The Abbasid caliphs were the holders of the Islamic title of caliph who were members of the Abbasid dynasty , a branch of the Quraysh tribe descended from the uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib .
131-704: The family came to power in the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750, supplanting the Umayyad Caliphate . They were the rulers of the Abbasid Caliphate , as well as the generally recognized ecumenical heads of Islam, until the 10th century, when the Shi'a Fatimid Caliphate (established in 909) and the Caliphate of Córdoba (established in 929) challenged their primacy. The political decline of
262-537: A Kharijite rebellion that would continue until 746. Concurrent with this, a rebellion broke out in reaction to Marwan II 's decision to move the capital from Damascus to Harran , resulting in the destruction of Homs – also in 746. It was not until 747 that Marwan II was able to pacify the provinces; the Abbasid revolution began within months. Nasr ibn Sayyar was appointed governor of Khorasan by Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik in 738. He held on to his post throughout
393-546: A messianic figure , the hidden and last Imam known as "the Mahdi ", that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice. According to the doctrine of Twelver Shīʿīsm , the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran does not contain verses on the Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of Shīʿa Islam. Some Shīʿa subsects , such as
524-687: A bomb destroyed the shrine of Al-Askari Mosque. ( See : Anti-Shi'ism ). Shia orthodoxy, particularly in Twelver Shi'ism , has considered non-Muslims as agents of impurity ( Najāsat) . This categorization sometimes extends to kitābῑ , individuals belonging to the People of the Book , with Jews explicitly labeled as impure by certain Shia religious scholars. Armenians in Iran , who have historically played
655-523: A chance to prepare. During the raid, al-Ta'i himself was finally killed in battle. Despite the loss, al-Fazari was routed and fled with his forces to Wasit . The Siege of Wasit took place from that August until July 750. Although a respected military commander had been lost, a large portion of the Umayyad forces were essentially trapped inside Wasit and could be left in their virtual prison while more offensive military actions were made. Concurrently with
786-546: A crucial role in the Iranian economy , received relatively more lenient treatment. Shi'ite theologians and mujtahids (jurists), such as Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisῑ , held that Jews' impurity extended to the point where they were advised to stay at home on rainy or snowy days to prevent contaminating their Shia neighbors. Ayatollah Khomeini , Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989, asserted that every part of an unbeliever's body, including hair, nails, and bodily secretions,
917-521: A distinctly Persian character, as opposed to the Arab character of the Umayyads. Rulers became increasingly autocratic, at times claiming divine right in defense of their actions. An accurate and comprehensive history of the revolution has proven difficult to compile for a number of reasons. There are no contemporary accounts known to have survived, and most sources were written more than a century after
1048-529: A fabrication, at the time it allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi , who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. By the time the revolution was in full swing, most Kaysanite Shia had either transferred their allegiance to the Abbasid dynasty (in the case of the Hashimiyya), or had converted to other branches of Shi'ism and
1179-593: A number of changes in the Muslim world : With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Iran—including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges ( qāḍī )—became much weaker. This gave the sharīʿa courts of mujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority. The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time. Shia Islam
1310-444: A number of different slave trade routes. The slave concubines mostly were Abyssinians , Armenians , Berbers , Byzantine Greeks , Turkish or even from Sicily . This is the list of Abbasid Caliphs. In 1261, the Abbasid dynasty was re-established by a cadet branch of the dynasty at Cairo under the auspices of the local Mamluk sultans , but these caliphs were purely religious and symbolic figures, while temporal power rested with
1441-470: A political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaydī) Shīʿīsm. According to Shīʿa Muslim theologians , infallibility is considered a rational, necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures, they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility
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#17327652450441572-518: A revolt of his own. On 9 June 747 (Ramadan 25, 129AH), Abu Muslim successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the Black Standard . Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv . On 14 February 748 he established control of Merv, expelling Nasr ibn Sayyar less than a year after
1703-512: A secret network of pro-Abbasid sentiment based among the mixed Arab and Iranian military officers along the Silk Road garrison cities. Through this networking, Abu Muslim ensured armed support for the Abbasids from a multi-ethnic force years before the revolution even came out in the open. These networks proved essential, as the officers garrisoned along the Silk Road had spent years fighting
1834-433: A separation of mosque and state occurred under the Abbasids as well. Historiographical surveys often focus on the solidifying of Muslim thought and rites under the Abbasids, with the conflicts between separated classes of rulers and clerics giving rise to the empire's eventual separation of religion and politics. Shi%27a Shia Islam ( / ˈ ʃ iː ə / ) is the second-largest branch of Islam . It holds that
1965-457: A speech at Ghadir Khumm . The point of contention between different Muslim sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his mawla , has ʿAlī as his mawla ". Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy". Sunnis maintain that Muhammad emphasized the deserving friendship and respect for ʿAlī. In contrast, Shia Muslims assert that
2096-425: A successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr , who was appointed caliph by a group of Muhammad's other companions at Saqifah, to be the first Rashidun ('rightful') caliph after Muhammad (632–634 CE). Shia Muslims' belief that Ali was the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam's spiritual and political leader later developed into the concept of Imamah , the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad,
