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108-632: The state was founded by Abd al-Rahman I , an Umayyad prince who fled the defeat and persecution of the Umayyad clan amid the Abbasid Revolution . The polity then flourished for the best part of three centuries, before disintegrating in the early 11th century during the Fitna of al-Andalus , a civil war between the descendants of caliph Hisham II and the successors of his hajib (court official), Al-Mansur . In 1031, after years of infighting,

216-498: A better chance of advancement if they hitched themselves to the glitter of the Umayyad name. Although the Umayyads did not have a historical presence in the region (no member of the Umayyad family was known to have ever set foot in al-Andalus before) and there were grave concerns about young Abd al-Rahman's inexperience, several of the lower-ranking Yemeni commanders felt they had little to lose and much to gain, and agreed to support

324-532: A former Umayyad vassal. The ambitious Ibn Habib, a member of the illustrious Fihrid family, had long sought to carve out Ifriqiya as a private dominion for himself. At first, he sought an understanding with the Abbasids, but when they refused his terms and demanded his submission, Ibn Habib broke openly with the Abbasids and invited the remnants of the Umayyad dynasty to take refuge in his dominions. Abd al-Rahman

432-619: A gift Abd al-Rahman was given while in Málaga. The gift was a beautiful young slave girl, but Abd al-Rahman humbly returned her to her previous master. News of the prince's arrival spread like wildfire throughout the peninsula. During this time, emir al-Fihri and the Syrian commander al-Sumayl pondered what to do about the new threat to their shaky hold on power. They decided to try to marry Abd al-Rahman into their family. If that did not work, then Abd al-Rahman would have to be killed. Abd al-Rahman

540-478: A great fire and threw his scabbard into the flames. Abd al-Rahman told his men that time had come to go down fighting rather than die of hunger. The gate lifted and Abd al-Rahman's men fell upon the unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Most of the Abbasid army was killed. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off, preserved in salt, identifying tags pinned to their ears, and then bundled together in

648-532: A gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph , who was on pilgrimage at Mecca . Upon receiving the evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, "God be praised for placing a sea between us!" Al-Mansur hated, and yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman to such a degree that he dubbed him the "Hawk of Quraysh " (the Umayyads were from a branch of the Quraysh tribe ). Despite such

756-644: A later date. Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr quit the village, narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins. On the way south, Abbasid horsemen again caught up with the trio. Abd al-Rahman and his companions then threw themselves into the River Euphrates. The horsemen urged them to return, promising that no harm would come to them; and Yahya, perhaps from fear of drowning, turned back. The 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd al-Rahman's reaction as he implored Yahya to keep going: "O brother! Come to me, come to me!" Yahya returned to

864-535: A means of transporting ground troops, such as between the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula. This was also seen with Alcácer do Sal 's ships in the campaign against Santiago de Compostela in 997. As in the army Almanzor recruited Berbers faithful to him. In its administration he favored the saqalibas to the detriment of native officials. The fleet was reinforced with a network of ports and a new base in

972-642: A minority but they had formed the ruling elites since the Muslim conquest in the early 8th century. Berbers, who had made up the majority of the conquering army, were a larger group, relatively powerful but less so than the Arab elites. The indigenous population were the majority, but the proportion of Christians among them decreased over time as many of them converted to Islam. The indigenous Muslim converts were known as Muwallad s (Arabic: مولد ) and became very numerous in later generations. Some of them were descended from

1080-556: A most difficult city to reign over for not only Abd al-Rahman, but his successors as well. In the year 777–778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi , the self-appointed governor of Zaragoza, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne . "[Charlemagne's] army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Zaragoza against the Umayyad [emir] in Cordoba...." Essentially Charlemagne

1188-471: A narrow pass in the Pyrenees , where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland ). Charlemagne was also attacked by Sulayman's relatives, who had freed Sulayman. Now Abd al-Rahman could deal with Sulayman and the city of Zaragoza without having to fight a massive Christian army. In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, one of Sulayman's allies,

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1296-543: A prisoner and not allowed to leave the city limits of Córdoba. Al-Fihri would have to report once a day to Abd al-Rahman, as well as turn over some of his sons and daughters as hostages. For a while al-Fihri met the obligations of the one-sided truce, but he still had many people loyal to him—people who would have liked to see him back in power. Al-Fihri eventually did make another bid for power. He quit Córdoba and quickly started gathering supporters. While at large, al-Fihri managed to gather an army allegedly numbering 20,000. It

1404-447: A torrent of ordnance from the Umayyad lines. Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for independence. Abd al-Rahman did much work to improve al-Andalus' infrastructure. He also built the world-famous Great Mosque of Córdoba (the present-day cathedral of Córdoba), which took place from 785 to 786 (169 AH ) to 786–787 (170 AH). It was expanded multiple times by his successors up to

1512-539: A tremendous victory, Abd al-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of Abd al-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition; as he always dealt severely with dissidents in al-Andalus. Zaragoza proved to be

