117-623: The Condecoración "Miguel Hidalgo" or Miguel Hidalgo Decoration forms part of the Mexican Honours System . It is de jure the highest award that the United Mexican States can issue its citizens. It is awarded for eminent or distinguished merits; exemplar conduct or life's work; relevant services rendered unto the Nation or to Mankind; or heroic acts. There are very few records of it being awarded. The award
234-643: A revolt by Spanish troops first and, subsequently, an uprising in Madrid , This was followed by further revolts across Spain. In August 1808, a British army landed in Portugal. Britain and France then went to war against each other in Portugal and Spain. The war and instability in Spain affected Mexico and other parts of New Spain . In 1803, aged 50, Hidalgo arrived in Dolores accompanied by his family that included
351-515: A black baldric also embroidered with gold. There was also a large image of the Virgin of Guadalupe in gold on his chest. Hidalgo and his forces took Valladolid with little opposition on 17 October 1810. There, Hidalgo issued proclamations against the peninsulares, whom he accused of arrogance and despotism, as well as enslaving those in the Americas for almost 300 years. Hidalgo argued that
468-480: A decisive victory . Belmonte was captured after he fled to Bari , while other Austrian troops were able to escape to the sea. To celebrate the victory, Naples was illuminated for three nights, and on 30 May, the Duke of Montemar, Charles's army commander, was named the Duke of Bitonto. Today there is an obelisk in the city of Bitonto commemorating the battle constructed and designed by Giovanni Antonio Medrano . After
585-600: A destination of Guadalajara . After turning back, many insurgents deserted. By the time he got to Aculco, just north of Toluca, his army had shrunk to 40,000 men. New Spain General Felix Calleja attacked Hidalgo's forces, defeating them on 7 November 1810. Allende decided to take the troops under his command to Guanajuato, instead of Guadalajara. Hidalgo arrived in Guadalajara on 26 November with more than 7,000 poorly armed troops. He initially occupied
702-420: A famine in the Dolores area, and rather than releasing stored grain to market, Spanish merchants blocked its release, speculating on price increases. Hidalgo lobbied against these practices but was not successful. Fearing arrest, Hidalgo ordered his brother Mauricio, as well as Ignacio Allende and Mariano Abasolo , to go with a number of other armed men to make the sheriff release prison inmates in Dolores on
819-585: A few days before the coronation of Charles, the Pope chose to accept the traditional offering of a Hackney horse from the Holy Roman Emperor rather than from Charles. The Hackney was a white mare and a sum of money which the King of Naples offered the Pope as feudal homage every 29 June, at the feast of Saints Peter and Paul. The reason for this choice was that Charles had not yet been recognized as ruler of
936-469: A friend of Hidalgo, but he was adamantly opposed to Hidalgo's tactics and the resultant disruptions, alleged "sacrileges" and purported ill-treatment of priests. The Inquisition pronounced an edict against Hidalgo, charging him with denying that God punishes sins in this world, doubting the authenticity of the Bible, denouncing the popes and Church government, allowing Jews not to convert to Christianity, denying
1053-656: A fête in honor of the Patron Saint of Florence, St. John the Baptist , on 24 June. At this fête Gian Gastone named Charles his heir, giving him the traditional Tuscan title of Hereditary Prince of Tuscany , and Charles paid homage to the Florentine senate, as was the tradition for heirs to the Tuscan throne. When Emperor Charles VI heard about the ceremony, he was enraged that Gian Gastone had not informed him, since he
1170-409: A hundred pretty things; one would not credit the things that she says unless one heard them. She has the mind of an angel, and my son is only too happy to possess her . . . She has charged me to tell you that she loves you with all her heart and that she is quite content with her husband." And to the duchesse d'Orléans she writes: "I find her the most beautiful and most lovable child in the world. It
1287-436: A lance to adopt it as his banner. He inscribed the following slogans to his troops' flags: "Long live religion! Long live our most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long live America and death to bad government!" For the insurgents as a whole, the Virgin represented an intense and highly localized religious sensibility, invoked more to identify allies rather than create ideological alliances or a sense of nationalism. The extent and
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#17327803977341404-466: A review. Charles had his triumphant entrance to Naples on 10 May 1734, through the old city gate at Capuana surrounded by the city councilors along with a group of people who threw money to the locals. The procession went on through the streets and ended up at the Naples Cathedral , where Charles received a blessing from the local archbishop , Cardinal Pignatelli. Charles took up residence at
1521-562: A seditionary, apostate , and heretic . The insurgents stayed in the city preparing to march to the capital of New Spain, Mexico City . The canon of the cathedral met Hidalgo and made him promise that the atrocities of San Miguel, Celaya and Guanajuato would not be repeated in Valladolid. Wholesale destruction of the city was not repeated. However, Hidalgo was furious when he found the cathedral locked to him, which led him to jail Spaniards, replace city officials with his own and looting
1638-684: A stand at the Calderón Bridge ( Puente de Calderón ) just outside the city. Hidalgo had between 80,000 and 100,000 men and 95 cannons, but the better trained royalists decisively defeated the insurgent army, forcing Hidalgo to flee towards Aguascalientes. At Hacienda de Pabellón, on 25 January 1811, near the city of Aguascalientes , Allende and other insurgent leaders took military command away from Hidalgo, blaming him for their defeats. Hidalgo remained as head politically but with military command going to Allende. The insurgent Army moved north towards Zacatecas and Saltillo with
1755-423: A theology professor. Beginning in 1787, he was named treasurer, vice-rector and secretary, becoming dean of the school in 1790 when he was 39. As rector , Hidalgo continued studying the liberal ideas that were coming from France and other parts of Europe. Authorities ousted him in 1792 for revising traditional teaching methods there, but also for "irregular handling of some funds." The Church sent him to work at
