zhang's services and appointed him to high positions in

8816-458: The fall of Burma. This plan was adopted concurrently with Y-Force which was the Chinese army in Burma. The divisions of Y-Force were similar to the 1942 divisions’ organisation. With the addition of extra staff especially in communications as well as an anti-tank rifle squad with 2 anti-tank rifles, radios were issued as were bren guns with the number of mortars raised form 36 to 54 to accommodate

8932-417: The field army level, and with the universal adoption of the triangular division formation the 1942 division had a strength of 6,794 officers and enlisted 60% of the strength of the 1938 division. This gave a total of 8,251 men per division it is important to note the complete absence of any Anti-air, Anti-tank or artillery at a divisional level a sign of the dire state of equipment shortage in China. During

9048-512: The final votes on laws of the NPC often return a high affirmative vote, a great deal of legislative activity occurs in determining the content of the legislation to be voted on. A major bill such as the Securities Law can take years to draft, and a bill sometimes will not be put before a final vote if there is significant opposition to the measure either within the Congress or by deputies in the Standing Committee. Like all official organs,

9164-406: The full Congress or the NPCSC. The NPC elects and appoints top-level positions in the Chinese state. The following positions are elected: The following positions are appointed: Elections and appointments differ in that elections can theoretically be competitive with multiple candidates submitted by the Presidium, or with write-in votes by the delegates, while the delegates can only vote for

9280-676: The governor of Hunan who switched sides and joined Chiang, the Guangxi forces invaded Hunan, however Chiang bribed elements of the army in Wuhan to defect and within 2 months the Guangxi clique was routed, in March the party expelled Bai Chongxi, Li Jishen and Li Zongren and promoted their juniors who sided with Chiang in order to sow dissent within the clique, they later re-grouped and attempted to retake Hunan and Guangdong but were repelled in both provinces. Also in May Feng Yuxiang entered

9396-498: The lack of heavy artillery. The demands of the Chinese Military Affairs Commission to add additional support staff and divisional artillery were all rejected by the Americans and the idea of a centralised Y-force with the 30 divisions being grouped together was never realised. General Chen Cheng commanded the largest contingent of 15 divisions, Long Yun commanded 5 and 9 under Chiang himself. Prior to

9512-558: The leaders of many of the warlord and provincial armies joined with the KMT and were appointed as officers and generals, their troops joined the NRA. These armies were renamed as NRA divisions. The entire Ma Clique armies were absorbed into the NRA. When the Muslim Ma Clique General Ma Qi joined the KMT, the Ninghai Army was renamed the National Revolutionary Army 26th Division. The unit organisation of

9628-550: The many horses. 10 divisions were organised in 1935 on the new model but equipment was lacking. A further 20 were reorganised by the Marco Polo Bridge Incident but equipment was again lacking meaning these divisions were not to be the modern equivalent of Western style or Japanese divisions. For a total of 10,012 men and 3,219 horses with the field artillery regiment. With the Mountain artillery regiment

9744-503: The meetings of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a consultative body whose members represent various social groups. As the NPC and the CPPCC are the main deliberative bodies of China, they are often referred to as the Two Sessions ( Lianghui ). According to the NPC, its annual meetings provide an opportunity for the officers of state to review past policies and to present future plans to

9860-504: The military. Since the 6th NPC, Taiwan has been given 6 deputies at the NPC. The military sends its own delegation to the NPC, which is elected by servicemember election committees of top-level military subdivisions, including the PLA's theater commands and service branches. After the People's Armed Police (PAP) was placed under the command of the Central Military Commission in 2018, the PLA and PAP have formed

9976-483: The nation. Due to the temporary nature of the plenary sessions, most of NPC's power is delegated to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC), which consists of about 170 legislators and meets in continuous bi-monthly sessions, when its parent NPC is not in session. Membership to the congress is part-time in nature and carries no pay. Delegates to the National People's Congress are allowed to hold seats in other bodies of government simultaneously and

10092-630: The new People's Republic. Zhang Zhizhong served as Vice Chairman of the Northwest China Military and Political Committee (1949–1954), Vice Chairman of the National Defense Council (1954–1969) and Vice Chairman of the National People's Congress (1965–1969). During the Cultural Revolution , he managed to escape persecution due to the protection of Zhou Enlai . He died on 6 April 1969, aged 78. National Revolutionary Army Originally organized with Soviet aid as

10208-494: The next NPC, a practice followed by all subsequent NPC meetings. Per the Election Law, the NPCSC is authorized to allocate the quota seats to each provincial delegation based on the "population and distribution". The law also requires that each of China's 55 official ethnic minorities have at least one elected deputy to Congress. For the first three NPCs, there was a special delegation for returned overseas Chinese, but this