1620-475: Is doubtful, however, that his troops were "regular" soldiers, but rather a hodge-podge of men from various parts of al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman's appointed governor in Sevilla took up the chase, and after a series of small fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's army. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape to the former Visigoth capital of Toledo in central al-Andalus; once there, he was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's head

1728-531: The ulama (religious scholars) and the fuqaha (judges) played the most important social role. In the 9th century, both the Maliki and the Hanafi legal schools of thought ( maddhab s ) were common, but the Umayyads themselves promoted the former. One reason for this might be that Hanafism was seen as too closely associated with the Abbasids, whom the Umayyads considered enemies. Maliki dominance solidified under

1836-581: The Abbasids , the Berbers , and other Muslim Spaniards. His legacy started a new chapter for the Umayyad Dynasty ensuring their survival and culminating in the new Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba by his descendants. Abd al-Rahman was the son of Mu'awiya , son of Hisham , son of Abd al-Malik , according to Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when reciting his ancestry. Abd al-Rahman's mother was a member of

1944-612: The Fihrid family and a favorite of the old Arab settlers ( baladiyun ), mostly of south Arabian or " Yemeni " tribal stock—was locked in a contest with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, the head of the "Syrians"—the shamiyun , drawn from the junds or military regiments of Syria, mostly of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742. Among the Syrian junds were contingents of old Umayyad clients, numbering perhaps 500, and Abd al-Rahman believed he might tug on old loyalties and get them to receive him. Bedr

2052-696: The Galician coast. Almanzor eliminated figures who could have opposed his reforms, such as killing Ghalib. Almanzor also replaced the governor of Zaragoza after he collaborated with his eldest son to replace him with a member of the same clan, the Banu Tujib. The admiral of the fleet was also poisoned in January 980 and replaced. Land transport routes were dotted with strongholds, and dignitaries controlled communications. Messengers were bought in and specially trained to handle Almanzor's messages and to transmit

2160-570: The Idrisid emir Abul-Aish Ahmad recognized the caliphate, but refused to allow them to occupy Tangier. The Umayyads besieged Tangier in 949 and defeated Abul-Aish, forcing him to retreat, and then occupied the rest of northern Morocco. Abd al-Rahman III increased diplomatic relations with the Berber tribes in North Africa, Christian kingdoms from the north, West Francia , East Francia , and

2268-496: The Sinai , and then into Egypt . Abd al-Rahman had to keep a low profile as he traveled. It may be assumed that he intended to go at least as far as northwestern Africa ( Maghreb ), the land of his mother, which had been partly conquered by his Umayyad predecessors. The journey across Egypt would prove perilous. At the time, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous governor of Ifriqiya (roughly, modern Tunisia ) and

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2376-724: The saqaliba and Berbers. He also created new units, outside the regular army of the Caliphate, that were loyal to him and served to control the capital. Almanzor abolished the system of tribal units with their own commanders. This system had been in decline due to a lack of Arab recruits and the pseudo-feudalistic institutions on the frontiers. A new system of mixed units without clear loyalty under orders from Administration officials replaced it. The increase in military forces and their partial professionalization led to an increase in financial expenses, and incentivized campaigning so troops could be paid with loot and land. Lands handed over to

2484-549: The 10th century. Abd al-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. In order to successfully rule in such a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed to create a reliable civil service and organize a standing army. He felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army; and therefore bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa as well as slaves from other areas. The total number of soldiers under his command

2592-541: The 10th century. Christians more often converted to Islam than Jews although there were converted Jews among the new followers of Islam. There was a great deal of freedom of interaction among the groups: for example, Sarah, the granddaughter of the Visigoth king Wittiza , married a Muslim man and bore two sons who were later counted among the ranks of the highest Arab nobility. Abd al-Rahman died c. 788 in Córdoba, and

2700-907: The Arab-Muslim elites. Bishops often acted as administrators and political envoys and their appointment was overseen by the Umayyad state. While the Catholic Church retained its internal unity, the advent of Islamic rule weakened its monopoly on religious authority over the Christian communities in al-Andalus, resulting in many deviations from orthodox practice and the emergence of both old and new heterodoxies which co-existed alongside official church doctrine. Abd al-Rahman I Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham ( Arabic : عبد الرحمن إبن معاوية إبن هشام , romanized :  ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muʿāwiya ibn Hishām ; 7 March 731 – 30 September 788), commonly known as Abd al-Rahman I ,

2808-637: The Atlantic, in Alcácer do Sal, which protected the city of Coimbra , recovered in the 980s. It served as start of a campaign against Santiago. On the Mediterranean shore, the naval defense was centered at the base of al-Mariya, now Almería . The dockyards of the fleet had been built in Tortosa in 944. The fleet also maintained a significant budget. Initially, the maritime defense of the Caliphate