1872-578: A younger brother, a cousin, two half sisters, as well as María and their two children. He obtained this parish in spite of his hearing before the Inquisition, which did not stop his secular practices. After Hidalgo settled in Dolores, he turned over most of the clerical duties to one of his vicars, Francisco Iglesias, and devoted himself almost exclusively to commerce, intellectual pursuits and humanitarian activities. He spent much of his time studying literature, scientific works, grape cultivation , and
1989-1081: Is named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753–1811), Mexican Catholic priest and main leader of the Mexican War of Independence . In 1975, President Luis Echeverría signed the decree establishing the Mexican Law of Prizes, Stimuli and Civil Rewards, which lists the awards issued by the Executive Branch of the Government of Mexico and established the Condecoración "Miguel Hidalgo" as the nation's highest award to its own citizens. The decoration consists of four classes: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Don Miguel Gregorio Antonio Ignacio Hidalgo y Costilla Gallaga Mandarte y Villaseñor (8 May 1753 – 30 July 1811), commonly known as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla or Miguel Hidalgo ( Spanish pronunciation: [miˈɣel iˈðalɣo] ),
2106-462: Is the most pleasing thing imaginable to see her with her little husband: how they caress one another and how they love one another already. They have a thousand little secrets to tell one another, and they cannot part for an instant." Out of these proposed marriages, only Louis and Louise Élisabeth would wed. Elisabeth Farnese looked for other potential brides for her eldest son. For this, she looked to Austria, Spain's principal opponent for influence on
2223-573: The Bajío area, through Atotonilco , San Miguel el Grande (present-day San Miguel de Allende ), Chamucuero, Celaya , Salamanca , Irapuato and Silao , to Guanajuato . From Guanajuato, Hidalgo directed his troops to Valladolid, Michoacán . They remained here for a while and eventually marched towards Mexico City. From Valladolid, they marched through the State of Mexico , through the cities of Maravatio, Ixtlahuaca, Toluca coming as close to Mexico City as
2340-466: The Battle of Calderón Bridge and were defeated. After the battle, Hidalgo and his remaining troops fled north, but Hidalgo was betrayed, captured and executed. Hidalgo was the second-born child of Cristóbal Hidalgo y Costilla Espinoza de los Monteros and Ana María Gallaga Mandarte Villaseñor, both criollos . On his maternal side, he was of Basque ancestry. His most recent identifiable Spanish ancestor
2457-616: The Bay of Naples . A week later they defeated the Austrians at sea. On 31 March, his army closed in on the Austrians in Naples. The Spanish flanked the defensive position of the Austrians under general Traun and forced them to withdraw to Capua . This allowed Charles and his troops to advance on to the city of Naples itself. The Austrian viceroy, Giulio Borromeo Visconti, and the commander of his army, Giovanni Carafa , left some garrisons holding
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#17327803977342574-705: The Duchy of Lorraine to the deposed Polish King Stanislaus I . The treaty included the transfer to Naples of all the inherited goods of the House of Farnese . He took with him the collection of artwork, the archives and the ducal library, the cannons of the fort, and even the marble stairway of the ducal palace. The peace between Charles and Austria was signed in Vienna in 1740. That year, Emperor Charles died leaving his Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary (along with many other lands) to his daughter Maria Theresa ; he had hoped
2691-562: The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza for Charles, since he was unlikely to be king of Spain. She also sought for him the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , because Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1671–1737) was also childless. He was a distant cousin of hers, related via her great-grandmother Margherita de' Medici , giving Charles a claim to the title through that lineage. The birth of Charles encouraged Prime Minister Alberoni to start laying out grand plans for Europe. In 1717 he ordered
2808-551: The Duke of Orléans , the French regent, to arrange three Franco-Spanish marriages that could potentially ease tense relations. The young Louis XV of France would marry the three-year-old Infanta Mariana Victoria and thus she would become Queen of France; Charles's half-brother Louis would marry the fourth surviving daughter of the regent, Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans . Charles himself would be engaged to Philippine Élisabeth d'Orléans , who
2925-779: The Infante Charles of Spain at the Royal Alcázar of Madrid . He was fourth in line to the Spanish throne, after three elder half-brothers: the Infante Luis, Prince of Asturias (who ruled briefly as Louis I of Spain before dying in 1724); the Infante Felipe (who died in 1719); and Ferdinand (the future Ferdinand VI). Because the Duke Francesco of Parma and his heir were childless, Elisabeth sought
3042-732: The Italian Peninsula . She proposed to Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor , that the Infante Charles marry the eight-year-old Archduchess Maria Theresa and that her second surviving son, the Infante Philip , marry the seven-year-old Archduchess Maria Anna . The alliance of Spain and Austria was signed on 30 April 1725 and included Spanish support for the Pragmatic Sanction , a document drafted by Emperor Charles in 1713 to assure support for Maria Theresa in
3159-509: The Kingdom of Sicily , and the Kingdom of Great Britain gained the island of Menorca and the fortress at Gibraltar . In 1700, Charles's father, originally a French Bourbon prince, Philip of Anjou, became King of Spain as Philip V. For the remainder of his reign (1700–46), he continually attempted to regain the ceded territories in Europe. In 1714, after the death of the king's first wife,
3276-621: The Royal Palace of Naples , which had been built by his ancestor, Philip III of Spain . Two chroniclers of the era, the Florentine Bartolomeo Intrieri, and the Venetian Cesare Vignola made conflicting reports on the view of the situation by Neapolitans. Intrieri writes that the arrival was a historic event and that the crowd cried out that "His Royal Highness is beautiful, that his face is as