2227-477: A universal world religion. This led to a great cultural and scientific exchange known as the Islamic Golden Age , with most achievements taking place under the Abbasids. What was later known as Islamic civilization and culture was defined by the Abbasids, rather than the earlier Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates. New ideas in all areas of society were accepted regardless of their geographic origin, and
2358-454: A year preparing their propaganda drive against the Umayyads. There were a total of seventy propagandists throughout the province of Khorasan, operating under twelve central officials. The Abbasid revolution was distinguished by a number of tactics which were absent in the other, unsuccessful anti-Umayyad rebellions at the time. Chief among them was secrecy. While the Shi'ite and other rebellions at
2489-437: Is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shia Muslims, even evaluating
2620-461: Is already on Earth in Occultation, and will return at the end of time . Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs and Fatimid/Bohra/ Dawoodi Bohra believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim , and also believe that a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") maintains contact with him. Sunnī Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth. Shīʿa Muslims believe that
2751-572: Is based on the Shīʿīte interpretation of the verse of purification . Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness. It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin , but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin. They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by
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#17327652450442882-597: Is commemorated on the Day of Ashura , occurring on the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Later, most denominations of Shia Islam, including Twelvers and Ismāʿīlīs , became Imamis . Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad . Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret
3013-654: Is derived from شيعة علي , shīʿat ʿAlī , 'followers of Ali'. Shia Islam is also referred to in English as Shiism (or Shīʿism) ( / ˈ ʃ iː ɪ z ( ə ) m / ), and Shia Muslims as Shiites (or Shīʿites) ( / ˈ ʃ iː aɪ t / ). The term Shia was first used during Muhammad's lifetime. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors. Nawbakhti states that
3144-427: Is impure. However, the current leader of Iran, ʿAlī Khameneʾī , stated in a fatwa that Jews and other Peoples of the Book are not inherently impure, and touching the moisture on their hands does not convey impurity. The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī, and Shia theology was formulated after the hijra (8th century CE). The first Shia governments and societies were established by
3275-588: Is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (An Arab clan in Yemen , to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī
3406-469: Is the second largest branch of Islam . It is estimated that either 10–20% or 10–13% of the global Muslim population are Shias. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009. As of 1985, Shia Muslims are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in South Asia , although the total number is difficult to estimate. Shia Muslims form a distinct majority of the population in three countries of
3537-531: Is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam. Muslims believe that Muhammad, along with the other prophets and messengers , possessed ismah . Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Fāṭimah , daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaydī Shīʿas , who do not attribute ismah to the Imams. Though initially beginning as
3668-660: Is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims. With him is the similar object that angels brought. Al-Ṣādiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the Imamat (leadership), similar to how the Ark of Covenant in the house of the Israelites signaled prophethood. Imam Ali al-Ridha narrates that wherever
3799-561: The Shahada ( Arabic : الشهادة ), the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of the Sunnīs . The Sunnī version of the Shahada states La ilaha illallah, Muhammadun rasulullah ( Arabic : لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا الله مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ الله , lit. 'There is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God'), but in addition to this declaration of faith Shīʿa Muslims add
3930-576: The Ahl al-Bayt ( أَهْل البَيْت , 'People of the House';), are rightful rulers or Imams through the bloodline of Ali and his two sons Hasan and Husayn , whom Shia Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over the Muslim community . Later events such as Husayn's martyrdom in the Battle of Karbala (680 CE) further influenced the development of Shia Islam, contributing to
4061-543: The Battle of Siffin in 657 turned the tide against ʿAlī, who lost due to arbitration issues with Muawiyah , the governor of Damascus. ʿAlī withdrew to Kufa, overcoming the Kharijis , a faction that had transformed from supporters to bitter rivals, at Nahrawan in 658. In 661, ʿAlī was assassinated by a Khariji assassin in Kufa while in the act of prostration during prayer ( sujud ). Subsequently, Muawiyah asserted his claim to
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4192-632: The Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE) as his successor ( Arabic : خليفة , romanized : khalīfa ) as Imam ( امام , 'spiritual and political leader'), most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm , but that after Muhammad's death, Ali was prevented from succeeding as leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions ( صحابة , ṣaḥāba ) at Saqifah . This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam , whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint
4323-1203: The Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya , Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra , the Sahla Mosque , the Great Mosque of Kufa , the Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, and the Tomb of Daniel in Susa . Most of the Shīʿa sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the Al Saud - Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan , the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al-Baqi' cemetery in 1925. In 2006,
4454-502: The Kaysanites Shia ) was largely responsible for starting the final efforts against the Umayyad dynasty, initially with the goal of replacing the Umayyads with an Alid ruling family. To an extent, rebellion against the Umayyads bore an early association with Shi'ite ideas. A number of Shi'ite revolts against Umayyad rule had already taken place, though they were open about their desire for an Alid ruler. Zayd ibn Ali fought