2916-482: The Book who took on the status of dhimmi s or "protected non-Muslims". In exchange for the state's protection, they were required to pay a tax called the jizya . Their religious practices were tolerated but conspicuous displays of faith, such as bells and processions, were discouraged. The local Christian Catholic Church in al-Andalus was partially integrated with the Umayyad regime and its leaders collaborated with

3024-524: The Byzantine Empire . Abd al-Rahman III also brought the Christian kingdoms of the north under his direct influence through military force. The size of the Caliphal army under Abd al-Rahman III was between 30,000 and 50,000 troops. The caliphate became very profitable during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III, with public revenue up to 6,245,000 dinars , higher than previous administrations. Wealth

3132-561: The Caliph denied this. Then they suggested Mu'awiya (founder of the Umayyad Caliphate), but the Caliph again denied it. Then they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of the greatest of the Umayyad caliphs), but again no. They asked who it was, and al-Mansur replied: The falcon of Quraysh is Abd al-Rahman, who escaped by his cunning the spearheads of the lances and the blades of the swords, who after wandering solitary through

3240-498: The Christian north of the peninsula, which lacked large urban centers. The adoption of the Arabic language was a wide-reaching phenomenon of long-term importance. It was spearheaded by the promotion of Classical Arabic as an administrative and literary language, followed by the development of a native vernacular Andalusi Arabic . In the 9th century, Romance languages continued to be spoken in rural lower classes but Arabic had become

3348-534: The Fatimids. The Umayyads sent their general, Ghalib, to invade Idrisid Morocco in 973. By 974, Al-Hassan II was taken to Córdoba, and the remaining Idrisids recognized Umayyad rule. The death of Al-Hakam II in 976 marked the beginning of the end of Caliphal power. Al-Hakam was succeeded by his only son, Hisham II . Al-Hakam's top advisor, Almanzor , pronounced the 10-year-old boy caliph and swore an oath of obedience to him. Almanzor had great influence over Subh ,

Umayyad state of Córdoba - Misplaced Pages Continue

3456-483: The Iberian Peninsula as a province ( wilāya ) of their empire. The rulers of this province established their capital in Córdoba and received the administrative titles wāli or emīr . In 756, Abd al-Rahman I , a prince of the deposed Umayyad royal family , refused to recognize the authority of the Abbasid Caliphate and became an independent emir of Córdoba. He had been on the run for six years after

3564-520: The Nafza Berbers with whom he found refuge after the murder of his family in 750. Abd al-Rahman married a Spanish Sephardi woman named Hulal. She is said to have been very beautiful and was the mother of Hisham . Abd al-Rahman was the father of several sons, but the identity of their mother(s) is not clear: In his lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known as al Dakhil ("the Entrant"), but he

3672-591: The River Euphrates . All along the way the path was filled with danger, as the Abbasids had dispatched horsemen across the region to try to find the Umayyad prince and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found. Abbasid agents closed in on Abd al-Rahman and his family while they were hiding in a small village. He left his young son with his sisters and fled with Yahya. Accounts vary, but Bedr likely escaped with Abd al-Rahman. Some histories indicate that Bedr met up with Abd al-Rahman at

3780-484: The Saracen armies amount to 30, 40, 50 or 60,000 men, even when in serious occasions they reach 100, 160, 300 and even 600,000 fighters" in the time of Almanzor. In the campaign that swept Astorga and León , chroniclers record Almanzor leading 12,000 African horsemen, five thousand al-Andalusi horsemen, and 40,000 infantry. Stories of Almanzor's last campaign record forty-six thousand horsemen, six hundred forces guarding

3888-581: The Umayyad clients sent out feelers to their rivals, the Yemeni commanders. Although the Yemenis were not natural allies (the Umayyads are cousins of the Qaysid tribes), their interest was piqued. The emir Yusuf al-Fihri had proven himself unable to keep the powerful al-Sumayl in check and several Yemeni chieftains felt their future prospects were poor, whether in a Fihrid or Syrian-dominated Spain, so that they had

3996-481: The Umayyad lines. An attempt at negotiations soon followed in which it is likely that Abd al-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's daughter in marriage and great wealth. Abd al-Rahman, however, would settle for nothing less than control of the emirate, and an impasse was reached. Even before the fight began, dissension spread through some of Abd al-Rahman's lines. Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were unhappy that

4104-784: The Umayyads in Damascus in 750. He was also known by the surnames al-Dakhil ("the Immigrant"), Saqr Quraysh ("the Falcon of Quraysh "). Abd al-Rahman was born in Palmyra , near Damascus in the heartland of the Umayyad Caliphate , the son of the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Raha, a Berber woman from the Nafza tribe, and thus the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik , caliph from 724 to 743. He

4212-500: The Umayyads had lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750 to the Abbasids. Intent on regaining a position of power, he defeated the existing Muslim rulers of the area who had defied Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Abd al-Rahman I united various local fiefdoms into an independent emirate . The campaigns to unify al-Andalus went into Toledo , Zaragoza , Pamplona , and Barcelona and took over twenty-five years to complete. Despite