3393-748: The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14) and reduced the political and military power of Spain , which the House of Bourbon had ruled since 1700. Under the terms of the treaty, the Spanish Empire retained its American territories and the Philippines, but ceded the Spanish Netherlands , the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia , the Duchy of Milan , and the State of Presidi to Habsburg Austria . The House of Savoy gained
3510-401: The apostolic nuncio , the Pope let Charles know he did not consider valid the nomination received by him from Charles's father, Philip V, King of Spain. In response, a committee headed by the Tuscan lawyer Bernardo Tanucci in Naples concluded that papal investiture was not necessary because the crowning of a king could not be considered a sacrament. The situation worsened when, in 1735, just
3627-530: The Bourbon conquest of the island was not complete, he was crowned King of the Two Sicilies ("utriusque Siciliae rex") on 3 July in the ancient Palermo Cathedral , after having traveled overland to Palmi , and by sea from Palmi to Palermo . The coronation bypassed the authority of the Pope thanks to the apostolic legation of Sicily, a medieval privilege which ensured the island a special legal autonomy from
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3744-533: The Church. Thus, the papal legate did not attend the ceremony as Charles would have wanted. In March 1735 a new discord developed between Rome and Naples. In Rome, it was discovered that the Bourbons had confined Roman citizens in the basement of Palazzo Farnese , which was the personal property of King Charles; people were brought there to impress them into the newborn Neapolitan army. Thousands of inhabitants in
3861-656: The Enlightenment current in Europe but, at the same time, forbidden by the Catholic church in Mexico. Hidalgo was ordained as a priest in 1778 when he was 25 years old. From 1779 to 1792, he dedicated himself to teaching at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo in Valladolid (now Morelia ); it was "one of the most important educational centers of the viceroyalty." He was a professor of Latin grammar and arts, as well as
3978-619: The European-born Spaniards who had overthrown the Spanish Viceroy José de Iturrigaray . Hidalgo marched across Mexico and gathered an army of nearly 90,000 poor farmers and Mexican civilians who attacked Spanish Peninsular and Criollo elites. Hidalgo's insurgent army accumulated initial victories on its way to Mexico City, but his troops ultimately lacked training and were poorly armed. These troops ran into an army of well-trained and armed Spanish troops in
4095-692: The Kingdom of Naples by a peace treaty, and so the Emperor was considered still de jure King of Naples. Receiving the Hackney from the Holy Roman Empire was common while receiving it from a Bourbon was unusual. The Pope, therefore, considered the first option a less dramatic gesture, and in doing so provoked the wrath of the religious Spanish infante. Meanwhile, Charles had landed in Sicily. Although
4212-644: The Kingdom of Naples, claiming he would free it of "excessive violence by the Austrian Viceroy of Naples, oppression, and tyranny". Charles, now "Charles I of Parma", was to be in charge. Charles inspected the Spanish troops at Perugia , and marched toward Naples on 5 March. The army passed through the Papal States then ruled by Clement XII . The Austrians, already fighting the French and Savoyard armies to retain Milan , had only limited resources for
4329-620: The Monte de las Cruces, between the Valley of Toluca and the Valley of Mexico . Through numbers, Hidalgo's army had some early victories. Hidalgo first went through the economically important and densely populated province of Guanajuato. One of the first stops was at the Sanctuary of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe in Atotonilco , where Hidalgo affixed an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe to
4446-521: The Pope, after long negotiations, through the mediation of its ambassador in Rome, Cardinal Acquaviva , the archbishop Giuseppe Spinelli and the chaplain Celestino Galiani. The agreement was achieved on 12 May 1738. After the death of Pope Clement in 1740, he was replaced by Pope Benedict XIV , who the following year allowed the creation of a concordat with the Kingdom of Naples. This allowed
4563-653: The Princess Maria Luisa Gabriella of Savoy , the Piacenza Cardinal Giulio Alberoni successfully arranged the swift marriage between Philip and the ambitious Elisabeth Farnese , niece and stepdaughter of Francesco Farnese, Duke of Parma . Elisabeth and Philip married on 24 December 1714; she quickly proved a domineering consort and influenced King Philip to make Cardinal Giulio Alberoni the prime minister of Spain in 1715. On 20 January 1716, Elisabeth gave birth to
4680-580: The Spanish invasion of Sardinia . In 1718, Alberoni also ordered the invasion of Sicily , which was also ruled by the House of Savoy . In the same year Charles's first sister, Infanta Mariana Victoria was born on 31 March. In reaction to the Quadruple Alliance of 1718 , the Duke of Savoy then joined the Alliance and went to war with Spain. This war led to the dismissal of Alberoni by Philip in 1719. The Treaty of The Hague of 1720 included
4797-436: The Spanish people were upset by the presence of the French troops as a result of the numerous excesses that the French committed against the Spanish people, such as occupation of the territory, numerous looting, pillaging, murder of civilians, and the kidnappings of King Charles IV and Prince Ferdinand VII . Also, Napoleon forced both to abdicate and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte , as King of Spain. This triggered
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4914-599: The Spanish throne. He strengthened the Spanish Army and the Spanish Navy . Although he did not achieve complete control over Spain's finances, and was sometimes obliged to borrow to meet expenses, most of his reforms proved successful in providing increased revenue to the crown and expanding state power, leaving a lasting legacy. In the Spanish Empire his regime enacted a series of sweeping reforms with
5031-591: The aim of bringing the overseas territories under firmer control by the central government, reversing the trend toward local autonomy, and gaining more control over the Church. Reforms including the establishment of two new viceroyalties , realignment of administration into intendancies, creating a standing military, establishing new monopolies, revitalizing silver mining , excluding American-born Spaniards ( criollos ) from high civil and ecclesiastical offices, and eliminating many privileges ( fueros ) of clergy. Historian Stanley Payne writes that Charles "was probably