4585-957: The Movement of the Men of the Black Raiment ( حركة رجال الثياب السوداء ḥaraka rijāl ath-thiyāb as-sawdāʾ ), was the overthrow of the Umayyad caliphate (661–750 CE), the second of the four major caliphates in Islamic history , by the third, the Abbasid caliphate (750–1517 CE). The Abbasid revolt originated in the eastern province of Khorasan in the mid-8th century, fueled by widespread discontent with Umayyad rule. The Abbasids, claiming descent from Muhammad's uncle Abbas, capitalized on various grievances, including discrimination against non-Arab Muslims ( mawali ), heavy taxation, and perceived impiety of Umayyad rulers. Led by Abu Muslim Khorasani ,
4716-626: The Muslim world : Iran , Iraq , and Azerbaijan . Shia Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the Middle East . Estimates have placed the proportion of Shia Muslims in Lebanon between 27% and 45% of the population, 30–35% of the citizen population in Kuwait (no figures exist for the non-citizen population), over 20% in Turkey , 5–20% of
4847-545: The Ottomans conquered Egypt (the seat of the Abbasid caliphate after 1258) and claimed the caliphate for themselves. The period of actual, direct rule by the Abbasids lasted almost exactly two-hundred years. One grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik , Abd ar-Rahman I , survived and established a kingdom in Al-Andalus ( Moorish Iberia ) after five years of travel westward. Over the course of thirty years, he ousted
4978-623: The Quran and the history of Islam . Shia Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets as the Quranic verses 3:33 and 3:34 show: "Indeed, Allah chose Adam , Noah , the family of Abraham , and the family of ’Imrân above all people. They are descendants of one another. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing." Shīʿa Islam encompasses various denominations and subgroups , all bound by
5109-641: The Third Fitna in the Levant , with the revolt of al-Harith ibn Surayj in Khurasan and Central Asia occurring concurrently with the revolution itself. The Abbasids spent their preparation time watching as the Umayyad Empire was besieged from within itself in all four cardinal directions, and School of Oriental and African Studies Professor Emeritus G. R. Hawting has asserted that even if
5240-418: The Zaydī Shīʿas and Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs , do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return. Twelver Shīʿa Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and 12th Shīʿīte Imam , Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi ,
5371-435: The angels ( Arabic : ملائِكة , romanized : malāʾikah ) to the prophets ( Arabic : أنبياء , romanized : anbiyāʼ ) and the messengers ( Arabic : رُسل , romanized : rusul ). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. Thus, they are believed to act without fault in religious matters. Shi'a Muslims regard ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over
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5502-424: The Abbasid revolution came from people of diverse backgrounds, with almost all levels of society supporting armed opposition to Umayyad rule. This was especially pronounced among Muslims of non-Arab descent, though even Arab Muslims resented Umayyad rule and centralized authority over their nomadic lifestyles. Both Sunnis and Shias supported efforts to overthrow the Umayyads, as did non-Muslim subjects of
5633-537: The Abbasid revolution was an early example of people of different faiths aligning with a common cause. This was due in large part to policies of the Umayyads which were regarded as particularly oppressive to anyone following a faith other than Islam. In 741, the Umayyads decreed that non-Muslims could not serve in government posts. The Abbasids were aware of this discontent, and made efforts to balance both its Muslim character as well as its partially non-Muslim constituency. The non-Muslim aristocracy around Merv supported
5764-778: The Abbasids along with the Hashimite allies slowly built up an underground resistance movement to Umayyad rule. Secret networks were used to build a power base of support in the eastern Muslim lands to ensure the revolution's success. This buildup not only took place right on the heels of the Zaydi Revolt in Iraq, but also concurrently with the Berber Revolt in Iberia and Maghreb , the Ibadi rebellion in Yemen and Hijaz , and
5895-606: The Abbasids had begun earlier, during the Anarchy at Samarra (861–870), which accelerated the fragmentation of the Muslim world into autonomous dynasties. The caliphs lost their temporal power in 936–946, first to a series of military strongmen and then to the Shi'a Buyid Emirs that seized control of Baghdad; the Buyids were in turn replaced by the Sunni Seljuk Turks in the mid-11th century, and Turkish rulers assumed
6026-518: The Abbasids, and thus retained their status as a privileged governing class regardless of religious belief. Beginning around 719, Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan . Their campaign was framed as one of proselytism . They sought support for "a member of the House of the Prophet who shall be pleasing to everyone", without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non-Arabs, although
6157-710: The Arabs referred to them, were often better educated and more civilised than their Arab masters. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Previté-Orton also argues that the feud between the Arabs in Syria and the Arabs in Mesopotamia further weakened the empire. The revolution led to the enfranchisement of non-Arab people who had converted to Islam, granting them social and spiritual equality with Arabs. With social restrictions removed, Islam changed from an Arab ethnic empire to
6288-485: The Caliph at Rey near today's Capital "Tehran", only for that city to fall as well as the Caliph's commander; once again, Ibn Sayyar fled west and died on 9 December 748 while trying to reach Hamedan in south Western Persia. Al-Ta'i rolled west through Khorasan, defeating a 50,000 strong Umayyad force at Isfahan in Central Persia in March 749. At Nahavand south western Persia, the Umayyads attempted to make their last stand in Persia. Umayyad forces fleeing Hamedan and
6419-402: The Kaysanites ceased to exist. The Umayyad state is remembered as an Arab-centric state, being run by and for the benefit of those who were ethnically Arab though Muslim in creed. The non-Arab Muslims resented their marginal social position and were easily drawn into Abbasid opposition to Umayyad rule. Arabs dominated the bureaucracy and military, and were housed in fortresses separate from
