163-534: Coropuna is a dormant compound volcano located in the Andes mountains of southeast-central Peru . The upper reaches of Coropuna consist of several perennially snowbound conical summits, lending it the name Nevado Coropuna in Spanish. The complex extends over an area of 240 square kilometres (93 sq mi) and its highest summit reaches an altitude of 6,377 metres (20,922 ft) above sea level. This makes
326-539: A basement formed by Middle Miocene ignimbrites and lava flows. The Coropuna complex has been active for at least five million years, with the bulk of the current cone having been formed during the Quaternary . Coropuna has had two or three Holocene eruptions 2,100 ± 200 and either 1,100 ± 100 or 700 ± 200 years ago which generated lava flows, plus an additional eruption which may have taken place some 6,000 years ago. Current activity occurs exclusively in
489-562: A ghost town ) and Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BCE. Arequipa Arequipa ( Spanish pronunciation: [aɾeˈkipa] ; Aymara and Quechua : Ariqipa ), also known by its nicknames of Ciudad Blanca (Spanish for "White City") and León del Sur (Spanish for "Lion of the South"), is a city in Peru and
652-549: A volcanic explosivity index 7 class "super-eruption" between 14.3 and 13.2 million years ago in the Middle Miocene . The Upper Sencca Ignimbrites are a 2.09–1.76 million years old composite ignimbrite which form a 10–30 m (33–98 ft) thick apron around Coropuna and other regional volcanoes; Coropuna appears to have formed on top of one of the Upper Sencca Ignimbrite vents. After
815-410: A 5,623 m (18,448 ft) northern summit. Those with individual names are the northwestern Coropuna Casulla at 6,377 m (20,922 ft), El Toro, the western Nevado Pallacocha at 6,171 m (20,246 ft), the central Coropuna Central II at 6,161 m (20,213 ft), Escalera at 6,171 m (20,246 ft) in the western sector of the volcano, Paiche at 6,330 m (20,770 ft) in
978-584: A brief slowdown observed during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Total shrinkage has been estimated to amount to 26 per cent between 1962 and 2000, and by 18 per cent between 1955 and 2007. Retreat is faster on the northern side of the mountain. The Coropuna ice cap retreat follows the pattern recorded elsewhere in Peru such as in the Cordillera Blanca, Cordillera Vilcanota and the mountains Ampato, Quelccaya and Sabancaya. All of this retreat
1141-420: A concern, with the incorporation of electric buses and the promotion of the use of non-motorized vehicles. The city is located at an average elevation of 2,328 metres (7,638 ft) above sea level, with the lowest part of the city at 2,041 metres (6,696 ft) above sea level in the area called Huayco Uchumayo while the highest is located at 2,810 metres (9,220 ft) above sea level. The central part of
1304-492: A cover of boulders and gravel and formed tall moraines, and both lateral and terminal moraines where outlet glaciers ended. At the crest, these moraines were as much as 100 m (330 ft) high, eight km (5.0 mi) long, and five–ten m (16–33 ft) wide. On the northern flank, moraine systems have been observed in the Santiago, Ullulo, Keaña, Queñua Ranra, Cuncaicha, Pommulca and Huajra Huire valleys, while
1467-604: A cradle of civic resistance. Two demonstrations against the Odría regime are especially noteworthy: one in June 1950 and the other that dominated the scene in December 1955. In 2000, the historic center of Arequipa was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . However, on 23 June 2001, an 8.4-magnitude earthquake damaged several historical buildings. This resulted in more precautions and safety measures to be conducted, to ensure
1630-523: A drought in the Altiplano caused a rise in migration, urbanization, and peripheral city growth (suburbs and shantytowns) that continues to this day. The rearrangement and improvement of urban space after the earthquakes also helped cause Arequipa's population to grow twofold in a decade. The population increased from 158,000 in 1961 to 309,000 in 1972 to almost 500,000 in 1983. Urban development of previously rural areas incorporated subsistence farming into
1793-437: A graduated spectrum, with much overlap between categories, and does not always fit neatly into only one of these three separate categories. The USGS defines a volcano as "erupting" whenever the ejection of magma from any point on the volcano is visible, including visible magma still contained within the walls of the summit crater. While there is no international consensus among volcanologists on how to define an active volcano,
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#17327658238631956-718: A hiatus, volcanic activity continued into the Pleistocene . Several lava flows on the western and central sides of Coropuna have been dated, yielding ages ranging from 410,000 ± 9,000 to 62,600 ± 4,300 years ago. During the last glacial maximum, Coropuna was inactive and moraines buried its lava flows. However, one or two tephra layers on a moraine close to the village of Viraco on the southern side have been dated to be about 41,000 and 30,000 – 31,000 years old. These ages correspond to radiocarbon ages of 37,370 ± 1,160 and 27,200 ± 300 years . These tephras may have originated in fissure eruptions associated with
2119-758: A letter to the Mayor of the City to explain his views regarding the color of the Banner of Arequipa, basing his claims on the ' Act of the Oath of King Carlos III " of 11 August 1788. On 23 September of the same year, Father Victor M. Barriga also published an important document in the Catholic newspaper El Deber that contains a description of the royal standard of Arequipa found in the "Act of 3 September 1789". On 22 December 1540, King Charles I of Spain elevated Arequipa to
2282-839: A mountain range which lies at an average of 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the Pacific coastline, and contains nearly one hundred glaciers. Coropuna is in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, which contains 44 stratovolcanoes – including many of the world's highest – and several glaciated volcanoes. Besides Coropuna, some of the latter are Sara Sara , Solimana , Mismi , Ampato , Hualca Hualca , Sabancaya , Chachani , Misti , Ubinas , Huaynaputina , Tutupaca , Yucamane and Casiri . Also found nearby are Neogene -age calderas . Sixteen volcanoes in Peru are active or potentially active. There
2445-443: A paper was published suggesting a new definition for the word 'volcano' that includes processes such as cryovolcanism . It suggested that a volcano be defined as 'an opening on a planet or moon's surface from which magma , as defined for that body, and/or magmatic gas is erupted.' This article mainly covers volcanoes on Earth. See § Volcanoes on other celestial bodies and cryovolcano for more information. The word volcano