5148-497: The capital, but Hidalgo disagreed. Hidalgo's reasoning for this decision is unclear and has been debated by historians. One explanation is that Hidalgo's forces were undisciplined and had suffered heavy losses whenever they encountered trained troops. As the capital was guarded by some of the most trained soldiers in New Spain, Hidalgo decided to turn away from Mexico City and move to the north through Toluca and Ixtlahuaca with
5265-412: The capture of San Miguel in late September 1810. When rioting ran through the city, Allende tried to break up violence by striking insurgents with the flat of his sword, which brought him a rebuke from Hidalgo. On 28 September 1810 , Hidalgo arrived at the city of Guanajuato with rebels who were mostly armed with sticks, stones, and machetes. The town's peninsular and criollo populations took refuge in
5382-466: The city treasury before marching off toward Mexico City. On 19 October, Hidalgo left Valladolid for Mexico City after taking 400,000 pesos from the cathedral to pay expenses. Hidalgo and his troops left the state of Michoacán and marched through the towns of Maravatio, Ixtlahuaca, and Toluca before stopping in the forested mountain area of Monte de las Cruces. Here, insurgent forces engaged Torcuato Trujillo's royalist forces. Hidalgo's troops led
5499-467: The city with lower-class support because Hidalgo promised to end slavery , tribute payment and taxes on alcohol and tobacco. Hidalgo established an alternative government in Guadalajara with himself at the head and appointed two ministers. On 6 December 1810, Hidalgo issued a decree abolishing slavery, threatening those who did not comply with death. He abolished tribute payments that indigenous peoples had to pay to criollo and peninsular lords. He ordered
5616-470: The city's fortresses and withdrew to Apulia . There they awaited reinforcements sufficient to defeat the Spanish. The Spanish entered Naples and laid siege to the Austrian-held fortresses. During that interval, Charles received the compliments of the local nobility, and the city keys and the privilege book from a delegation of the city's elected officials. Chronicles of the time reported that Naples
5733-569: The column of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City. Next to it is a lamp lit to represent the sacrifice of those who gave their lives for Mexican Independence. His birthday is a civic holiday in Mexico. Charles III of Spain Charles III ( Spanish : Carlos Sebastián de Borbón y Farnesio ; 20 January 1716 – 14 December 1788) was King of Spain in the years 1759 to 1788. He
5850-416: The conflict, but his father wanted him to join in and gather troops to aid the French. Charles arranged for 10,000 Spanish soldiers that were to be sent to Italy under the command of the Duke of Castropignano , but they were obliged to retreat when a Royal Navy squadron under Commodore William Martin threatened to bombard Naples if they did not stay out of the conflict. The decision to remain neutral
5967-439: The day to celebrate it varied between 16 September, the day of Hidalgo's Grito de Dolores, and 27 September, when Iturbide's forces captured Mexico City, ending the war. Later, political movements would favor the more liberal Hidalgo over the conservative Iturbide, and 16 September 1810 became officially recognized as the day of Mexican independence. The reason for this is that Hidalgo is considered to be "precursor and creator of
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#17327803977346084-755: The death of his childless grand-uncle Antonio Farnese . In 1734, at the age of 18, he led Spanish troops in a bold and almost entirely bloodless march down Italy to seize the Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily and enforce the Spanish claim to their thrones. In 1738, he married the Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony , daughter of Augustus III of Poland , who was an educated, cultured woman. The couple had 13 children, eight of whom reached adulthood. They resided in Naples for 19 years. Charles gained valuable experience in his 25-year rule in Italy, so that he
6201-431: The defense of Naples and were divided on how best to oppose the Spanish. The Emperor wanted to keep Naples, but most of the Neapolitan nobility was against him, and some conspired against his viceroy. They hoped that Philip would give the kingdom to Charles, who would be more likely to live and rule there, rather than having a viceroy and serve a foreign power. On 9 March the Spanish took Procida and Ischia , two islands in
6318-407: The early years of Charles's reign, the Neapolitan court was engaged in a dispute with the Holy See over jurisdiction, clerical appointments, and revenues. The Kingdom of Naples was an ancient fief of the Papal States. For this reason, Pope Clement XII considered himself the only one entitled to invest the king of Naples, and so he did not recognize Charles of Bourbon as a legitimate sovereign. Through
6435-432: The empire. He facilitated trade and commerce, modernized agriculture and land tenure , and promoted science and university research. He implemented regalist policies to increase the power of the state regarding the church. During his reign, he expelled the Jesuits from the Spanish Empire and fostered the Enlightenment in Spain . Charles launched enquiries into the Iberian Peninsula 's Muslim past, even after succeeding to
6552-464: The fall of Reggio Calabria on 20 June, Charles also conquered the towns of L'Aquila (27 June) and Pescara (28 July). The last two Austrian fortresses were Gaeta and Capua . The Siege of Gaeta , which Charles observed, ended on 6 August. Three weeks later, the Duke of Montemar left the mainland for Sicily where they arrived in Palermo on 2 September 1734, beginning a conquest of the island's Austrian-held fortresses that ended in early 1735. Capua,
6669-411: The fortified Alhóndiga de Granaditas commanded by Juan Antonio de Riaño. The insurgents overwhelmed the defenses after two days and killed an estimated 400 – 600 people. Allende strongly protested these events and while Hidalgo agreed that they were heinous, he also stated that he understood the historical patterns that shaped such responses. The attacks prompted criollos and peninsulares to ally against
6786-415: The four corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato . The heads remained there for ten years until the end of the Mexican War of Independence to demoralize insurgents. Hidalgo's headless body was first displayed outside the prison and then buried in the Church of St Francis in Chihuahua . The remains were transferred to Mexico City in 1824. Hidalgo's death resulted in a political vacuum on