6550-446: The Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind. In the century following the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population. A major turning point in the history of Shia Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) in Persia . This caused
6681-471: The Mamluks. The revived caliphate in Cairo lasted until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, after which the caliphal title passed to the Ottoman dynasty . The Cairo Abbasids were largely ceremonial caliphs under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate that existed after the takeover of the Ayyubid dynasty . Abbasid Revolution The Abbasid revolution ( Arabic : الثورة العباسية , romanized : ath-thawra al-ʿAbbāsiyya ), also called
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#17327652450446812-404: The Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable." Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God, the victorious. With him is the Staff of Moses , the ring of Solomon , son of David , and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings. With him
6943-416: The Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah. This difference between following either the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped the Shia–Sunnī divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, hadith literature (accounts of
7074-425: The Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid , and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance ( bay'ah ) to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There
7205-437: The Shīʿīte version of the Shahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of Tawḥīd ( Arabic : تَوْحِيد , lit. 'oneness of God'), Nubuwwah ( Arabic : نبوة , lit. 'prophethood'), and Imamah ( Arabic : إمامة , lit. 'Imamate or leadership'). Ismah ( Arabic : عِصْمَة , romanized : 'Iṣmah or 'Isma , lit. 'protection')
7336-406: The Silk Road, he registered them based not on their tribal or ethno-national affiliations but on their current places of residence. This greatly diminished tribal and ethnic solidarity and replaced both concepts with a sense of shared interests among individuals. The Abbasid revolution provides an early medieval example of the effectiveness of propaganda. The Black Standard unfurled at the start of
7467-486: The Umayyad commander at Wasit, held out even after the defeat of Marwan II in January. The Abbasids promised him amnesty in July, but immediately after he exited the fortress they executed him instead. After almost exactly three years of rebellion, the Umayyad state came to an end. Militarily, the unit organization of the Abbasids was designed with the goal of ethnic and racial equality among supporters. When Abu Muslim recruited mixed Arab and Turks and Iranian officers along
7598-425: The Umayyad dynasty and the establishment of Abbasid rule, marking a significant shift in the caliphate's power base from Syria to Iraq and ushering in a new era of Islamic governance. By the 740s, the Umayyad Empire found itself in critical condition. A succession crisis in 744 led to the Third Fitna , which raged across the Middle East for three years. The very next year, al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Shaybani initiated
7729-492: The Umayyad rulers had been aware of the Abbasids' preparations, it would not have been possible to mobilize against them. In 746, Ibn Surayj began his revolt at Merv without success at first, even losing his secretary Jahm bin Safwan . After joining forces with other rebel factions, Ibn Surayj drove Umayyad governor Nasr ibn Sayyar and his forces to Nishapur ; the two factions double-crossed each other shortly thereafter, with Ibn Surayj's faction being crushed. Western Khorasan
7860-419: The Umayyads in Iraq, while Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya even established temporary rule over Persia. Their murder not only increased anti-Umayyad sentiment among the Shia, but also gave both Shias and Sunnis in Iraq and Persia a common rallying cry. At the same time, the capture and murder of the primary Shi'ite opposition figures rendered the Abbasids as the only realistic contenders for the void that would be left by
7991-412: The Umayyads, the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah , a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah . According to certain traditions, Abd-Allah died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Mohammad ibn Ali Abbasi , the head of the Abbasid family, and before dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. Although the anecdote is considered
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#17327652450448122-404: The Umayyads. The Abbasids kept quiet about their identity, simply stating that they wanted a ruler from the descendant of Muhammad upon whose choice as caliph the Muslim community would agree. Many Shi'ites naturally assumed that this meant an Alid ruler, a belief which the Abbasids tacitly encouraged to gain Shi'ite support. Though the Abbasids were members of the Banu Hashim clan, rivals of
8253-457: The Umayyads. Jews, Nestorian Christians , Zoroastrians and even Buddhists were re-integrated into a more cosmopolitan empire centered around the new, ethnically and religiously diverse city of Baghdad. The Abbasids were essentially puppets of secular rulers starting from 945, though their rule over Baghdad and its surroundings continued until 1258 when the Mongols sacked Baghdad, while their lineage as nominal caliphs lasted until 1517, when
8384-430: The armaments among us would go, knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge ( Imamat ). According to Muhammad Rida al-Muzaffar , God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there
8515-489: The belief that the leader of the Muslim community ( Ummah ) should hail from Ahl al-Bayt , the family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . It embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world . Shīʿa Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to be Muhammad's successor and
8646-479: The caliph was still Arab, the language of administration was still Arabic and Arab nobility was not forced to give up its land holdings; rather, the Arabs were merely forced to share the fruits of the empire equally with other races. C. W. Previté-Orton argues that the reasons for the decline of the Umayyads was the rapid expansion of Islam. During the Umayyad period, mass conversions brought Iranians , Berbers , Copts , and Assyrians to Islam. These "clients," as