10324-400: The next largest delegation is Shandong , with 173 deputies. A 150-seat quota for ethnic minorities was enacted in China's first election law in 1953. The 1982 constitution mandates that every ethnic minority should have "an appropriate number of delegates". The 5th NPC abandoned an explicit quota for ethnic minorities, substituting it with an allocation of "approximately 12%" of all seats for

10440-428: The official nominee in appointments. However, nearly all of the elections are non-competitive with a single candidate, with only elections for the regular members of the NPCSC being competitive since 1988. The election and appointments for high-ranking posts are effectively decided secretly within the CCP months in advance, with NPC delegates having no say in these decisions. Elections in extraordinary circumstances have

10556-504: The other parties in plenary session, the same process is applied. In contrast to ordinary legislation, in which the Legislation Law largely directs the process, the process for constitutional revision is largely described by CCP documents. In addition to passing legislation, the NPCSC interacts with local governments through its constitutional review process. In contrast with other jurisdictions by which constitutional enforcement

10672-404: The party and the NPC typically includes all of the senior officials in Chinese politics. However, membership of the Standing Committee is often full-time and carries a salary, and Standing Committee members are not allowed to simultaneously hold positions in executive, judicial, prosecutorial or supervisory posts. Under China's Constitution , the NPC is structured as a unicameral legislature, with

10788-624: The power to amend the Constitution, legislate and oversee the operations of the government, and elect the major officers of the National Supervisory Commission , the Supreme People's Court, the Supreme People's Procuratorate , the Central Military Commission , and the state. The current National People's Congress can trace its origins to the Chinese Soviet Republic beginning in 1931 where

10904-497: The proposed nominees and the selection process to the delegates. The delegates are then granted the short bios of the candidates, and given time for "deliberations and consultations", or simply "deliberations" for the appointed positions. The NPC's other legislative work is creating legislation on, examining, and reviewing major national issues of concern presented to the Congress by either the CCP Central Committee,

11020-439: The provincial level; local legislatures which are indirectly elected at all levels except the county-level. The CCP controls the nomination and election processes at every level in the people's congress system. The National People's Congress meets in full session for roughly two weeks each year and votes on important pieces of legislation and personnel assignments, among other things. These sessions are usually timed to occur with

11136-477: The reduction of the army to 65 divisions and gathered political support to begin actively reducing troops counts and centralising the army as well as abolishing the branch councils, this threatened the regional leaders and Li Zongren noted that it was intentionally designed to force the regional leaders into action so Chiang could eliminate them. The Guangxi clique rebelled in February 1929 when it fired Lu Diping

11252-641: The restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles they could not serve in military capacities. Chiang initially requested famous generals such as Ludendorff and von Mackensen as advisers; the Weimar Republic government turned him down, however, fearing that they were too famous, would invite the ire of the Allies and that it would result in the loss of national prestige for such renowned figures to work, essentially, as mercenaries . Immediately following

11368-514: The richest 3% in the United States Congress at the time). Before each plenary meeting of the NPC, a preparatory meeting is held, where a Presidium and a Secretary-General for the session is elected. The Presidium presides over the NPC plenary meetings, determining its daily schedule, decides whether to list a delegate's bill on the agenda, hear delegate deliberation reports and decides whether to put an item to vote, nominates

11484-460: The sole power to "enact and amend basic criminal and civil laws, basic laws governing the State organs, and other basic laws". To do this, the NPC acts in accordance with the Constitution and laws of the People's Republic in regards to its legislative activities. When the congress is in recess, its Standing Committee enacts all legislation presented to it by the CCP Central Committee, the State Council,

11600-491: The total is 10,632 men and 3,237 horses However, as the war progressed and masses of equipment was lost the 60 division plan was abandoned as were larger divisions in general as the Military Affairs Commission switched to a smaller more mobile division suited to the reality of the situation. This was after an initial reorganisation in 1937 which incorporated the type 89 grenade launcher which impressed

11716-691: The true figure would likely reach 2,000,000. During the Northern expedition the KMT formed also formed branch political councils: in theory, subordinate political organs that were under the Central Political councils in Nanjing; in reality these were autonomous political bodies with their own military forces. Feng Yuxiang controlled the Kaifeng council; Yan Xishan the Taiyuan council; whilst

11832-735: The units were under strength and generally untrained. Overall, the Nationalist Army impressed most Western military observers as more reminiscent of a 19th- than a 20th-century army. Late in the Burma Campaign the NRA Army there had an armoured battalion equipped with Sherman tanks. Despite the poor reviews given by European observers to the European-trained Divisions, the Muslim Divisions of