6903-437: The goal of making connections in the United States for support. Hidalgo reached Saltillo, where he publicly resigned his military post and rejected a pardon offered by General José de la Cruz in the name of Venegas in return for Hidalgo's surrender. A short time later, they were betrayed and captured by royalist Ignacio Elizondo at the Wells of Baján ( Norias de Baján ) on 21 March 1811 and taken to Chihuahua . Hidalgo
7020-520: The insurgent movement a supernatural aspect. Many villagers that joined the insurgent army came to believe that Fernando VII himself commanded their loyalty to Hidalgo and the monarch was in New Spain personally directing the rebellion against the Viceroyalty. Historian Eric Van Young believes that such ideas gave the movement supernatural and religious legitimacy that went as far as messianic expectation. Hidalgo and Allende left Dolores with about 800 men, half of whom were on horseback. They marched through
7137-424: The insurgent side until 1812. The royalist military commander, General Félix Calleja , continued to pursue rebel troops. Insurgent fighting evolved into guerrilla warfare , and eventually the next major insurgent leader, José María Morelos Pérez y Pavón , who had led rebel movements with Hidalgo, became head of the insurgents, until Morelos himself was captured and executed in 1815. "Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla had
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#17327803977347254-447: The insurgents and caused Hidalgo to lose support from liberal criollos. From Guanajuato, Hidalgo set off for Valladolid on 10 October 1810 with 15,000 men. When he arrived at Acámbaro , he was promoted to generalissimo and given the title of His Most Serene Highness, with power to legislate. With his new rank he had a blue uniform with a clerical collar and red lapels embroidered with silver and gold. His uniform also included
7371-482: The intensity of the movement took colonial authorities by surprise. San Miguel and Celaya were captured with little resistance. On 21 September 1810, Hidalgo was proclaimed general and supreme commander after arriving to Celaya. At this point, Hidalgo's army numbered about 5,000. However, because of the lack of discipline, the insurgents soon fell into robbing, looting, ransacking towns and executing prisoners. This caused friction between Allende and Hidalgo as early as
7488-479: The leadership of Viceroy Francisco Venegas , prepared psychological and military defenses. An intensive propaganda campaign had advertised insurgent violence in the Bajío region and stressed the insurgents' threat against social stability. Hidalgo's insurgency also faced opposition from sedentary natives and castes of the Valley of Mexico. Hidalgo's forces came as close as what is now the Cuajimalpa borough of Mexico City. Allende wanted to press forward and attack
7605-463: The many signatories to the Pragmatic Sanction would not interfere with this succession. However, this was not the case, and the War of the Austrian Succession broke out. France was allied with Spain and Prussia , all of whom were against Maria Theresa. Maria Theresa was supported by Great Britain , ruled by George II , and the Kingdom of Sardinia , which was then ruled by Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia . Charles had wanted to stay neutral during
7722-399: The most successful European ruler of his generation. He had provided firm, consistent, intelligent leadership. He had chosen capable ministers ... [his] personal life had won the respect of the people." John Lynch 's assessment is that in Bourbon Spain "Spaniards had to wait half a century before their government was rescued by Charles III." In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht concluded
7839-430: The name of their King, Ferdinand VII . Hidalgo's Grito did not condemn the notion of monarchy or criticize the current social order in detail, but his opposition to the events in Spain and the current viceregal government was clearly expressed in his reference to bad government. The Grito also emphasized loyalty to the Catholic religion, a sentiment with which both Creoles and Peninsulares could sympathize. Hidalgo
7956-418: The night of 15 September 1810, setting eighty free. On the morning of 16 September 1810, Hidalgo celebrated Mass , which was attended by about 300 people, including hacienda owners, local politicians, and Spaniards. There he gave what is now known as the Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores), calling the people of his parish to leave their homes and join with him in a rebellion against the current government, in
8073-440: The objective of the war was "to send the gachupines back to the motherland", accusing their greed and tyranny as leading to the temporal and spiritual degradation of Mexicans. Hidalgo forced the Bishop-elect of Michoacan, Manuel Abad y Queipo , to rescind the excommunication order he had circulated against him on 24 September 1810. Later, the Inquisition issued an excommunication edict on 13 October 1810 condemning Hidalgo as
8190-468: The occupation. Ostia was sacked, while Palestrina avoided the same fate by the payment of a ransom of 16,000 crowns. The commission of cardinals to whom the case was assigned decided to send a delegation of prisoners of Trastevere and Velletri to Naples as reparations. The papal subjects were punished with just a few days in jail and then, after seeking royal pardon, were granted it. The Neapolitan king subsequently managed to iron out his differences with
8307-442: The one of San Gennaro on the statue that the representative". Vignola wrote in contrast that "there were only some acclamations", and that the crowd applauded with "a lot of languors" and only "to incite those that threw the money to throw it in more abundance". Charles's father, King Philip V of Spain, wrote the following letter to Charles. The letter began with the words "To the King of Naples, My Son, and My Brother". Charles
8424-490: The only remaining Austrian stronghold in Naples, was held by von Traun until 24 November 1734. In the kingdom, independence from the Austrians was popular. In 1735, pursuant to the treaty ending the war, Charles formally ceded Parma to Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in exchange for his recognition as King of Naples and Sicily. Following the loss of Parma, Charles removed the Farnese Collection to Naples. During