8777-406: The caliph's brutality as well as admiration for Abu Muslim led to rebellions against the Abbasid Dynasty itself throughout Khorasan and Kurdistan . Although Shi'ites were key to the revolution's success, Abbasid attempts to claim orthodoxy in light of Umayyad material excess led to continued persecution of Shi'ites. On the other hand, non-Muslims regained the government posts they had lost under
8908-555: The caliphate. Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa. After a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan ibn Ali agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions : The enforced public cursing of ʿAlī , e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned; Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs; There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights; Muawiyah will never adopt
9039-423: The child'). The term refers to a slave woman who had a child from her owner; those women were renowned for their beauty and intelligence, in that the owner might recognize the legitimacy of his children from them to be legally free and with full rights of inheritance, and refrain from trading the mothers afterwards. Those concubines where from non-Muslim lands and brought to slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate via
9170-442: The claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect. Shia religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnīs. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shia Muslims have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha' , as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran . The Sunnīs tend to combine only under certain circumstances. Shia Muslims celebrate
9301-501: The colonial period, such as the Khoja . Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, Mapping the Global Muslim Population . The Shia community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the Twelvers , followed by the Zaydīs and the Ismāʿīlīs . Each subsect of Shīʿīsm follows its own line of Imamate. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims follow
9432-473: The divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance. In Shia Islam, Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment and will rid
9563-464: The divine law and its esoteric meaning . The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree ( nass ) through Muhammad. According to this view peculiar to Shia Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in
9694-538: The emergence of societal institutions that were Islamic rather than Arab began. Though a class of Muslim clergy was absent for the first century of Islam, it was with the Abbasid revolution and after that the Ulama appeared as a force in society, positioning themselves as the arbiters of justice and orthodoxy. With the eastward movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, the Abbasid Empire eventually took on
9825-497: The empire who resented religious discrimination. Following the Battle of Karbala , which led to the massacre of Husayn ibn Ali , the grandson of Muhammad , and his kin and companions by the Umayyad army in 680 CE, the Shias used this event as a rallying cry of opposition against the Umayyads. The Abbasids also used the memory of Karbala extensively to gain popular support against the Umayyads. The Hashimiyya movement (a sub-sect of
9956-531: The end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam". The Shia, originally known as the "partisans" of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib , Muhammad's cousin and Fatima 's husband, first emerged as a distinct movement during the First Fitna from 656 to 661 CE. Shia doctrine holds that ʿAlī
10087-401: The entire Muslim community in justice, but also in interpreting the Islamic faith, practices, and its esoteric meaning. ʿAlī is regarded as a " perfect man " ( Arabic : الإنسان الكامل , romanized : al-insan al-kamil ) similar to Muhammad, according to the Shīʿīte perspective. The Occultation is an eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shīʿa Islam concerning
10218-532: The feelings of Arab racial superiority cultivated by the Umayyads. Much of the discontent this caused led to the Shu'ubiyya movement, an assertion of non-Arab racial and cultural equality with Arabs. The movement gained support among Egyptians , Arameans and Berber people , though this movement was most pronounced among Iranian people . The early Muslim conquest of Persia was coupled with an anti-Iranian Arabization policy which led to much discontent. Up until
10349-535: The ferocious Turkic tribes of Central Asia and were experienced and respected tacticians and warriors. The victors desecrated the tombs of the Umayyads in Syria , sparing only that of Umar II , and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered in Jaffa to receive pardons and all were massacred. In
10480-411: The first caliph ( Arabic : خليفة , romanized : khalifa ) of Islam. Shīʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command on several instances, but most notably at Eid Al Ghadir . Additionally, ʿAlī was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter, Fāṭimah . The Shīʿīte version of
10611-649: The following annual holidays: After Mecca and Medina , the two holiest cities of Islam , the cities of Najaf , Karbala , Mashhad and Qom are the most revered by Shīʿa Muslims. The Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī in Najaf, the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, The Sanctuary of Imam Reza in Mashhad and the Shrine of Fāṭimah al-Maʿṣūmah in Qom are very essential for Shīʿa Muslims. Other venerated pilgrimage sites include
10742-506: The forces of Abdallah ibn Ali and Abu Awn Abd al-Malik ibn Yazid march on Mosul (in today's Northern Iraq). At this point Marwan II mobilized his troops from Harran (Today's South Central Turkey) and advanced toward Mesopotamia. On 16 January 750 the two forces met on the left bank of a tributary of the Tigris in the Battle of the Zab , and nine days later Marwan II was defeated and his army
10873-453: The formation of a distinct religious sect with its own rituals and shared collective memory. Shia Islam is followed by 10–15% of all Muslims. Although there are many Shia subsects in the Muslim world, Twelver Shi'ism is by far the largest and most influential, comprising about 85% of all Shia Muslims. Others include the Isma'ili , Zaydi , Alevi and Alawi . Shia Muslims form a majority of
11004-505: The hadith attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt and close associates, and most have their own separate hadith canon . Shīʿa Muslims believe that the armaments and sacred items of all of the Abrahamic prophets , including Muhammad , were handed down in succession to the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt . Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam , in Kitab al-Kafi mentions that "with me are the arms of
