116-603: A papal conclave is a gathering of the College of Cardinals convened to elect a bishop of Rome , also known as the pope. Catholics consider the pope to be the apostolic successor of Saint Peter and the earthly head of the Catholic Church . Concerns around political interference led to reforms after the interregnum of 1268–1271 and Pope Gregory X 's decree during the Second Council of Lyons in 1274 that
232-773: A Pole (1978), a German (2005), and an Argentinian (2013). During the first millennium, popes were elected unanimously (at least in theory). After a decree by the Synod of Rome in 1059, some factions contended that a simple majority sufficed to elect. In 1179, the Third Council of the Lateran settled the question by calling for unanimity, but permitting the Pope to be elected by two-thirds majority, "if by chance, through some enemy sowing tares, there cannot be full agreement." As cardinals were not allowed to vote for themselves (after 1621),
348-490: A cardinal who has to use the lavatory may leave the conclave and later be readmitted; a cardinal who leaves for any reason other than illness may not return to the conclave. Although in the past cardinal electors could be accompanied by attendants (" conclavists "), now only a nurse may accompany a cardinal who for reasons of ill-health, as confirmed by the Congregation of Cardinals, needs such assistance. The secretary of
464-413: A choice, they were required to send a delegation to Constantinople requesting the emperor's consent, which was necessary before the individual elected could take office. Travel to and from Constantinople caused lengthy delays. When Pope Benedict II (684–685) complained about them, Emperor Constantine IV (in office 654–685) acquiesced, ending the requirement for emperors to confirm elections. Thereafter,
580-544: A codification of the ancient Catholic law that only Catholics can be elected popes, to the exclusion of non-Catholics, including former Catholics who have become public and manifest heretics. Pope Urban VI in 1378 became the last pope elected from outside the College of Cardinals. The last person elected as pope who was not already an ordained priest or deacon was the cardinal-deacon Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, elected as Pope Leo X in 1513. His successor, Pope Adrian VI ,
696-459: A fourth immediately follows. No changes in these rules were made by Benedict XVI in 2007. These rules were followed (so far as is known, given the secrecy of a conclave) in electing Pope Francis in March 2013. The scrutiny phase of the election is as follows: The cardinal electors proceed, in order of precedence, to take their completed ballots (which bear only the name of the individual voted for) to
812-694: A high of 135 in February 2001 and again in October 2003. Three of Pope Benedict XVI 's five consistories resulted in more than 120 cardinal electors, the high being 125 in 2012. Pope Francis has exceeded the limit in all nine of his consistories , reaching as high as 137 in September 2023. Other changes to the college in the 20th century affected specific orders. The 1917 Code of Canon Law decreed that from then on only those who were priests or bishops could be chosen as cardinals, thus officially closing
928-531: A limit of 26 and complained about the size and quality of the college to his legates to the Council of Trent , and some French attendees advocated a limit of 24, that council did not prescribe a limit to the size of the college. By the papacy of Sixtus V (1585–1590), the number was set at seventy on 3 December 1586, divided among fourteen cardinal-deacons, fifty cardinal-priests, and six cardinal-bishops. Popes respected that limit until Pope John XXIII increased
1044-434: A maximum of four ballots are held on each successive day: two in each morning and two in each afternoon. Before voting in the morning and again before voting in the afternoon, the electors take an oath to obey the rules of the conclave. If no result is obtained after three vote days of balloting, the process is suspended for a maximum of one day for prayer and an address by the senior cardinal deacon. After seven further ballots,
1160-401: A papal bull that introduced regulations relating to the enclosure of the conclave and other procedures. Gregory XV issued two bulls that covered the most minute of details relating to the election; the first, in 1621, concerned electoral processes, while the other, in 1622, fixed the ceremonies to be observed. In December 1904 Pope Pius X issued an apostolic constitution consolidating almost all
1276-622: A particular emperor. The Western Schism – which began in 1378 , when the French cardinals, claiming that the election of Pope Urban VI was invalid, elected antipope Clement VII as a rival to the Roman Pope ;– led eventually to two competing lines of antipopes: the Avignon line as Clement VII moved back to Avignon , and the Pisan line. The Pisan line, which began in 1409 ,
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#17327918773371392-467: A pope is ill or aged and shortlists of potential candidates appear in the media. A cardinal who is considered to be a prospect for the papacy is described informally as a papabile (an adjective used substantively: the plural form is papabili ), a term coined by Italian-speaking Vatican watchers in the mid-20th century, literally meaning "pope-able". The death of the pope is verified by the cardinal camerlengo , or chamberlain, who traditionally performed
1508-401: A pope. The Third Lateran Council had initially set the requirement that two-thirds of the cardinals were needed to elect a pope in 1179. This requirement had varied since then, depending on whether the winning candidate was allowed to vote for himself, in which cases the required majority was two-thirds plus one vote. Aeterni Patris Filius prohibited this practice and established two-thirds as
1624-547: A relatively rare phenomenon. Between 1791 and 2018, only one was removed from the college – Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne in 1791 – and five resigned: Tommaso Antici in 1798, Marino Carafa di Belevedere in 1807, Carlo Odescalchi in 1838, Louis Billot in 1927, and Theodore Edgar McCarrick in 2018. For the Middle Ages , sources concerning the size of the College of Cardinals are most frequently those relating to papal elections and conclaves . A function of