8541-526: The opportunity to regain the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, which Spain had lost in the Treaty of Utrecht . On 20 January 1734, Charles, now 18, reached his majority, and was "free to govern and to manage in a manner independent its states". He was also named commander of all Spanish troops in Italy, a position he shared with the Duke of Montemar . On 27 February, King Philip declared his intention to capture
8658-433: The parish church of Cuitzeo de los Naranjos. Hidalgo's parents had three other sons; José Joaquín, Manuel Mariano, and José María, before their mother died when Hildalgo was nine years old. A step brother named Mariano was born later. In 1759, Charles III ascended the Spanish throne; he soon sent out a visitor-general with the power to investigate and reform all parts of colonial government. During this period, Cristóbal
8775-416: The parishes of Colima and San Felipe Torres Mochas until he became the parish priest in Dolores, Guanajuato, succeeding his brother José Joaquín a few weeks after his death on 19 September 1802. Although Hidalgo had a traditional education for the priesthood, as an educator at the Colegio de San Nicolás he had innovated in teaching methods and curriculum. In his personal life, he did not advocate or live
8892-442: The people's response meant he would lead and not Allende. Allende had acquired military training when New Spain established a colonial militia whereas Hidalgo had none. The insurgents who followed Hidalgo also had no military training, experience or equipment. Many of these people were poor who were angry after many years of hunger and oppression. Consequently, Hidalgo was the leader of undisciplined rebels. Hidalgo's leadership gave
9009-586: The perpetual virginity of Mary, preaching that there was no hell, and adopting Lutheran doctrine with regard to the Eucharist . Hidalgo responded that he had never departed from Church doctrine in the slightest degree. Royalist forces marched to Guadalajara, arriving in January 1811 with nearly 6,000 men. Allende and Abasolo wanted to concentrate their forces in the city and plan an escape route should they be defeated, but Hidalgo rejected this, deciding to make
9126-582: The poor by showing them how to grow olives and grapes, but in New Spain (modern Mexico) growing these crops was discouraged or prohibited by colonial authorities to prevent competition with imports from Spain. On 16 September 1810 he gave the Cry of Dolores , a speech calling upon the people to protect the interest of their King Ferdinand VII , held captive during the Peninsular War , by revolting against
9243-493: The priesthood was traditional, with subjects in Latin , rhetoric and logic . Like many priests in Mexico, he studied indigenous languages, such as Nahuatl , Otomi , and Purépecha . He also studied Italian and French, which were not commonly studied in Mexico at this time. He earned the nickname " El Zorro " ("The Fox") for his reputation for cleverness at school. Hidalgo's study of French allowed him to read and study works of
9360-576: The publication of a newspaper called Despertador Americano ( American Wake Up Call ). He named Pascacio Ortiz de Letona as representative of the insurgent government and sent him to the United States to seek support, but Ortiz de Letona was apprehended by the Spanish army and executed. During this time, insurgent violence mounted in Guadalajara . Citizens loyal to the viceregal government were seized and executed. While indiscriminate looting
9477-408: The raising of silkworms . He used the knowledge that he gained to promote economic activities for the poor and rural people in his area. He established factories to make bricks and pottery and trained indigenous people in the making of leather. He promoted beekeeping . He was interested in promoting activities of commercial value to use the natural resources of the area to help the poor. His goal
9594-529: The recognition of Charles as heir to the Italian Duchies of Parma and Piacenza. Charles's half-brother, Infante Philip Peter, died on 29 December 1719, putting Charles third in line to the throne after Luis and Ferdinand. He would retain his position behind these two until they died and he succeeded to the Spanish throne. His second full brother, Infante Philip of Spain , was born on 15 March 1720. Beginning in 1721, King Philip had been negotiating with
9711-501: The rest of the heroes of the (Mexican War of) Independence." Diego Rivera painted Hidalgo's image in half a dozen murals. José Clemente Orozco depicted him with a flaming torch of liberty and considered the painting among his best work. David Alfaro Siqueiros was commissioned by San Nicolas McGinty University in Morelia to paint a mural for a celebration commemorating the 200th anniversary of Hidalgo's birth. The town of his parish
9828-480: The right to occupy Parma, Piacenza, and Tuscany by force if necessary. After the Treaty of Seville, Philip V disregarded its provisions and formed an alliance with France and the Kingdom of Great Britain . Antonio Farnese , the Duke of Parma, died on 26 February 1731 without naming an heir. This was because the widow of Antonio, Enrichetta d'Este was thought to have been pregnant at the time of his death. The Duchess
9945-458: The royalist troops to retreat, but the insurgents suffered heavy casualties, as they had when they engaged royalist soldiers in Guanajuato. After the Battle of Monte de las Cruces on 30 October 1810, Hidalgo had some 100,000 insurgents and was in a strategic position to attack Mexico City. Numerically, his forces outnumbered royalist forces. The royalist government in Mexico City, under
10062-465: The suburb of Trastevere stormed the palace to liberate them. The riot then degenerated into pillage. Next, the crowd directed itself toward the embassy of Spain in Piazza di Spagna . During the clashes that followed, several Bourbon soldiers were killed, including an officer. The disturbances spread to the town of Velletri , where the population attacked Spanish troops on the road to Naples. The episode
10179-525: The succession to the throne of the Habsburgs . The emperor also relinquished all claims to the Spanish throne and promised to support Spain in its attempts to regain Gibraltar . The ensuing Anglo-Spanish War stopped the ambitions of Elisabeth Farnese, and the marriage plans were abandoned with the signing of the Treaty of Seville on 9 November 1729. Provisions of the treaty did allow the Infante Charles
10296-412: The taxation of certain property of the clergy, the reduction of the number of the ecclesiastical, and the limitation of their immunity and autonomy of justice via the creation of a mixed tribunal. Charles was the seventh king of that name to rule Naples, but he never styled himself Charles VII. He was known simply as Charles of Bourbon (Italian: Carlo di Borbone ). This was intended to emphasize that he