11135-453: The immediate aftermath, the Abbasids moved to consolidate their power against former allies now seen as rivals. Five years after the revolution succeeded, Abu Muslim was accused of heresy and treason by the second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur . Abu Muslim was executed at the palace in 755 despite his reminding al-Mansur that it was he (Abu Muslim) who got the Abbasids into power, and his travel companions were bribed into silence. Displeasure over
11266-521: The jizya tax stipulated by the Qur'an for non-Muslims, the empire would go bankrupt. This lack of civil and political rights eventually led the non-Arab Muslims to support the Abbasids, despite the latter also being Arab. Even as the Arab governors adopted the more sophisticated Iranian methods of governmental administration, non-Arabs were still prevented from holding such positions. Non-Arabs were not even allowed to wear Arabian style clothing, so strong were
11397-458: The latter had put down Ibn Surayj's revolt, and dispatched an army westwards. Newly commissioned Abbasid officer Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i , along with his sons Al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba and Humayd ibn Qahtaba , pursued Ibn Sayyar to Nishapur and then pushed him further west to Qumis , in western Persia. That August, al-Ta'i defeated an Umayyad force of 10,000 at Gorgan , South East of Caspian Sea. Ibn Sayyar regrouped with reinforcements from
11528-524: The latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement. A number of Shi'ite rebellions – by Kaysanites, Hashimiyya and mainstream Shi'ites – took place in the final years of Umayyad rule, just around the same time that tempers were flaring among the Syrian contingents of the Umayyad army regarding alliances and wrongdoings during the Second and Third Fitna . At this time Kufa
11659-460: The leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as the first rāshidūn caliph. Abū Bakr served from 632 to 634, and was followed by Umar (634–644) and ʿUthmān (644–656). With the murder of ʿUthmān in 657 CE, the Muslims of Medina invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source, and he established his capital in Kufa . ʿAlī's rule over the early Islamic empire , between 656 CE to 661 CE,
11790-441: The local population outside of Arabia. Even after converting to Islam, non-Arabs or Mawali could not live in these garrison cities. The non-Arabs were not allowed to work for the government nor could they hold officer positions in the Umayyad military and they still had to pay the jizya tax for non-Muslims. Non-Muslims under Umayyad rule were subject to these same injunctions. Racial intermarriage between Arabs and non Arabs
11921-519: The locals. Arab settlers in Khorasan left their traditional lifestyle and settled among the native Iranian peoples . While intermarriage with non-Arabs elsewhere in the Empire was discouraged or even banned, it slowly became a habit within eastern Khorasan; and the Arabs began adopting Persian dress and as the two languages influenced one another, the ethnic barriers gradually eroded. Support for
12052-448: The pacification of any rebel elements in the east and the surrender of Nahavand in the west, the Abbasids were the undisputed rulers of Khorasan. The Abbasids wasted no time in continuing from Persia into Mesopotamia. In August 749, Umayyad commander Yazid ibn Umar al-Fazari attempted to meet the forces of al-Ta'i before they could reach Kufa . Not to be outdone, the Abbasids launched a nighttime raid on al-Fazari's forces before they had
12183-458: The phrase Ali-un-Waliullah ( Arabic : علي ولي الله , lit. 'Ali is the guardian of God'). The basis for the Shīʿīte belief in ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the Wali of God is derived from the Qur'anic verse 5:55 . This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies the Shīʿīte emphasis on the inheritance of authority through Muhammad's family and lineage . The three clauses of
12314-718: The population in Pakistan , and 10–19% of Afghanistan 's population, and 45% in Bahrain . Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shia communities, including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina, and the Ismāʿīlī Sulaymani and Zaydī Shias of Najran . Estimations put the number of Shīʿīte citizens at roughly 15% of the local population. Approximately 40% of
12445-610: The population in four countries across the Muslim world : Iran , Iraq , Azerbaijan , and Bahrain . Significant Shia communities are also found in Lebanon , Kuwait , Turkey , Yemen , Saudi Arabia , Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent . Iran stands as the world's only country where Shia Islam forms the foundation of both its laws and governance system . The word Shia (or Shīʿa) ( / ˈ ʃ iː ə / ) ( Arabic : شيعيّ , romanized : shīʿī, pl. shīʿiyyūn )
12576-803: The population of Yemen are Shia Muslims. Significant Shia communities also exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik ). The Shia presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shāfiʿī Sunnīs. A significant Shia minority is present in Nigeria , made up of modern-era converts to a Shīʿīte movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states. Several African countries like Kenya , South Africa , Somalia , etc. hold small minority populations of various Shia subsects, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during
12707-402: The rebellion united diverse groups, including Persians, disaffected Arabs, and Shi'a supporters, under the banner of restoring rule to the Prophet's family. The revolutionaries adopted black as their color and advanced westward, defeating Umayyad forces. The decisive Battle of the Zab in 750 CE saw the Abbasid army triumph over the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II. This victory led to the fall of
12838-472: The remainder of Ibn Sayyar's men joined with those already garrisoned. Qahtaba defeated an Umayyad relief contingent from Syria while his son al-Hasan laid siege to Nahavand for more than two months. The Umayyad military units from Syria within the garrison cut a deal with the Abbasids, saving their own lives by selling out the Umayyad units from Khorasan who were all put to death. After almost ninety years, Umayyad rule in Khorasan had finally come to an end. At
12969-474: The revolution are rare, with most discussions simply lining up behind either the Iranic or Arabic interpretation of events. Frequently, early European historians viewed the conflict solely as a non-Arab uprising against Arabs. Bernard Lewis , professor emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University , points out that while the revolution has often been characterized as a Persian victory and Arab defeat,