1740-441: A schism, Oxford's A Dictionary of Popes (2010) considers he "...is classified, unfairly, as an antipope", an opinion historian Salvador Miranda also shares. Those with asterisks (*) were counted in subsequent papal numbering. Many antipopes created cardinals, known as quasi-cardinals , and a few created cardinal-nephews , known as quasi-cardinal-nephews . Antipopes still exist today, but all are minor claimants, without
1856-591: Is a person who claims to be Bishop of Rome and leader of the Roman Catholic Church in opposition to the legitimately elected pope . Between the 3rd and mid-15th centuries, antipopes were supported by factions within the Church itself and secular rulers. Sometimes it was difficult to distinguish which of two claimants should be called pope and which antipope, as in the case of Pope Leo VIII and Pope Benedict V . Hippolytus of Rome (d. 235)
1972-489: Is a symbol of the end of the pope's reign. During the sede vacante , as the papal vacancy is known, certain limited powers pass to the College of Cardinals, which is convoked by the dean of the College of Cardinals. All cardinals are obliged to attend the general congregation of cardinals, except those whose health does not permit, or who are over eighty (but those cardinals may choose to attend if they please as non-voting members). The particular congregation, which deals with
2088-572: Is commonly considered to be the earliest antipope, as he headed a separate group within the Church in Rome against Pope Callixtus I . Hippolytus was reconciled to Callixtus's second successor, Pope Pontian , and both he and Pontian are honoured as saints by the Catholic Church with a shared feast day on 13 August. Whether two or more persons have been confused in this account of Hippolytus and whether Hippolytus actually declared himself to be
2204-498: Is created a cardinal would no longer be assigned a titular church in Rome, but maintain his see and join the order of cardinal bishops, the rank previously reserved to the six cardinals assigned to the suburbicarian dioceses . He also required that the suburbicarian bishops elect one of themselves as the Dean and Vice-Dean of the college, instead of allowing them to select any member of the college. In June 2018, Pope Francis eased
2320-489: Is divisible by three, with a rounding up to two-thirds plus one otherwise. Paul VI reinstated Pius XII's procedure thirteen years later, but John Paul II overturned it again. In 1996, John Paul II's constitution allowed election by absolute majority if deadlock prevailed after thirty-three or thirty-four ballots (thirty-four ballots if a ballot took place on the first afternoon of the conclave). In 2007 Benedict XVI rescinded John Paul II's change (which had effectively abolished
2436-404: Is required to elect the new pope. The most recent papal conclave occurred in 2013 , when Jorge Mario Bergoglio was elected as Pope Francis , succeeding the retiring Pope Benedict XVI . The procedures for the election of the pope developed over almost two millennia . Until the College of Cardinals was created in 1059, the bishops of Rome, like those in other areas, were elected by acclamation of
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#17327918773372552-557: The Holy Roman Emperor , who had the duty of providing security and public peace in Rome. A major change came in 1059, when Pope Nicholas II decreed in In Nomine Domini that the cardinals were to elect a candidate to take office after receiving the assent of the clergy and laity. The cardinal bishops were to meet first and discuss the candidates before summoning the cardinal priests and cardinal deacons for
2668-664: The Investiture Controversy led to the abolition of the emperor's role. In 1122 the Holy Roman Empire acceded to the Concordat of Worms , accepting the papal decision. From about 1600, certain Catholic monarchs claimed a jus exclusivae (right of exclusion), i.e. a veto over papal elections, exercised through a crown-cardinal . By an informal convention, each state claiming the veto could exercise
2784-763: The Liber Pontificalis is in the biography of Pope Stephen III when in the Roman Synod of 769, it was decided that the Roman pontiff should be elected from among the deacons and cardinal priests." In 845 the Council of Meaux–Paris "required Bishops to establish Cardinal titles or parishes in their towns and outlining districts". At the same time, the popes began referring to the cardinal priests of Rome to serve as legates and delegates within Rome at ceremonies, synods, councils, etc., as well as abroad on diplomatic missions and councils. Those who were assigned to
2900-655: The Ostrogothic Kings of Italy and in 533, Pope John II formally recognised the right of the Ostrogothic monarchs to ratify elections. By 537 the Ostrogothic monarchy had been overthrown, and power passed to the Byzantine emperors . A procedure was adopted whereby officials were required to notify the Exarch of Ravenna upon the death of a pope before proceeding with the election. Once the electors arrived at
3016-524: The Roman emperors once held considerable sway in the elections of popes. In 418, Emperor Honorius settled a controversial election, upholding Pope Boniface I over the challenger Antipope Eulalius . On the request of Boniface I, Honorius ordered that in future cases, any disputed election would be settled by a fresh election. After the demise of the Western Roman Empire , influence passed to
3132-710: The See of Rome in opposition to Pope Cornelius , and if Natalius and Hippolytus were excluded because of the uncertainties concerning them, Novatian could then be said to be the first antipope. The period in which antipopes were most numerous was during the struggles between the popes and the Holy Roman Emperors of the 11th and 12th centuries. The emperors frequently imposed their own nominees to further their own causes. The popes, likewise, sometimes sponsored rival imperial claimants ( anti-kings ) in Germany to overcome
3248-516: The Western Schism by pontiffs now considered to be antipopes , and subject to some other sources of uncertainty), nearly half of whom were created after 1655. The word cardinal is derived from the Latin cardō , meaning "hinge". The office of cardinal as it is known today slowly evolved during the first millennium from the clergy of Rome. "The first time that the term cardinal appears in
3364-664: The cardinal electors should be locked in seclusion cum clave ( Latin for "with a key") and not permitted to leave until a new pope had been elected. Conclaves are now held in the Sistine Chapel of the Apostolic Palace in Vatican City. Since the Apostolic Age , the bishop of Rome, like other bishops, has been chosen by the consensus of the clergy and laity of the diocese . The body of electors