4320-489: The Upper March. He was intent on keeping this important northern border city within the Umayyad fold. By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army advanced on Zaragoza. It appeared as though Abd al-Rahman wanted to make clear to this troublesome city that independence was out of the question. Included in the arsenal of Abd al-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines . Zaragoza's famous white granite defensive walls were breached under

4428-527: The army of Ghalib from Algeciras to subdue the rebellious tribes of the Maghreb and end Fatimid ambitions in that area. In 985, the fleet ravaged the Catalans . During the Catalan campaign, Gausfred I , Count of Empurias and Roussillon tried to raise an army to help but several flotillas of Berber pirates threatened their coasts, forcing them to stay to defend their lands. In 997 the al-Andalusi fleet hit

Umayyad state of Córdoba - Misplaced Pages Continue

4536-648: The army reached 35,000 to 40,000 combatants, half of them Syrian military contingents. An Umayyad expedition helmed by ʿIṣām al-Ḫawlānī occupied the Balearic Islands (the 'Eastern Islands') and incorporated them to Cordobese rule under emir Abdullah circa 902–903. Abd al-Rahman III ascended to the throne in 912, and faced the Fatimid Caliphate , a rival North African Shiʿite Islamic empire based in Tunis . The Fatimid's claim of Caliph challenged

4644-468: The army too. Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba . Danger was not far behind, as al-Fihri planned a counterattack . He reorganized his forces and set out for the capital Abd al-Rahman had usurped from him. Again Abd al-Rahman met al-Fihri with his army; this time negotiations were successful, although the terms were somewhat changed. In exchange for al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be

4752-485: The banks of the Euphrates with his sisters. Abd al-Rahman's sisters were unable to make the long voyage to al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman placed his family members in high offices across the land, as he felt he could trust them more than non-family. The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous over successive generations. One of these kinsmen, Abd al-Malik ibn Umar ibn Marwan , persuaded Abd al-Rahman in 757 to drop

4860-478: The caliphate collapsed and fractured into a number of independent Muslim taifa (kingdoms). The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and culture, including the construction of well-known pieces of Andalusi architecture . The Visigothic Kingdom had ruled Iberia for over two centuries when it was overthrown by the Umayyad Caliphate . The Umayyads had previously conducted small raids on

4968-443: The chronicles exaggerated tenfold the real numbers – these speak of eight hundred thousand soldiers – the caliphate could have had eight million inhabitants. Those who use more bullish criteria estimate between seven and 10 million. Under Almanzor, the realm also had other large cities like Toledo , Almería and Granada , which were all around 30,000; and Zaragoza, Valencia and Málaga , all above 15,000. This contrasted sharply with

5076-463: The city of Mérida . Ethnic Arabs were (at least during the early Emirate period) sparse here and the Muslim population consisted mostly of Berbers, probably semi-nomadic or transhumant , and of Muwallad s. The region along the central frontier, near Toledo, also known as the Middle March, was again only sparsely inhabited by Arabs. The city and local politics were dominated by Muwallad s, while

5184-469: The civil war by contingents of Christian mercenaries. Beset by factionalism, the caliphate crumbled in 1031 into a number of independent taifas , including the Taifa of Córdoba , Taifa of Seville and Taifa of Zaragoza . The last Córdoban Caliph was Hisham III (1027–1031). Under Umayyad rule, Arabization and Islamization progressed significantly in al-Andalus. In the long-term, these were to comprise

5292-578: The deserts of Asia and Africa, had the boldness to seek his fortune without an army, in lands unknown to him beyond the sea. Having naught to rely upon save his own wits and perseverance, he nonetheless humiliated his proud foes, exterminated rebels, organized cities, mobilized armies, secured his frontiers against the Christians, founded a great empire and reunited under his scepter a realm that seemed already parcelled out among others. No man before him ever did such deeds. Mu'awiya rose to his stature through

5400-456: The emir signed a peace agreement with Ibn Hafsun. However, the war broke out again the following year, only to be halted by the death of Abdullah at Córdoba, who was improving his positions. He was succeeded by his grandson, Abd al-Rahman III . Abdullah was the son of Muhammad I and the younger brother of al-Mundhir . Around 863, Abdullah married Onneca Fortúnez , daughter of Fortún Garcés , King of Pamplona and his wife Aurea (Orea) . She

5508-421: The emir was Umar Ibn Hafsun , who had conquered the provinces of Reyyo (including Bobastro ), Elvira (including Granada ) and Jaén , and had allied with the populations of Archidona , Baeza , Úbeda and Priego . In 891 Ibn Hafsun was defeated near the castle of Polei and lost several cities. However, by the following year Ibn Hafsun had already recovered, and reconquered all the lost territories. In 911,