13100-444: The revolution's open phase carried messianic overtones due to past failed rebellions by members of Muhammad's family, with marked eschatological and millennial slants. The Abbasids – their leaders descended from Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib – held vivid historical reenactments of the murder of Muhammad's grandson Husayn ibn Ali by the army of the second Umayyad ruler Yazid I , followed by promises of retribution. Focus
13231-461: The revolution. Because most historical sources were written under Abbasid rule, the description of the Umayyads must be taken with a grain of salt; such sources describe the Umayyads, at best, as merely placeholders between the Rashidun and Abbasid caliphates. The historiography of the revolution is especially significant due to Abbasid dominance of most early Muslim historical narratives; it
13362-525: The ruling Fihrids and resisted Abbasid incursions to establish the Emirate of Córdoba . This is considered an extension of the Umayyad Dynasty, and ruled from Cordoba from 756 until 1031. The Abbasid revolution has been of great interest to both Western and Muslim historians. According to State University of New York professor of sociology Saïd Amir Arjomand , analytical interpretations of
13493-604: The same school of thought, the Jaʽfari jurisprudence , named after Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq , the 6th Shīʿīte Imam . Shīʿīte clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shia Islam). Twelver Shīʿīsm or Ithnāʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shia Islam, and the terms Shia Muslim and Shia often refer to the Twelvers by default. The designation Twelver
13624-600: The same time that al-Ta'i took Nishapur Located in North Eastern Khorasan, Abu Muslim was strengthening the Abbasid grip on the Muslim North East. Abbasid governors were appointed over Transoxiana and Bactria (Parts of today's Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan), while the rebels who had signed a peace accord with Nasr ibn Sayyar were also offered a peace deal by Abu Muslim only to be double crossed and wiped out. With
13755-647: The sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam . For instance, the hadith collections venerated by Shia Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al-Bayt and their supporters, while some hadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al-Bayt are not included. Those of Abu Hurairah , for example, Ibn Asakir in his Taʿrikh Kabir , and Muttaqi in his Kanzuʿl-Umma report that ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate ḥadīth from Muhammad. ʿUmar
13886-591: The siege in 749, the Abbasids crossed the Euphrates and took Kufa. The son of Khalid al-Qasri – a disgraced Umayyad official who had been tortured to death a few years prior – began a pro-Abbasid riot starting at the city's citadel. On 2 September 749, al-Hasan bin Qahtaba essentially just walked right in to the city and set up shop. Some confusion followed when Abu Salama , an Abbasid officer, pushed for an Alid leader. Abu Muslim's confidante Abu Jahm reported what
14017-496: The statement unequivocally designates ʿAlī as Muhammad's appointed successor. Shia sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him as Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"). When Muhammad died in 632 CE, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abū Bakr , ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb , and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with
14148-625: The status of ʿAlī is supported by numerous ḥadīth reports , including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm , Hadith of the two weighty things , Hadith of the pen and paper , Hadith of the invitation of the close families , and Hadith of the Twelve Successors . In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards ʿAlī and his family by both Sunnī and Shia scholars. Shia Muslims prefer to study and read
14279-457: The term Shia refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAlī as the Imam and caliph . Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that ʿAlī is designated as the heir , Imam, and caliph by Muhammad and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants. For the adherents of Shia Islam, this conviction is implicit in
14410-509: The time of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan , the divan was dominated by the mawali and accounts were written using the Pahlavi script . The controversial Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf forced all the mawali who had left for cities, in order to avoid paying the kharaj tax, to return to their lands. He was upset at the usage of Persian as the court language in the eastern Islamic empire, and ordered it to be changed to Arabic. Support for
14541-436: The time were all led by publicly known leaders making clear and well-defined demands, the Abbasids hid not only their identities but also their preparation and mere existence. As-Saffah would go on to become the first Abbasid caliph, but he did not come forward to receive the pledge of allegiance from the people until after the Umayyad caliph and a large number of his princes were already killed. Abu Muslim al-Khorasani , who
14672-434: The title of Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"); Muawiyah will not nominate any successor. Ḥasan then retired to Medina , where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath , after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle. Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī , ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead
14803-624: The title of " Sultan " to denote their temporal authority. The Abbasid caliphs remained the generally recognized suzerains of Sunni Islam , however. In the mid-12th century, the Abbasids regained their independence from the Seljuks, but the revival of Abbasid power ended with the Sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258. Most Abbasid caliphs were born to a concubine mother, known as umm al-walad ( Arabic : أم الولد , lit. 'mother of
14934-457: The tribe's name as that would risk pollution of perceived Arab racial purity. Rather, the non-Arab would take the last name of " freedman of al-(tribe's name)", even if they were not a slave prior to conversion. This essentially meant they were subservient to the tribe who sponsored their conversion. Although converts to Islam made up roughly 10% of the native population – most of the people living under Umayyad rule were not Muslim – this percent
15065-422: The war of succession, being confirmed as governor by Marwan II in the aftermath. Khorasan's expansive size and low population density meant that the Arab denizens – both military and civilian – lived largely outside of the garrisons built during the spread of Islam into Persia. This was in contrast to the rest of the Umayyad provinces, where Arabs tended to seclude themselves in fortresses to avoid interacting with