10413-566: The unique distinction of being a father in three senses of the word: a priestly father in the Roman Catholic Church, a biological father who produced illegitimate children in violation of his clerical vows, and the father of his country." He has been hailed as the Father of the Nation even though it was Agustín de Iturbide and not Hidalgo who became the first head of state of Mexico in 1821. Shortly after gaining independence,
10530-590: The way expected of 18th-century Mexican priests. Instead, his studies of Enlightenment-era ideas caused him to challenge traditional political and religious views. He questioned the absolute authority of the Spanish king and challenged numerous ideas presented by the Church, including the power of the popes, the virgin birth , and clerical celibacy . As a secular cleric, he was not bound by a vow of poverty, so he, like many other secular priests, pursued business activities, including owning three haciendas; but contrary to his vow of chastity, he formed liaisons with women. One
10647-683: Was a Catholic priest , leader of the Mexican War of Independence and recognized as the Father of the Nation . A professor at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo in Valladolid , Hidalgo was influenced by Enlightenment ideas, which contributed to his ouster in 1792. He served in a church in Colima and then in Dolores . After his arrival, he was shocked by the rich soil he had found. He tried to help
10764-531: Was again revived and was poorly received by the French and his father in Spain. Charles's parents encouraged him to take arms as his brother Infante Felipe had done. After publishing a proclamation on 25 March 1744 reassuring its subjects, Charles took the command of an army against the Austrian armies of the prince of Lobkowitz , who were at that point marching for the Neapolitan border. In order to oppose
10881-408: Was also Duke of Parma and Piacenza , as Charles I (1731–1735); King of Naples , as Charles VII ; and King of Sicily , as Charles III (1735–1759). He was the fourth son of Philip V of Spain and the eldest son of Philip's second wife, Elisabeth Farnese . He was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and regalism . In 1731, the 15-year-old Charles became Duke of Parma and Piacenza following
10998-403: Was an egalitarian. As parish priest in both San Felipe and Dolores, he opened his house to natives and mestizos as well as criollos. Meanwhile, in the city of Querétaro , a conspiracy was brewing, organized by the mayor Miguel Domínguez and his wife Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez ; members of the military, such as Ignacio Allende , Juan Aldama and Mariano Abasolo , also participated. Allende
11115-626: Was avoided, insurgents targeted properties of criollos and Spaniards, regardless of political affiliation. In the meantime, the royalist army had retaken Guanajuato, forcing Allende to flee to Guadalajara. After he arrived at the city, Allende again objected to Hidalgo concerning the insurgent violence. However, Hidalgo knew the royalist army was on its way to Guadalajara and wanted to stay on good terms with his own army. After Guanajuato had been retaken by royalist forces, Bishop Manuel Abad y Queipo excommunicated Hidalgo and those following or helping him on 24 December 1810. Abad y Queipo had formerly been
11232-730: Was captured "with humanity" and that the combat was only due to a general climate of courtesy between the two armies, often under the eyes of the Neapolitans that approached with curiosity The Spanish took the Carmine Castle on 10 April; Castel Sant'Elmo fell on 27 April; the Castel dell'Ovo on 4 May, and finally the Castel Nuovo on 6 May. This all occurred even though Charles had no military experience, seldom wore uniforms, and could only with difficulty be persuaded to witness
11349-501: Was concluded on 3 October 1735. However, the peace was not finalized until three years later with the Treaty of Vienna (1738) , ending the War of the Polish Succession . Naples and Sicily were ceded by Austria to Charles, who gave up Parma and Tuscany in return. (Charles had inherited Tuscany in 1737 on the death of Gian Gastone.) Tuscany went to Emperor Charles VI's son-in-law Francis Stephen , as compensation for ceding
11466-465: Was determined that Miguel and his younger brother Joaquín should both enter the priesthood and hierarchy of the Catholic Church. Being of significant means he paid for all of his sons to receive the best education the region had to offer. After receiving private instruction, likely from the priest of the neighboring parish, Hidalgo was ready for further education. At the age of fifteen Hidalgo
11583-509: Was examined by many doctors without any confirmation of her pregnancy. As a result, the Second Treaty of Vienna on 22 July 1731 officially recognized the young Infante Charles as Duke of Parma and Piacenza. The duchy was occupied by Count Carlo Stampa, who served as the lieutenant of Parma for the young Charles. Charles was from then on known as HRH Don Charles of Spain (or Borbón), Duke of Parma and Piacenza, Infante of Spain . Since he
11700-402: Was his maternal great-grandfather, who was from Durango, Biscay . On his paternal side, he descended from criollo families native to Tejupilco , which were well-respected within the criollo community. Hidalgo's father was an hacienda manager in Valladolid , Michoacán , where Hidalgo spent the majority of his life. Eight days after his birth, Hidalgo was baptized into the Catholic faith in
11817-536: Was in charge of convincing Hidalgo to join his movement, since the priest of Dolores had very influential friends from all over the Bajío and even New Spain, such as Juan Antonio Riaño, mayor of Guanajuato , and Manuel Abad y Queipo , Bishop of Michoacán . In 1807, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau to invade Portugal , an ally of the United Kingdom . The French troops that were supposed to go through Spain to Portugal remained in Spain and
11934-410: Was killed by firing squad in the morning of 30 July. Before his execution, he thanked his jailers, two soldiers, Ortega and Melchor, for their humane treatment. At his execution, Hidalgo stated "Though I may die, I shall be remembered forever; you all will soon be forgotten." His body and the bodies of Allende, Aldama and José Mariano Jiménez were decapitated, and the heads were put on display in