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5616-467: The empire". Évariste Lévi-Provençal argues the Almanzor's armies were between 35,000 and 70–75,000 soldiers. It is likely that the leader's armies may not have exceeded twenty thousand men. Until the eleventh century no Muslim army on campaign exceeded thirty thousand troops, while during the eighth century the trans-Pyrenean expeditions totaled ten thousand men and those carried out against Christians in

5724-512: The figure of the homes of paratge who obtained privileged military status by fighting against the Córdobans armed on horseback – after losing their capital in the fall of 985. Military industry flourished in factories around Córdoba. The city was said to produce 1,000 bows and 20,000 arrows monthly, and 1,300 shields and 3,000 campaign stores annually. In contrast to the role the navy played under Abd al-Rahman III, under Almanzor, it served as

5832-456: The former Visigothic and Hispano-Roman landholding elites that existed prior to the Muslim conquest and who had retained much of their status after the conquest. Jews were present in smaller numbers relative to the other groups. According to Thomas Glick , "Despite the withdrawal of substantial numbers during the drought and famine of the 750s, fresh Berber migration from North Africa was a constant feature of Andalusi history, increasing in tempo in

5940-553: The gates of the city were opened. Almanzor continued the military reforms by Al-Hakam and his predecessors. He professionalized the regular army, which guaranteed his military power in the capital and ensured the availability of forces for numerous campaigns. Professionalization de-emphasized levies and other non-professional troops, which were replaced with taxes to support the professional troops – often saqaliba or Maghrebis – and freed Córdoban subjects from military service. Almanzor expanded recruitment of

6048-409: The hands of Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri 's supporters until 779 (submission of Zaragoza). It is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself caliph. There are documents in the archives of Cordoba that state that this was his first act upon entering the city. However, historically he is recorded as Emir and not Caliph. Abd al-Rahman's 7th descendant, Abd al-Rahman III, would, however, take up

6156-435: The job of Zaragoza's governorship. The temptation was too much for al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman. As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Zaragoza with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Córdoba. However, within two years al-Husayn broke off relations with Abd al-Rahman and announced that Zaragoza would be an independent city-state. Once again Abd al-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in

6264-414: The language of the middle and upper classes. By the end of the century, even the Christian population was so widely Arabized that their clergy were required to translate religious texts into Arabic. The early population of al-Andalus at the outset of Umayyad rule had several main constituents: Arabs , Berbers , indigenous converts to Islam, indigenous Christians, and Jews. The Andalusis of Arab origin were

6372-605: The legitmacy of the Abbasids' religious authority. Abd al-Rahman III took the title of caliph in 929, challenging the Fatimids in their claim to religious authority. Internally, the Spanish Umayyads considered themselves as closer to Muhammad and more legitimate than the Abbasids, even though the Caliphate of Córdoba's legitimacy was not accepted outside of al-Andalus and its North African affiliates. Fatimid invasions were thwarted when Abd al-Rahman III secured Melilla in 927, Ceuta in 931, and Tangier in 951. In 948,

6480-410: The marches along the Christian border, where power depended on the competence of the individual emir. For example, the power of emir Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi ( c.  900 ) did not extend beyond Córdoba itself. Raids increased the emirate's size such as one to Corsica in 806. In 818, the inhabitants of the al-Rabad suburb of Córdoba rose against  [ es ] Al-Hakam I . After

6588-525: The mother and regent of Hisham II. Almanzor isolated Hisham in Córdoba, eradicated opposition, and allowed Berbers from Africa to migrate to al-Andalus to increase his base of support. While Hisham II was caliph, he was merely a figurehead. In 996, Almanzor sent an invasion force to Morocco. After three months of struggle, his forces retreated to Tangier . Almanzor then sent out a powerful reinforcement under his son Abd al-Malik, whose armies clashed near Tangier. The Umayyads entered Fes on 13 October 998 once

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6696-709: The name of the Abbasid caliph from the Friday prayers (a traditional recognition of sovereignty in medieval Islam), and became one of his top generals and his governor in Seville . By 763 Abd al-Rahman had to get back to the business of war. Al-Andalus had been invaded by an Abbasid army. Far away in Baghdad , the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur , had long been planning to depose the Umayyad who dared to call himself emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over

6804-412: The near shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen. They cut off his head and left his body to rot. Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians reporting that Abd al-Rahman was so overcome with fear that from the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him. Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown. After barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr continued south through Palestine ,

6912-596: The north of the peninsula were even smaller. The main weapon of the peninsular campaigns, which required speed and surprise, was the light cavalry. To try to counteract them, the Castilians created the role of "villain knights" by ennobling those free men who were willing to keep a horse to increase the mounted units through the Fuero de Castrojeriz of 974. For similar reasons, the Barcelonan count Borrell II created

7020-401: The official reports that his foreign ministries wrote about the annual campaigns. The title of caliph became symbolic, without power or influence. Almanzor's temporal power increased the importance of the military, both as a symbol of the power of Almanzor and an instrument to guarantee the payment of taxes. The chamberlain's court also rivaled that of the caliph. Almanzor's reforms also divided