3480-410: The infirmarii return to the chapel, the ballots are counted to ensure that their number matches with the number of ill cardinals; thereafter, they are deposited in the appropriate receptacle. This oath is taken by all cardinals as they cast their ballots. If no one is chosen on the first scrutiny, then a second scrutiny immediately follows. A maximum total of four scrutinies can be taken each day, two in
3596-576: The Bishop of Rome remains unclear, since no such claim by Hippolytus has been cited in the writings attributed to him. Eusebius quotes from an unnamed earlier writer the story of Natalius, a 3rd-century priest who accepted the bishopric of the Adoptionists , a heretical group in Rome. Natalius soon repented and tearfully begged Pope Zephyrinus to receive him into communion. Novatian (d. 258), another third-century figure, certainly claimed
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3712-405: The College of Cardinals that Austria opposed the election of Mariano Rampolla . Consequently, the college elected Giuseppe Sarto as Pope Pius X , who issued the constitution Commissum nobis six months later, declaring that any cardinal who communicated his government's veto in the future would suffer excommunication latae sententiae . To resolve prolonged deadlocks in papal elections in
3828-487: The College of Cardinals, the master of papal liturgical celebrations, two masters of ceremonies , two officers of the Papal Sacristy and an ecclesiastic assisting the dean of the College of Cardinals are also admitted to the conclave. Priests are available to hear confessions in different languages; two doctors are also admitted. Finally, a strictly limited number of servant staff are permitted for housekeeping and
3944-597: The Emperor was only required to be notified. The last pope to notify a Byzantine emperor was Pope Zachary in 741. In the 9th century, the Holy Roman Empire came to exert control over papal elections. While Charlemagne (emperor from 800 to 814) and Louis the Pious (emperor from 813 to 840) did not interfere with the Church, Lothair I (emperor from 817 to 855) claimed that an election could only take place in
4060-594: The Sacred College. These were often prominent nobility, or monks who were not priests, and in all cases, celibacy was required. With the death of Teodolfo Mertel in 1899, this practice was ended. In 1917, the Code of Canon Law promulgated that year, explicitly stated that all cardinals must be priests. Since 1962, all cardinals have been bishops, with the exception of a few priests who were made cardinals after 1975 and being 80 years of age or older, were dispensed from
4176-559: The See of Rome. Bishops of dioceses were sometimes elected while still catechumens , such as the case of St. Ambrose , who became Bishop of Milan in 374. In the wake of the violent dispute over the 767 election of Antipope Constantine II , Pope Stephen III held the synod of 769, which decreed that only a cardinal priest or cardinal deacon could be elected, specifically excluding those that are already bishops. Church practice deviated from this rule as early as 817 and fully ignored it from 882 with
4292-596: The actual vote. The Second Council of the Lateran in 1139 removed the requirement for obtaining the assent of the lower clergy and the laity, while the Third Council of the Lateran in 1179 gave equal rights to the entire College of Cardinals when electing a new pope. Through much of the Middle Ages and Renaissance the Catholic Church had only a small number of cardinals at any one time, as few as seven under either Pope Alexander IV (1254–1261) or Pope John XXI (1276–1277). The difficulty of travel further reduced
4408-752: The afternoon in the Pauline Chapel in the Apostolic Palace and process to the Sistine Chapel while singing the Litany of the Saints . The cardinals will also sing the " Veni Creator Spiritus ", invoking the Holy Spirit , then take an oath to observe the procedures set down by the apostolic constitutions; to, if elected, defend the liberty of the Holy See ; to maintain secrecy; and to disregard
4524-415: The age limit slightly, so that cardinals who turn 80 before a papal vacancy (not before conclave start) can not serve as electors; this eliminated the idea of scheduling the conclave to include or exclude a cardinal who is very close to the age limit (and in 2013, Cardinal Walter Kasper , 79 when the papacy became vacant, participated in the conclave at age 80). Originally, lay status did not bar election to
4640-541: The age limit, which was set for the first time in 1970 by Pope Paul VI at 80. The college has no ruling power except during the sede vacante (papal vacancy) period, and even then its powers are extremely limited by the terms of the current law, which is laid down in the Apostolic constitution Universi Dominici gregis (1996) and the Fundamental Law of Vatican City State . Historically, cardinals were
4756-442: The age of 80 before the day the see becomes vacant are not eligible to vote. Canon law sets the general qualifications for a man to be appointed bishop quite broadly, requiring someone of faith and good reputation, at least thirty-five years old and with a certain level of education and five years' experience as a priest. The cardinals have nevertheless consistently elected the Bishop of Rome from among their own membership since
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4872-451: The altar, where the scrutineers stand. Before casting the ballot, each cardinal elector takes the following Latin oath: Testor Christum Dominum, qui me iudicaturus est, me eum eligere, quem secundum Deum iudico eligi debere. I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected. If any cardinal elector is in
4988-603: The assignation of successive numbers in the list of the popes. Thus, because of the obscurities about mid-11th-century canon law and the historical facts, the Annuario Pontificio lists Sylvester III as a pope, without thereby expressing a judgement on his legitimacy. The Catholic Encyclopedia places him in its List of Popes , but with the annotation: "Considered by some to be an antipope". Other sources classify him as an antipope. As Celestine II resigned before being consecrated and enthroned in order to avoid