12051-605: Was later performed at the Teatro Farnese in the city. In 1733, the death of Augustus II , King of Poland , sparked a succession crisis in Poland. France supported one pretender, and Austria and Russia another. France and Savoy formed an alliance to acquire territory from Austria. Spain, which had allied with France in late 1733 (the Bourbon Compact ), also entered the conflict. Charles's mother, as regent, saw
12168-495: Was met with an outpouring of support. Intellectuals, liberal priests and many poor people followed Hidalgo with enthusiasm. His movement was joined by mestizos and the indigenous in such numbers that the original motives of the Querétaro group were obscured. Ignacio Allende, Hidalgo's main co-conspirator in Querétaro, remained more loyal to the Querétaro group's original, criollo centered objectives. However, Hidalgo's actions and
12285-587: Was named his co-tutor and despite Charles being the second in line to inherit Tuscany, the Grand Duke still gave him a warm welcome. En route to Florence from Pisa , Charles was taken ill with smallpox . Charles made a grand entrance to the Medici capital of Florence on 9 March 1732 with a retinue of 250 people. He stayed with his host at the ducal residence, the Palazzo Pitti . Gian Gastone staged
12402-573: Was overlord of Tuscany and the nomination should have been his prerogative. Despite the celebrations, Elisabeth Farnese urged her son to go on to Parma, which he did in October 1732, where he was warmly greeted. On the front of the ducal palace in Parma was written Parma Resurget (Parma shall rise again). At the same time the play La Venuta di Ascanio in Italia was created by Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni . It
12519-478: Was perceived as a serious affront to the Bourbon court. Consequently, the Spanish and Neapolitan ambassadors left Rome, the seat of the papacy, while apostolic nuncios were dismissed from Madrid and Naples. The regiments of Bourbon troops invaded the Papal States. The threat was such that some of the gates of Rome were barred and the civil guard was doubled. Velletri was occupied and forced to pay 8000 crowns for
12636-517: Was renamed Dolores Hidalgo in his honor and the state of Hidalgo was created in 1869. Every year on the night of 15–16 September, the president of Mexico re-enacts the Grito from the balcony of the National Palace . This scene is repeated by the heads of cities and towns all over Mexico. He is also the namesake of Hidalgo County, Texas , in the United States. The remains of Hidalgo lie in
12753-672: Was sent to Valladolid (now Morelia ), Michoacán , to study at the Colegio de San Francisco Javier with the Jesuits , along with his brothers. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767, he entered the Colegio de San Nicolás , where he studied for the priesthood. He completed his preparatory education in 1770. After this, he went to the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico in Mexico City for further study, earning his degree in philosophy and theology in 1773. His education for
12870-635: Was still a minor, his maternal grandmother, Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg , was named regent. After a solemn ceremony in Seville, Charles was given the épée d'or ("sword of gold") by his father; the sword had been given to Philip V of Spain by his grandfather Louis XIV before his departure to Spain in 1700. Charles left Spain on 20 October 1731 and traveled overland to Antibes ; he then sailed to Tuscany , arriving at Livorno on 27 December 1731. His cousin Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany ,
12987-490: Was the fifth surviving daughter of the Duke of Orléans. In 1726 Charles met Philippine Élisabeth for the first time; Elisabeth Farnese later wrote to the regent and his wife regarding their meeting: "I believe, that you will not be displeased to learn of her first interview with her little husband. They embraced very affectionately and kissed one another, and it appears to me that he does not displease her. Thus, since this evening they do not like to leave one another. She says
13104-572: Was the first King of Naples to live there, and to mark the discontinuity between him and previous rulers named Charles, specifically his predecessor, the Habsburg Charles VI . In Sicily, he was known as Charles III of Sicily and of Jerusalem , using the ordinal III rather than V . The Sicilian people had not recognized Charles I of Naples ( Charles d'Anjou ) as their sovereign (they rebelled against him), nor Emperor Charles, whom they also disliked. A preliminary peace with Austria
13221-642: Was to make the indigenous and mestizos more self-reliant. However, these activities violated mercantilist policies designed to protect agriculture and industry in Spain, and Hidalgo was ordered to stop them. These policies as well as exploitation of mixed race castas fostered animosity in Hidalgo towards the Peninsular-born Spaniards in Mexico. In addition to restricting economic activities in New Spain, Spanish mercantile practices caused misery for native peoples. A drought in 1807–1808 caused
13338-422: Was turned over to Durango, where Bishop Francisco Gabriel de Olivares had him officially defrocked and excommunicated on 27 July 1811. He was subsequently declared guilty of treason by a military court. He was tortured through the flaying of his hands, symbolically removing the chrism placed upon them at his priestly ordination and executed. There are many theories about how he was killed, the most popular that he
13455-512: Was unique in the fact that he was the first ruler of Naples to actually live there, after two centuries of viceroys. However, Austrian resistance had not yet been completely eliminated. The emperor had sent reinforcements to Naples directed by the Prince of Belmonte , which arrived at Bitonto . Spanish troops led by the Count of Montemar attacked the Austrians on 25 May 1734 at Bitonto, and achieved
13572-401: Was well prepared as the monarch of the Spanish Empire . His policies in Italy prefigured ones he would put in place in his 30-year rule of Spain. Charles succeeded to the Spanish throne in 1759 upon the death of his childless half-brother Ferdinand VI . As king of Spain, Charles III made far-reaching reforms to increase the flow of funds to the crown and defend against foreign incursions on
13689-534: Was with Manuela Ramos Pichardo, with whom he had two children, as well as a child with Bibiana Lucero. He later lived with a woman named María Manuela Herrera, fathering two daughters out of wedlock with her, and later fathered three other children with a woman named Josefa Quintana. These actions resulted in his appearance before the Court of the Inquisition , although the court did not find him guilty. Hidalgo
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