11948-429: The vast majority of China's laws, and has the powers to conduct oversight over governmental bodies, appoint or remove top-level personnel that are not in the national-level, ratifies treaties, grant special amnesties, and confer state honors. A number of administrative bodies have also been established under the Standing Committee to provide support for the day-to-day operation of the NPC. These include: In addition to

12064-514: The verge of victory refused. Chiang had utilised the lull in action to gather strength and begin counteroffensives along the railways north aided by the closure of fighting in Bengbu by September Chiang was again closing in on Luoyang and this along with bribes spurred Zhang Xueliang to side with Chiang ending the war. When Adolf Hitler became Germany's chancellor in 1933 and disavowed the Treaty,

12180-485: The war he was too expelled from the party, once again Chiang bribed his enemy's allies and subordinates Han Fuju and Shi Yousan. Feng's armies were defeated and he fled to Shanxi and announced his retirement from politics, by July Chiang's forces had occupied Luoyang. Having defeated two of his largest enemies Chiang pushed further for demobilisation and announced it would be done by March 1930. This move spurred Feng, Yan and

12296-428: The way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive. Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps like Buchenwald. The rank insignia of commissioned officers . The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel . T.V. Soong at the behest of Chiang negotiated US sponsorship of 30 Chinese divisions which were to be designated assault divisions due to

12412-512: Was actually born in Taiwan ( Chen Yunying , wife of economist Justin Yifu Lin ); the remainder are "second-generation Taiwan compatriots", whose parents or grandparents came from Taiwan. Delegations from Taiwan are chosen by "consultative election meetings" composed of 120 "compatriots of Taiwanese ancestry" hailing from various provinces in China, the central government and party agencies, and

12528-586: Was almost the equivalent of western style divisions with the notable difference being the absence of radios in the Chinese division. Planning began in December 1934 and in January 1935 a classified meeting of over 80 of the highest NRA officers was called with a timetable published: This new army being significantly better armed and trained than the warlord armies would give Chiang a large advantage over his domestic opponents as well as being personally answerable to

12644-471: Was appointed Governor of Hunan from 1937 to 1940 and was responsible for the Great Fire of Changsha , a fire that got out of control when he ordered key buildings razed in anticipation of a coming Japanese attack (which failed to materialize at the expected time). He was relieved of his duty after this event and several individuals responsible for the faulty intelligence were executed. In 1940, he became

12760-562: Was composed of Chinese Muslims and fought and severely mauled an invading Soviet Russian army during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang . The division was lacking in technology and manpower, but badly damaged the superior Russian force. The Muslim divisions of the army controlled by Muslim Gen. Ma Hongkui were reported by Western observers to be tough and disciplined. Despite having diabetes Ma Hongkui personally drilled with his troops and engaged in sword fencing during training. When

12876-400: Was eliminated starting in the 4th NPC, and although overseas Chinese remain a recognized group in the NPC, they are now scattered among the various delegations. The Hurun Report has tracked the wealth of some of the NPC's delegates: in 2018, the 153 delegates classed by the report as "super rich" (including China's wealthiest person, Ma Huateng ) had a combined wealth of $ 650 billion. This

12992-560: Was formed through bloody and inhumane conscription campaigns. These are described by Rudolph Rummel as: This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together. Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp. They often died or were killed along

13108-456: Was never fully realised, as the eternally bickering warlords could not agree upon which divisions were to be merged and disbanded. Furthermore, since embezzlement and fraud were commonplace, especially in understrength divisions (the state of most of the divisions), reforming the military structure would threaten divisional commanders' "take". Therefore, by July 1937 only eight infantry divisions had completed reorganization and training. These were

13224-483: Was to eradicate warlordism and regionalism Chiang chose to immediately centralise the branch councils under the guise of demobilisation systematically reducing the regional troop strength whilst centralising them and building up his own strength. This was done in July 1928 with financial conferences calling for demobilisation and military commanders and political officials echoing the call for demobilisation. Chiang called for

13340-414: Was up from a combined wealth of $ 500 billion for the wealthiest 209 delegates in 2017, when (according to state media) 20% of delegates were private entrepreneurs. In 2013, 90 delegates were among the richest 1000 Chinese, each having a net worth of at least 1.8 billion yuan ($ 289.4 million). This richest 3% of delegates' average net worth was $ 1.1 billion (compared to an average net worth of $ 271 million for

13456-474: Was used during the Battle of Shanghai , where a Chinese suicide bomber stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank, and at the Battle of Taierzhuang where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up. In one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers obliterated four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles. During

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