5104-487: The attempts of Pope John XXIII (1958–1963) to broaden the representation of nations in the College of Cardinals, that number has increased. In 1970 Paul VI ruled that cardinals who reach the age of eighty before the start of a conclave are ineligible to participate. In 1975 he limited the number of cardinal electors to 120. Though this remains the theoretical limit, all of his successors have exceeded it for short periods of time. John Paul II (in office 1978–2005) also changed
5220-558: The authority of the Holy Roman Emperor (at the time Henry IV ), but only as a concession made by the pope, declaring that the Holy Roman Emperor had no authority to intervene in elections except where permitted to do so by papal agreements. Pope Gregory VII (in office 1073–1085) was the last pope to submit to the interference of the Holy Roman Emperors. The breach between him and the Holy Roman Empire caused by
5336-408: The ballots were designed to ensure secrecy while at the same time preventing self-voting. In 1945 Pope Pius XII removed the prohibition on a cardinal voting for himself, increasing the requisite majority to two-thirds plus one at all times. He eliminated as well the need for signed ballots. His successor John XXIII immediately reinstated the two-thirds majority if the number of cardinal electors voting
5452-539: The beginning of the 12th century, the College of Cardinals started to meet as such, when the cardinal bishops, cardinal priests and cardinal deacons ceased acting as separate groups. In the Catholic church, the Dean of the College of Cardinals and the Cardinal Vice-Dean are the president and vice-president of the college. Both are elected by and from the cardinal bishops (cardinals of the highest order, including those holding suburbicarian dioceses ), but
5568-484: The cardinals are to be lodged in a purpose-built edifice in Vatican City, the Domus Sanctae Marthae , but are to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel. Several duties are performed by the dean of the College of Cardinals , who is always a cardinal bishop. If the dean is not entitled to participate in the conclave owing to age, his place is taken by the vice-dean, who is also always a cardinal bishop. If
5684-445: The cardinals present have taken the oath, the master of papal liturgical celebrations orders all individuals other than the cardinal electors and conclave participants to leave the chapel. Traditionally, he stands at the door of the Sistine Chapel and calls out: " Extra omnes! " ( Latin for 'Outside, all [of you]'). He then closes the door. In modern practice, the master of papal liturgical celebrations does not have to stand at
5800-399: The chapel, but cannot proceed to the altar due to infirmity, the last scrutineer may go to him and take his ballot after the oath is recited. If any cardinal elector is by reason of infirmity confined to his room, the infirmarii go to their rooms with ballot papers and a box. Any such sick cardinals complete the ballot papers and then take the oath and drop the ballot papers into the box. When
5916-433: The clergy serving parishes of the city of Rome under its bishop , the pope. The college acquired particular importance following the crowning of Henry IV as King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor at the age of six, after the unexpected death of Henry III in 1056. Until then, the Holy See was often bitterly fought for among Rome's aristocratic families and external secular authorities had significant influence over who
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#17327918773376032-486: The college is to advise the pope about church matters when he summons them to an ordinary consistory , a term derived from the Roman Emperor 's crown council. It also attends various functions as a matter of protocol, for example, during the canonization process. It also convenes on the death or resignation of a pope as a papal conclave to elect a successor, but is then restricted to eligible Cardinals under
6148-451: The college to twenty members. In the ensuing century, increasing the size of the college became a method for the pope to raise funds for construction or war, cultivate European alliances, and dilute the strength of the college as a spiritual and political counterweight to papal supremacy. The conclave capitulation of the 1352 papal conclave limited the size of the college to twenty, and decreed that no new cardinals could be created until
6264-408: The conventional numbering of later popes who took the same name. More commonly, the antipope is ignored in later papal regnal numbers; for example, there was an Antipope John XXIII , but the new Pope John elected in 1958 was also called John XXIII . For the additional confusion regarding popes named John, see Pope John numbering . The list of popes and antipopes in the Annuario Pontificio attaches
6380-569: The cross) with a small silver hammer and chisel into the ring, disfiguring it so it may no longer be used for signing and sealing official papal documents. In his book, Light of the World: The Pope, the Church and the Signs of the Times , Benedict XVI espoused the idea of resignation on health grounds, which already had some theological respectability. The cardinals hear two sermons before
6496-417: The day-to-day matters of the Church, includes the cardinal camerlengo and the three cardinal assistants—one cardinal bishop, one cardinal priest and one cardinal deacon—chosen by lot. Every three days, new cardinal assistants are chosen by lot. The camerlengo and assistants are responsible, among other things, for maintaining the election's secrecy. The congregations must make certain arrangements in respect of
6612-648: The death of Pope Urban VI (the last non-cardinal to become pope) in 1389. The conclave rules specify the procedures to be followed should they elect someone residing outside Vatican City or not yet a bishop. Of the 117 cardinals under the age of 80 at the time of Pope Benedict XVI 's resignation, 115 participated in the conclave of March 2013 that elected Pope Francis to succeed him. The two who did not participate were Julius Riyadi Darmaatmadja (for health reasons) and Keith O'Brien (following allegations of sexual misconduct). Antipope God Schools Relations with: An antipope ( Latin : antipapa )
6728-471: The door of the Sistine Chapel—during the 2013 conclave , the master Guido Marini stood in front of the altar and gave the command through a microphone and only went to the chapel doors to close them after the outsiders had left. The master himself may remain, as may one ecclesiastic designated by the congregations prior to the commencement of the election. The ecclesiastic makes a speech concerning