7128-676: The peninsula. At that time al-Andalus was known as Dar Jihad , or "country of jihad". It attracted many zealous volunteers, who made up a small but important portion of the total army. Almanzor's personal guard was made up of Christian mercenaries who also participated in his campaigns in Christian territories. Contemporary figures on the size of the army are contradictory. Some accounts claim that their armies numbered two hundred thousand horsemen and six hundred thousand foot soldiers, while others talk about twelve thousand horsemen, three thousand mounted Berbers and two thousand sūdān , African light infantry. Christian chroniclers record that "ordinarily

7236-516: The population into two unequal groups: a large mass of civilian taxpayers and a small professional military caste, generally from outside the peninsula and not particularally loyal to the polity. Following Almanzor's death in 1002, the institutions he created stagnated under internal divisions from military and political factions competing for power. The power of the chamberlain was retained by Almanzor's sons, Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar , who died in 1008, and Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo . While Abd al-Rahman

7344-430: The prince was mounted on a fine Spanish steed and that his mettle was untried in battle. The Yemenis observed significantly that such a fine horse would provide an excellent mount to escape from battle. Being the ever-wary politician, Abd al-Rahman acted quickly to regain Yemeni support, and rode to a Yemeni chief who was mounted on a mule named "Lightning". Abd al-Rahman averred that his horse proved difficult to ride and

7452-514: The prince. Bedr returned to Africa to tell Abd al-Rahman of the invitation of the Umayyad clients in al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, they set off with a small group of followers for Europe. When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd al-Rahman's intent to set sail for al-Andalus, they quickly rode to catch up with him on the coast. The tribesmen might have figured that they could hold Abd al-Rahman as hostage, and force him to buy his way out of Africa. He did indeed hand over some amount of dinars to

7560-420: The province of al-Andalus). It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid army that landed in al-Andalus, possibly near Beja (in modern-day Portugal ). Much of the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman. Abd al-Rahman had to act quickly. The Abbasid contingent was vastly superior in size, said to have numbered 7,000 men. The emir quickly made for

7668-480: The realm's independence from Baghdad, the emirate's rulers used the title " emir " or " sultan " until the mid-10th century and recognized the religious authority of the Abbasid Caliphs. For the next century and a half, his descendants continued as emirs of Córdoba, with nominal control over the rest of al-Andalus and sometimes parts of western Maghreb . Real control was always in question, particularly over

7776-467: The redoubt of Carmona with his army. The Abbasid army was fast on their heels, and laid siege to Carmona for approximately two months. Abd al-Rahman must have sensed that time was against him as food and water became scarce, and his troops morale likely came into question. Finally Abd al-Rahman gathered his men as he was "resolved on an audacious sally". Abd al-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his army and led them to Carmona's main gate. There, he started

7884-593: The region. The northern limit of Muslim settlement generally extended along a frontier that ran to the north of the Tagus River in the west, around the Cordillera Central in the center, and before the foothills of the Pyrenees in the east. The region along the western frontier, known as the Lower March and including the modern-day province of Extremadura , was largely rural with the exception of

7992-515: The reign of Abd ar-Rahman II in the 9th century, though during the reign of his son, Muhammad I, the Shafi'i and Zahiri schools were also introduced. Malikism eventually became another core characteristic of Andalusi identity and its spread contributed to the Islamization of the country. As elsewhere in the historic Islamic world, Jews and Christians were considered by Muslims to be People of

8100-549: The revolt's suppression, the inhabitants were expelled. Some settled in Fez or Alexandria, while others ended forming the Emirate of Crete in the 820s. Emir Abd al-Rahman I had used Berbers and the saqaliba for a permanent army of 40,000 to end the conflicts that had plagued the emirate. In the time of Emir Al-Hakam I , a palatine guard of 3,000 riders and 2,000 infantry was created made up of Slavic slaves. Under Emir Muhammad I ,

8208-585: The rural highlands were generally the domain of Berber tribes. To the northeast, the Upper March, centered around Zaragoza and the Ebro River valley, contained more cities and a more diverse population, including Arabs, Berbers, and Muwallad s. Among the latter were powerful families who dominated the area's politics throughout the Islamic period. The hills and mountains to the north were generally still inhabited by Christians. In matters of Islamic religion,

8316-706: The sea to al-Andalus , where Abd al-Rahman could not have been sure whether or not he would be welcomed. Following the Berber Revolt of the 740s, the province was in a crisis, with the Muslim community torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud ) and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. At that moment, the nominal ruler of al-Andalus, emir Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri —another member of

8424-695: The setback, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face the "pretender". The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir , just outside the capital of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah. The river was, for the first time in years, overflowing its banks, heralding the end of a long drought. Nevertheless, food was still scarce, and Abd al-Rahman's army suffered from hunger. In an attempt to demoralize Abd al-Rahman's troops, al-Fihri ensured that his troops not only were well fed, but also ate gluttonous amounts of food in full view of