15196-588: The world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the Masih (" Messiah ") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus , dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join
15327-541: Was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa. En route to Kufa, Husayn was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, near Karbala ; rather than surrendering, Husayn and his followers chose to fight. In the Battle of Karbala , Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed, and Husayn's head
15458-451: Was carefully placed on the legacy of Muhammad's family while details of how the Abbasids actually intended to rule were not mentioned. While the Umayyads had primarily spent their energy on wiping out the Alid line of the prophetic family, the Abbasids carefully revised Muslim chronicles to put a heavier emphasis on the relationship between Muhammad and his uncle. The Abbasids spent more than
15589-647: Was completely destroyed. The battle is regarded as what finally sealed the fate of the Umayyads. All Marwan II could do was flee through Syria and into Egypt, with each Umayyad town surrendering to the Abbasids as they swept through in pursuit. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August Marwan II and his family were tracked down by a small force led by Abu Awn and Salih ibn Ali (the brother of Abdallah ibn Ali) and killed in Egypt. Al-Fazari,
15720-609: Was controlled by Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya at the time, cutting Ibn Sayyar in the east off from Marwan II . In the summer of 747, Ibn Sayyar sued for peace , which was accepted by the remaining rebels. The rebel leader was assassinated by a son of Ibn Surayj in a revenge attack while at the same time, another Shi'ite revolt had begun in the villages. The son of the remaining rebels signed the peace accord and Ibn Sayyar returned to his post in Merv in August of 747 – just after Abu Muslim initiated
15851-486: Was delivered to Yazid in Damascus. The Shi'a community regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr ( shahid ), and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al-Bayt . The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shia and Sunnī sects of Islam . Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shia Islam. The martyrdom of Husayn and his followers
15982-432: Was during their rule that history was established in the Muslim world as an independent field separate from writing in general. The initial two-hundred year period when the Abbasids actually held de facto power over the Muslim world coincided with the first composition of Muslim history. Another point of note is that while the Abbasid revolution carried religious undertones against the irreligious and almost secular Umayyads,
16113-455: Was happening, and the Abbasids acted preemptively. On Friday, 28 November 749, before the siege of Wasit had even finished, As-Saffah , the great-grandson of Muhammad's uncle, al-Abbas , was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa. Abu Salama, who witnessed twelve military commanders from the revolution pledging allegiance, was embarrassed into following suit. Just as quickly as Qahtaba's forces marched from Khorosan to Kufa, so did
16244-463: Was meant to lead the community after Muhammad's death in 632. Historians dispute over the origins of Shia Islam , with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement. Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept. Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his heir during
16375-525: Was often contested. Tensions eventually led to the First Fitna , the first major civil war between Muslims within the empire, which began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī's khilafāʾ (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him. Tensions escalated into the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali's forces emerged victorious against Aisha , Talhah , and al-Zubayr . However,
16506-421: Was rare. When it did occur, it was only allowed between an Arab man and a non-Arab woman while non-Arab men were generally not free to marry Arab women. Conversion to Islam occurred gradually. If a non-Arab wished to convert to Islam, they not only had to give up their own names but also had to remain a second-class citizen. The non-Arab would be "adopted" by an Arab tribe, though they would not actually adopt
16637-477: Was significant due to the very small number of Arabs. Gradually, the non-Arab Muslims outnumbered the Arab Muslims, causing alarm among the Arab nobility. Socially, this posed a problem as the Umayyads viewed Islam as the property of the aristocratic Arab families. There was a rather large financial problem posed to the Umayyad system as well. If the new converts to Islam from non-Arab peoples stopped paying
16768-573: Was the center for the opposition to Umayyad rule, particularly Ali's supporters and Shias. In 741–42 Abu Muslim made his first contact with Abbasid agents there, and eventually he was introduced to the head of Abbasids, Imam Ibrahim , in Mecca . Around 746, Abu Muslim assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. Unlike the Alid revolts which were open and straightforward about their demands,
16899-446: Was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shia Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of ʿAlī's son, Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī , and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph. It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam that divine wisdom ( ʿaql )
17030-582: Was the primary Abbasid military commander, was especially mysterious; even his name, which literally means "father of a Muslim from the large, flat area of the eastern Muslim empire" gave no meaningful information about him personally. Even today, although scholars are sure he was one real, consistent individual, there is broad agreement that all concrete suggestions of his actual identity are doubtful. Abu Muslim himself discouraged inquiries about his origins, emphasizing that his religion and place of residence were all that mattered. Whoever he was, Abu Muslim built
17161-450: Was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge ( ḥikmah ), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees. Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation ( waḥy ), he had a close relationship with God , through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people. Imamate , or belief in
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