6844-457: The earlier years, local authorities often resorted to the forced seclusion of the cardinal electors, such as first in the city of Rome in 1241 , and possibly before that in Perugia in 1216 . In 1269 , when the forced seclusion of the cardinals alone failed to produce a pope, the city of Viterbo refused to send in any materials except bread and water. When even this failed to produce a result,
6960-491: The election of Pope Marinus I , the Bishop of Caere . Nicholas II, in the synod of 1059, formally codified existing practice by decreeing that preference was to be given to the clergy of Rome, but leaving the cardinal bishops free to select a cleric from elsewhere if they so decided. The Council of 1179 rescinded these restrictions on eligibility. On 15 February 1559, Paul IV issued the papal bull Cum ex apostolatus officio ,
7076-733: The election requires papal confirmation. Except for presiding and delegating administrative tasks, they have no authority over the cardinals, acting as primus inter pares (first among equals). The Secretary of Roman Curia , the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church , the Vicar General of Rome , and the Patriarchs of Venice and Lisbon , are usually cardinals, with few, usually temporary, exceptions. The Fundamental Law of Vatican City State requires that appointees to
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#17327918773377192-518: The election: one before actually entering the conclave, and one once they are settled in the Sistine Chapel. In both cases, the sermons are meant to lay out the current state of the Church, and to suggest the qualities necessary for a pope to possess in that specific time. The first preacher in the 2005 conclave was Raniero Cantalamessa , the preacher of the papal household and a member of the Capuchin Franciscan order, who spoke at one of
7308-531: The first three become scrutineers, the second three infirmarii and the last three revisers. New scrutineers, infirmarii and revisers are not selected again after the first scrutiny; the same nine cardinals perform the same task for the second scrutiny. After lunch, the election resumes with the oath to obey the rules of the conclave taken anew when the cardinals again assemble in the Sistine Chapel. Nine names are chosen for new scrutineers, infirmarii , and revisers. The third scrutiny then commences, and if necessary,
7424-482: The following note to the name of Pope Leo VIII (963–965): At this point, as again in the mid-11th century, we come across elections in which problems of harmonising historical criteria and those of theology and canon law make it impossible to decide clearly which side possessed the legitimacy whose factual existence guarantees the unbroken lawful succession of the successors of Saint Peter . The uncertainty that in some cases results has made it advisable to abandon
7540-416: The historical period in which some cardinals could be clergy who had only received first tonsure and minor order , or the major orders of deacon and subdeacon without a further ordination to the priesthood. In 1961 Pope John XXIII reserved to the pope the right to assign any member of college to one of the suburbicarian sees and the rank of cardinal bishop. Previously only the senior cardinal priest and
7656-570: The independent Vatican City State. Since 1846, when the Quirinal Palace was used, the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican has served as the location of the election. Popes have often fine-tuned the rules for the election of their successors: Pope Pius XII 's Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis (1945) governed the conclave of 1958, Pope John XXIII 's Summi Pontificis electio (1962) that of 1963, Pope Paul VI 's Romano Pontifici eligendo (1975)
7772-636: The instructions of secular authorities on voting. The senior cardinal reads the oath aloud in full; in order of precedence (where their rank is the same, their seniority is taken as precedence), the other cardinal electors repeat the oath, while touching the Gospels . The oath is: Et ego [given name] Cardinalis [surname] spondeo, voveo ac iuro. Sic me Deus adiuvet et haec Sancta Dei Evangelia, quae manu mea tango. And I, [given name] Cardinal [surname], so promise, pledge and swear. So help me God and these Holy Gospels which I now touch with my hand. After all
7888-400: The last election by acclamation that of Pope Innocent XI in the 1676 conclave . Universi Dominici gregis formally abolished the long-unused methods of acclamation and compromise in 1996, making scrutiny the only approved method for the election of a new pope. For a significant part of the Church's history, powerful monarchs and governments influenced the choice of its leaders. For example,
8004-403: The latter roles were given the titles of Legatus a latere (Cardinal Legate) and Missus Specialis (Special Missions). During the pontificate of Stephen V (816–17), the three classes of the college that are present today began to form. Stephen decreed that all cardinal-bishops were bound to sing Mass on rotation at the high altar at St. Peter's Basilica , one per Sunday. The first class to form
8120-408: The lives of cardinals, did not consider the size of the college. In 1517 Pope Leo X added another thirty-one cardinals, bringing the total to sixty-five so that he could have a supportive majority in the College of Cardinals. Paul IV brought the total to seventy. His immediate successor, Pope Pius IV (1559–1565), raised the limit to seventy-six. Although Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor sought
8236-415: The local clergy and people. Procedures similar to the present system were introduced in 1274 when Gregory X promulgated Ubi periculum following the action of the magistrates of Viterbo during the interregnum of 1268–1271. The process was further refined by Gregory XV with his 1621 bull Aeterni Patris Filius , which established the requirement of a two-thirds majority of cardinal electors to elect
8352-613: The meetings of the cardinals held before the actual day when the conclave began. Cardinal Tomáš Špidlík , a former professor at the Pontifical Oriental Institute and a non-voting member (due to age) of the College of Cardinals, spoke just before the doors were finally closed for the conclave. On the morning of the day designated by the congregations of cardinals, the cardinal electors assemble in Saint Peter's Basilica to celebrate Mass . Then they gather in