8532-466: The soldiers were subject to tribute and ceased to operate under a system of border colonization. The nucleus of the new army was formed by Maghrebi Berber forces. Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs within the army were played off against one another by Almanzor to maintain his power. The massive incorporation of North African horsemen relegated the infantry to sieges and fortress garrisons. This reform led to entire tribes, particularly Berber riders, being moved to

8640-593: The southern tip of Iberia against the Visigoths, but full-scale conquest did not begin until April of 711. An army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed into Southern Hispania from North Africa across the Strait of Gibraltar . After the crossing, Tariq's troops defeated Visigothic forces at the Battle of Guadalete . Roderic , the last king of the Visigoths, was killed, leaving an open path into Hispania. The Umayyads established

8748-541: The suddenly hostile local Berbers. Just as Abd al-Rahman launched his boat, another group of Berbers arrived. They also tried to obtain a fee from him for leaving. One of the Berbers held on to Abd al-Rahman's vessel as it made for al-Andalus, and allegedly had his hand cut off by one of the boat's crew. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga , in September 755; however, his landing site

8856-632: The support of Umar and Uthman, whose backing allowed him to overcome difficulties; Abd al-Malik, because of previous appointment; and the Commander of the Faithful [i.e. al-Mansur himself] through the struggle of his kin and the solidarity of his partisans. But Abd al-Rahman did it alone, with the support of none other than his own judgment, depending on no one but his own resolve. Abdullah of C%C3%B3rdoba Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Rahman ( Arabic : عبد الله بن محمد بن عبد الرحمن ; 844 – 912)

8964-425: The tenth century. Hispano-Romans who converted to Islam, numbering six or seven millions, comprised the majority of the population and also occupied the lowest rungs on the social ladder." While the indigenous Jews, Christians, and Muwallad s were largely organized into family-based social structures, the Arabs and Berbers were organized into a more complex mix of family and tribe loyalties. "Arab" identity in general

9072-600: The time, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr were keeping a low profile, staying in Kabylie , at the camp of a Nafza Berber chieftain friendly to their plight. Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look for the Umayyad prince. When Ibn Habib's soldiers entered the camp, the Berber chieftain's wife Tekfah hid Abd al-Rahman under her personal belongings to help him go unnoticed. Once they were gone, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr immediately set off westwards. In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Morocco near Ceuta . Their next step would be to cross

9180-415: The title of caliph. In the meantime, a call went out through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for friends of the house of Umayya , if not for Abd al-Rahman's scattered family that managed to evade the Abbasids. Abd al-Rahman probably was quite happy to see his call answered by waves of Umayyad faithful and family. He was finally reacquainted with his son Sulayman, whom he last saw weeping on

9288-424: The train, 26,000 infantry, two hundred scouts or 'police', and one hundred and thirty drummers. The garrison of Córdoba was recorded at 10,500 horsemen, while other forces kept the northern border in dispersed detachments. Other modern studies found the army was between 50,000 and 90,000 under Almanzor. Scholars have argued Almanzor's armies could muster 600,000 laborers and 200,000 horses "drawn from all provinces of

9396-498: The turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads. Abd al-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat. After a long and difficult fight "Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy.". Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed to escape the field (probably) with parts of

9504-485: The two major aspects of Andalusi identity and eventually characterized most of the population. The population of the capital city, Córdoba, most likely surpassed 100,000 in the 10th century, making it the largest city in Europe alongside Constantinople . Tertius Chandler estimated that circa 1000 CE, Córdoba held around 450,000 people. Around the same year, the caliphate occupied four hundred thousand square kilometers and

9612-512: Was also known as Saqr Quraish ("The Falcon of the Quraish "), bestowed on him by one of his greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur . According to the chroniclers, al-Mansur once asked his courtiers who deserved the exalted title of "Falcon of the Quraysh " ( Saqr Quraish , foremost of the Quraysh). The obsequious courtiers naturally replied "You, O Commander of the Faithful !", but

9720-527: Was apparently sagacious enough to expect such a plot. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he was prepared to take advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Zaragoza , an important trade city on the Upper March of al-Andalus, made a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to quash the rebellion. This might have been fortunate timing for Abd al-Rahman, since he

9828-553: Was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. After Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city, after his subordinate, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya , had successfully defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd. It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via

9936-403: Was budgeted into three parts: the payment of the salaries and maintenance of the army, the preservation of public buildings, and the needs of the caliph. Abd al-Rahman III was succeeded by his 46-year-old son, Al-Hakam II , in 961. Al-Hakam II continued his father's policy toward Christian kings and North African rebels. Al-Hakam's relied on his advisers more than his father because the caliphate