8468-475: The morning and two in the afternoon. College of Cardinals God Schools Relations with: The College of Cardinals , more formally called the Sacred College of Cardinals , is the body of all cardinals of the Catholic Church . As of 25 November 2024, there are 232 cardinals , of whom 120 are eligible to vote in a conclave to elect a new pope . Cardinals are appointed by
8584-410: The most votes in the last ballot shall be eligible in a runoff election where a two-thirds majority is still required. The two people voted on, even if cardinal electors, shall not themselves have the right to vote. The process of voting comprises three phases: the "pre-scrutiny", the "scrutiny", and the "post-scrutiny". During the pre-scrutiny, the masters of ceremonies prepare ballot papers bearing
8700-473: The norm until 1294, when Pope Celestine V reinstated the 1274 rules. Long interregna followed: in 1314–1316 during the Avignon Papacy , where the original conclaves were dispersed by besieging mercenaries and not reconvened for almost two years; and in 1415–1417, as a result of the Western Schism . It is noteworthy that until 1899, it was a regular practice to generally include a few lay members in
8816-643: The number arriving at conclaves. The small electorate magnified the significance of each vote and made it all but impossible to displace familial or political allegiances. Conclaves lasted months and even years. In his 1274 decree requiring the electors be locked in seclusion, Gregory X also limited each cardinal elector to two servants and rationed their food progressively when a conclave reached its fourth and ninth days. The cardinals disliked these rules; Pope Adrian V temporarily suspended them in 1276 and John XXI's Licet felicis recordationis revoked them later that same year. Lengthy elections resumed and continued to be
8932-408: The number of cardinal electors to its full complement of 120. All of Paul's successors have at times exceeded the 120 maximum (except for Pope John Paul I , who did not hold any consistory during his very short pontificate). Pope John Paul II reiterated the 120 maximum in 1996, yet his appointments to the college resulted in more than 120 cardinal electors on 4 of his nine consistories , reaching
9048-561: The number of cardinals several times to 88 in January 1961 and Pope Paul VI continued this expansion, reaching 134 at his third consistory in April 1969. The total size of the college lost its significance when Paul VI decided to allow only cardinals under the age of 80 to vote in a conclave from 1971 onward. Then, in 1975, Paul set the maximum number of those under 80, the cardinal electors, at 120. His next consistory in 1976 brought
9164-784: The outside world under grave circumstances, prior to approval of the college, to fulfill their duties: the Major Penitentiary , the cardinal vicar for the Diocese of Rome , and the vicar general for the Vatican City State . Before the conclave that elected Pope Francis, the Sistine Chapel was "swept" to detect any hidden " bugs " or surveillance devices (there were no reports that any were found, but in previous conclaves press reporters who had disguised themselves as conclave servants were discovered). Universi Dominici gregis specifically prohibits media such as newspapers,
9280-471: The papacy, a requirement that has since lapsed. In 1130, under Innocent II , all the classes were permitted to take part in papal elections; up to this point, only cardinal-bishops had this role. From the 13th to 15th centuries, the size of the College of Cardinals never exceeded thirty, although there were more than thirty parishes and diaconal districts which could potentially have a titular holder; Pope John XXII (1316–1334) formalized this norm by limiting
9396-402: The people for their general approval or disapproval. This lack of precision in the election procedures occasionally gave rise to rival popes or antipopes . The right of the laity to reject the person elected was abolished by a synod held in the Lateran in 769, but restored to Roman noblemen by Pope Nicholas I during a synod of Rome in 862. The pope was also subjected to oaths of loyalty to
9512-511: The pope for life but eligibility to vote ceases at the age of 80. Since the emergence of the College of Cardinals in the Early Middle Ages , the size of the body has historically been limited by popes , ecumenical councils ratified by the pope, and even the college itself. The total number of cardinals from 1099 to 1986 has been about 2,900 (excluding possible undocumented 12th-century cardinals and pseudocardinals appointed during
9628-406: The pope's burial, which by tradition takes place within four to six days of the pope's death, leaving time for pilgrims to see the dead pontiff, and occurs within a nine-day period of mourning known as the novemdiales ( Latin for 'nine days'). The congregations also fix the date and time of the commencement of the conclave. The conclave normally takes place fifteen days after the death of
9744-435: The pope, but the congregations may extend the period to a maximum of twenty days in order to permit other cardinals to arrive in the Vatican City. A vacancy in the papal office may also result from a papal resignation . Until the resignation of Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, no pope had resigned since Gregory XII in 1415. In 1996 Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic constitution Universi Dominici gregis , anticipated
9860-500: The pope. Universi Dominici gregis explicitly provides that even if a synod or an ecumenical council is in session at the time of a pope's death, it may not perform the election. Upon the pope's death, either body's proceedings are suspended, to be resumed only upon the order of the new pope. It is considered poor form to campaign for the position of pope. There is always much outside speculation about which cardinals have serious prospects of being elected. Speculation tends to mount when
9976-741: The possibility of resignation when he specified that the procedures he set out in that document should be observed "even if the vacancy of the Apostolic See should occur as a result of the resignation of the Supreme Pontiff". In the case of a papal resignation, the Ring of the Fisherman is placed in the custody of the Cardinal Camerlengo ; in the presence of the College of Cardinals , the Cardinal Camerlengo marks an X (for
10092-503: The preparing and serving of meals. Secrecy is maintained during the conclave; the cardinals as well as the conclavists and staff are forbidden to disclose any information relating to the election. Cardinal electors may not correspond or converse with anyone outside the conclave, by post, radio, telephone, internet, social media or otherwise, and eavesdropping is an offense punishable by automatic excommunication ( latae sententiae ). Only three cardinal electors are permitted to communicate with
10208-402: The presence of imperial ambassadors. In 898 riots forced Pope John IX to recognise the superintendence of the Holy Roman Emperor. At the same time, the Roman nobility also continued to exert great influence, especially during the tenth-century period known as saeculum obscurum (Latin for "the dark age"). In 1059 the same papal bull that restricted suffrage to the cardinals also recognised
10324-555: The previous rules, making some changes, Vacante sede apostolica . John Paul II instituted several reforms in 1996. The location of the conclaves became fixed in the fourteenth century. Since the end of the Western Schism in 1417, they have taken place in Rome (except in 1799–1800, when French troops occupying Rome forced the election to be held in Venice ), and normally in what, since the Lateran Treaties of 1929, has become
10440-400: The problems facing the Church and on the qualities the new pope needs to have. After the speech concludes, the ecclesiastic leaves. Following the recitation of prayers, the senior cardinal asks if any doubts relating to procedure remain. After the clarification of the doubts, the election may commence. Cardinals who arrive after the conclave has begun are admitted nevertheless. A sick cardinal or
10556-405: The process may again be similarly suspended, with the address now being delivered by the senior cardinal priest. If, after another seven ballots, no result is achieved, voting is suspended once more, the address being delivered by the senior cardinal bishop. After a further seven ballots, there shall be a day of prayer, reflection and dialogue. In the following ballots, only the two names who received
10672-439: The radio, and television. Wi-Fi access is blocked in Vatican City and wireless signal jammers are deployed at the Sistine Chapel to prevent any form of electronic communications to or from the cardinal electors. On the afternoon of the first day, one ballot (referred to as a "scrutiny") may be held, but is not required. If a ballot takes place on the afternoon of the first day and no-one is elected, or no ballot had taken place,
10788-462: The requirement of episcopal ordination. It was in 1975 that Paul VI decreed that those 80 years of age or older were not allowed to vote in papal conclaves. In 1587 Pope Sixtus V limited the number of cardinals to 70, following the precedent of Moses who was assisted by 70 elders in governing the Children of Israel : 6 cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons. Beginning with
10904-475: The right once per conclave. Therefore, a crown-cardinal did not announce his veto until the very last moment when the candidate in question seemed likely to get elected. No vetoes could be employed after an election. After the Holy Roman Empire dissolved in 1806, its veto power devolved upon the Austrian Empire . The last exercise of the veto occurred in 1903, when Prince Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko informed
11020-588: The rules governing the rank of cardinal bishop to open that rank to anyone of the pope's choosing, granting such cardinals the same privileges as those assigned suburbicarian sees. Pope Francis adjusted the rules regarding the Dean in December 2019, so they now serve for a term of five years which can be renewed by the Pope. No change was made regarding the Vice-Dean. The resignation or removal of members has been
11136-425: The senior cardinal deacon had the privilege of requesting such an appointment ( jus optionis ) when a vacancy occurred. In 1962 he established that all cardinals should be bishops, ending the identification of the order of cardinal deacon with cardinals who were not bishops. He consecrated the twelve non-bishop members of the college himself. In February 1965, Pope Paul VI decided that an Eastern Rite Patriarch who
11252-624: The size of the college had dropped to 16; however, Pope Innocent VI declared the capitulation invalid the following year. By the end of the 14th century, the practice of having solely Italian cardinals had ceased. Between the 14th and 17th centuries, there was much struggle for the college between the cardinals and the reigning popes. Although some popes increased the number of cardinals in order to guarantee allies, Pope Benedict XII often refused to do so and created six new cardinals on only one occasion, in 1338. The Council of Basel (1431–1437, later transferred to Ferrara and then Florence) limited
11368-403: The size of the college to 24, as did the capitulation of the 1464 papal conclave . The capitulations of the 1484 ( Pope Innocent VIII ) and 1513 ( Pope Leo X ) conclaves contained the same restriction. The capitulation of the 1492 papal conclave also contained a restriction on the creation of new cardinals. The Fifth Council of the Lateran (1512–1517), despite its detailed regulation of
11484-435: The standard needed for election. Aeterni Patris Filius did not eliminate the possibility of election by acclamation , but did require that a secret ballot take place first before a pope could be elected. As early Christian communities emerged, they elected bishops, chosen by the clergy and laity with the assistance of the bishops of neighbouring dioceses. Cyprian (died 258) says that Pope Cornelius (in office 251–253)
11600-486: The state's legislative body , the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , be cardinals. Under the terms of Pope Paul VI 's 1970 motu proprio Ingravescentem aetatem , cardinals who reached the age of 80 before a conclave opened had no vote in papal elections. Pope John Paul II 's Universi Dominici gregis of 22 February 1996 modified that rule slightly, so that cardinals who have reached
11716-581: The support of any Cardinal. Examples include Palmarians , Apostles of Infinite Love Antipopes, and an unknown number of many other Sedevacantist claimants. As the Patriarch of Alexandria , Egypt , has historically also held the title of pope , a person who, in opposition to someone who is generally accepted as a legitimate pope of Alexandria , claims to hold that position may also be considered an antipope. Coptic lector Max Michel became an antipope of Alexandria, calling himself Maximos I. His claim to