10044-465: Was dispatched across the straits to make contact. Bedr managed to line up three Syrian commanders—Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin. The trio approached the Syrian arch-commander al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza ) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Abd al-Rahman would try to make himself emir . As a result, Bedr and

10152-401: Was largely tied to the assertion of Arab ancestry. This lineage was perceived as inherited through the father, meaning that children of Arab men and non-Arab women were still considered Arabs, although the lineage of the mother, if she came from another noble or elite background, could still be seen as prestigious. Beyond the heartland of Cordoba, the makeup of the population varied depending on

10260-471: Was leading a raid on the Christian north, a revolt tore through Córdoba and deposed him, and he was killed when he tried to restore himself to power. The death of Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo in 1009 marked the beginning of the Fitna of al-Andalus , with rivals claiming to be the new caliph, violence sweeping the caliphate, and intermittent invasions by the Hammudid dynasty . Córdoban forces were also joined in

10368-419: Was led by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Rumahis, a veteran admiral who had served Al-Hakam II and was Qadi of Elvira and Pechina . He repulsed raids by al-Magus (idolaters) or al-Urdumaniyun ('men of the north', Vikings ), in the west of al-Andalus in mid-971. When there was another invasion later that year, the admiral left Almería and defeated them off the coast of Algarve . In April 973, he transported

10476-400: Was less prosperous, and there was less money to go around. This style of rulership suited Al-Hakam II since he was more interested in his scholarly and intellectual pursuits than ruling the caliphate. The caliphate reached an intellectual and scholarly peak under Al-Hakam II. Another Fatimid invasion of Morocco occurred in 958, led by the general, Jawhar , and Al-Hassan II had to recognise

10584-501: Was nearly 40,000. As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. Abd al-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians and other monotheistic religions to retain and practice their faiths, in exchange for the jizya . Possibly because of tribute taxes, "the bulk of the country's population must have become Muslim". However, other scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam , it did not truly occur until near

10692-592: Was only one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make their way to Ifriqiya at this time. But Ibn Habib soon changed his mind. He feared the presence of prominent Umayyad exiles in Ifriqiya, a family more illustrious than his own, might become a focal point for intrigue among local nobles against his own usurped powers. Around 755, believing he had discovered plots involving some of the more prominent Umayyad exiles in Kairouan , Ibn Habib turned against them. At

10800-436: Was populated by around three million people. The Iberian Christian states comprised 160,000 square kilometers and 500,000 people. By comparison, at the time of the Muslim invasion, Iberia had an estimated four million inhabitants. Other historians estimate higher at around seven or eight million. Colmeiro estimated in a pre-industrial society, for every million inhabitants, ten thousand soldiers could be mustered. Even assuming

10908-425: Was sent to Córdoba, where Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge. With this act, Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus. However, in order to take over southern Iberia , al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba's jail. Still, most of central and northern al-Andalus ( Toledo , Zaragoza , Barcelona , etc.) was out of his rule, with large swathes remaining in

11016-623: Was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus. By March 756, Abd al-Rahman and his growing following of Umayyad clients and Yemeni junds , were able to take Sevilla without violence. He managed to break the rebellion attempt in Zaragoza, but just about that time the Cordovan governor received news of a Basque rebellion in Pamplona . An important detachment was sent by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman to quash it, but his troops were annihilated. After

11124-522: Was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita. Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I . Abd al-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III . Abd al-Rahman I was able to forge a new Umayyad dynasty by standing successfully against Charlemagne ,

11232-460: Was the founder and first emir of the Emirate of Córdoba , ruling from 756 to 788. He established the Umayyad dynasty in al-Andalus , which continued for nearly three centuries (including the succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba ). Abd al-Rahman was a member of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus , and his establishment of a government in Iberia represented a break with the Abbasids , who had overthrown

11340-475: Was the seventh emir of Córdoba , reigning from 888 to 912 in Al-Andalus (Islamic Iberia). Contemporary historians accused Abdullah of orchestrating the death of his half-brother, al-Mundhir , whereby he ascended to power. This is unlikely, as ibn Muhammad showed very little interest in governing, becoming a neurotic recluse who was only interested in hunting and his faith. The most formidable threat for

11448-410: Was twenty when his family, the ruling Umayyads , were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750. Abd al-Rahman and a small part of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been; people moving with him included his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, and some of his sisters, as well as his Greek mawla (freedman or client), Bedr. The family fled from Damascus to

11556-531: Was unconfirmed. Upon landing in Torrox , al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and an escort of 300 cavalry. During his brief time in Málaga , he was able to amass local support quickly. Waves of people made their way to Málaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians. One famous story that persisted through history related to

11664-462: Was wont to buck him out of the saddle. He offered to exchange his horse for the mule, a deal to which the surprised chief readily agreed. The swap quelled the simmering Yemeni rebellion. Soon both armies were in their lines on the same bank of the Guadalquivir. Abd al-Rahman had no banner, and so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. Subsequently,

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