11832-519: The task by calling out his baptismal (not papal) name three times in the presence of the master of papal liturgical celebrations, and of the cleric prelates, secretary and chancellor of the Apostolic Camera . The camerlengo takes possession of the Ring of the Fisherman worn by the pope; the ring, along with the papal seal, is later destroyed before the College of Cardinals. The tradition originated to avoid forgery of documents, but today merely
11948-456: The townspeople removed the roof of the Palazzo dei Papi in their attempt to speed up the election. In an attempt to avoid future lengthy elections, Gregory X introduced stringent rules with the 1274 promulgation of Ubi periculum . Cardinals were to be secluded in a closed area and not accorded individual rooms. No cardinal was allowed, unless ill, to be attended by more than two servants. Food
12064-499: The two conclaves of 1978, John Paul II 's Universi Dominici Gregis (1996) that of 2005, and two amendments by Benedict XVI (2007, 2013) that of 2013. In 1996, John Paul II promulgated a new apostolic constitution , Universi Dominici gregis , which with slight modifications by Pope Benedict XVI now governs the election of the pope, abolishing all previous constitutions on the matter, but preserving many procedures that date to much earlier times. Under Universi Dominici gregis ,
12180-432: The two-thirds majority requirement, as any majority suffices to block the election until a simple majority is enough to elect the next pope), reaffirming the requirement of a two-thirds majority. Electors formerly made choices by accessus , acclamation ( per inspirationem ), adoration, compromise ( per compromissum ) or scrutiny ( per scrutinium ). The last election by compromise was that of Pope John XXII in 1316, and
12296-487: The vice-dean also cannot participate, the senior cardinal bishop participating performs the functions. Since the College of Cardinals is a small body, there have been proposals that the electorate should be expanded. Proposed reforms include a plan to replace the College of Cardinals as the electoral body with the Synod of Bishops , which includes many more members. Under present procedure, the synod may only meet when called by
12412-470: The words Eligo in Summum Pontificem ('I elect as Supreme Pontiff') and provide at least two to each cardinal elector. As the cardinals begin to write down their votes, the secretary of the College of Cardinals, the master of papal liturgical celebrations and the masters of ceremonies exit; the junior cardinal deacon then closes the door. The junior cardinal deacon then draws by lot nine names;
12528-465: Was chosen as Bishop of Rome "by the decree of God and of His Church, by the testimony of nearly all the clergy, by the college of aged bishops [ sacerdotum ], and of good men". As in other dioceses, the clergy of the Diocese of Rome was the electoral body for the Bishop of Rome. Instead of casting votes, the bishop was selected by general consensus or by acclamation . The candidate was then submitted to
12644-518: Was elected and was accepted everywhere except in the small and rapidly diminishing area of influence of Benedict XIII. The following table gives the names of the antipopes included in the list of popes and antipopes in the Annuario Pontificio , with the addition of the names of Natalius (in spite of doubts about his historicity) and Antipope Clement VIII (whose following was insignificant). An asterisk marks those who were included in
12760-550: Was more precisely defined when, in 1059, the College of Cardinals was designated the sole body of electors. Since then, other details of the process have developed. In 1970, Pope Paul VI limited the electors to cardinals under 80 years of age in Ingravescentem aetatem . The current procedures were established by Pope John Paul II in his apostolic constitution Universi Dominici gregis , and amended by Pope Benedict XVI in 2007 and 2013. A two-thirds supermajority vote
12876-589: Was named after the town of Pisa, Italy, where the (Pisan) council had elected antipope Alexander V as a third claimant. To end the schism, in May 1415 , the Council of Constance deposed antipope John XXIII of the Pisan line. Pope Gregory XII of the Roman line resigned in July 1415. In 1417 , the council also formally deposed antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, but he adamantly refused to resign. Afterwards, Pope Martin V
12992-484: Was part of a larger power struggle, which became known as the Investiture Controversy , as the Church and the Emperor each attempted to gain more control over the appointment of bishops, and in doing so wield more influence in the lands and governments they were appointed to. Reserving to the cardinals the election of the pope represented a significant shift in the balance of power in the Early Medieval world. From
13108-452: Was supplied through a window to avoid outside contact. After three days of the conclave, the cardinals were to receive only one dish a day; after another five days, they were to receive just bread and water. During the conclave, no cardinal was to receive any ecclesiastical revenue. Adrian V abolished Gregory X's strict regulations in 1276, but Celestine V , elected in 1294 following a two-year vacancy, restored them. In 1562 Pius IV issued
13224-528: Was that of the cardinal-deacons, direct theological descendants of the original seven ordained in Acts 6, followed by the cardinal-priests, and finally, the cardinal-bishops. The college played an integral part in various reforms within the Church as well, as early as the pontificate of Pope Leo IX (1050). In the 12th century, the Third Lateran Council declared that only Cardinals could assume
13340-403: Was the last to be elected (1522) in absentia . Archbishop Giovanni Montini of Milan received several votes in the 1958 conclave though not yet a cardinal. As the Catholic Church holds that women cannot be validly ordained, women are not eligible for the papacy. Though the pope is the Bishop of Rome, he need not be of Italian background. As of 2017, the three most recent conclaves have elected
13456-484: Was to be appointed pope, and the Holy Roman Emperor in particular had the special power to appoint him. This was significant as the aims and views of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Church did not always coincide. Churchmen involved in what has become known as the Gregorian Reform took advantage of the new king's lack of power and in 1059 reserved the election of the pope to the clergy of the Church in Rome. This
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