2608-429: A political balance and closed adherence to the directives coming from the kings of Spain, a phenomenon called "fidelismo" that had as notable defenders Francisco de Paula Quiroz, Mariano de Rivero, Nicólas Fernández, and José Miguel de Lastarria. In the uprising of Túpac Amaru II he confronted the city with a column of troops that he armed at his expense, and helped destroy the siege of the city of La Paz , which earns it
2771-402: A size less than Coropuna's. A subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha, east of Coropuna, has a small ice cap as well. In general, Peruvian glaciers form the bulk of the world's tropical glaciers. The ice cap consists of three ice domes and many glaciers. Perennial snow fields are present on Coropuna, sometimes making it hard to measure the true extent of glaciation or glacier retreat. On average,
2934-465: A southeastward trending line on the southwestern side of the volcano and dikes crop out close to Lake Pallarcocha . Coropuna overlies the margin of a buried caldera. The higher elevations of Coropuna consist of an ice cap and glaciated terrain but old lava flows with gentle slopes and blocky lava crop out from underneath the ice. Regions of hydrothermally altered rocks, lava flows, pyroclastic flows and areas covered by volcanic ash occur all around
3097-632: A volcano is largely determined by the composition of the lava it erupts. The viscosity (how fluid the lava is) and the amount of dissolved gas are the most important characteristics of magma, and both are largely determined by the amount of silica in the magma. Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also tends to contain more dissolved gases. Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions: Mafic lava flows show two varieties of surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced [ˈʔaʔa] ) and pāhoehoe ( [paːˈho.eˈho.e] ), both Hawaiian words. ʻAʻa
3260-555: A volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of volcanoes are varied. The structure and behaviour of volcanoes depend on several factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus . Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and ash ) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on
3423-465: A volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that produced over 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a single explosive event. Such eruptions occur when a very large magma chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a catastrophic caldera -forming eruption. Ash flow tuffs emplaced by such eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivalling those of flood basalts . Supervolcano eruptions, while
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#17327658238633586-739: Is a volcanic field of over 60 cinder cones. Based on satellite images, it has been suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon. Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and tephra in alternate layers, the strata that gives rise to the name. They are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Classic examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in
3749-709: Is also called Nevado Coropuna; "Nevado" is the Spanish word for "snowy". There is another volcano in the Andahua volcanic field which has the same name, but is completely separate. Coropuna lies in the Andes of Peru, on the border between the Castilla and Condesuyos Provinces of the Arequipa Department . Towns around the volcano belong to the Chuquibamba , Machaguay , Pampacolca and Viraco Districts . The volcano can be reached on paved roads through
3912-548: Is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the Sun and cool Earth's troposphere . Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by volcanic winters which have caused catastrophic famines. Other planets besides Earth have volcanoes. For example, volcanoes are very numerous on Venus. Mars has significant volcanoes. In 2009,
4075-682: Is another summit north of the east–west trend. A 5,558 m (18,235 ft) high subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha lies east of Coropuna; it is a stratovolcano. Coropuna covers a surface area of 240 square kilometres (93 sq mi) and its various main summits rise about three kilometres (1.9 mi) above the surrounding plateau. The volcano is formed from alternating layers of ignimbrite and lava , and consists of coalesced stratovolcanoes and seven separate coulees . Ice cover makes discerning its structure difficult, but about six separate peaks as well as six not readily recognisable summit craters have been counted. Additional lava domes form
4238-420: Is attributed to global warming , and tends to increase during El Niño years owing to a drier climate. The glaciers lose mass through both sublimation and melting . Ablation occurs year-round and is diurnal . This meltwater rarely forms streams, though some do exist. The Quebrada Ullulo on the northern side is the largest such meltwater stream. Recently deglaciated terrain is covered by rock debris. Before
4401-590: Is called volcanism . On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging , and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a mid-ocean ridge , such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there
4564-412: Is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the typical texture of cooler basalt lava flows. Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Pāhoehoe flows are sometimes observed to transition to ʻaʻa flows as they move away from the vent, but never the reverse. More silicic lava flows take the form of block lava, where
4727-468: Is constructed atop of 14 million year old ignimbrites and lava flows of Neogene age. Individual ignimbrites crop out mainly in valleys; on the highlands they are buried beneath more recent volcanic products. The volcanic basement includes the Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene Tacaza , Huaylillas , Sencca and Barroso Formations ; the latter formation includes Coropuna itself. Below these formations lie
4890-565: Is derived from the name of Vulcano , a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan , the god of fire in Roman mythology . The study of volcanoes is called volcanology , sometimes spelled vulcanology . According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's lithosphere , its rigid outer shell, is broken into sixteen larger and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due to convection in
5053-584: Is expressed using the volcanic explosivity index (VEI), which ranges from 0 for Hawaiian-type eruptions to 8 for supervolcanic eruptions. As of December 2022 , the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program database of volcanic eruptions in the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years) lists 9,901 confirmed eruptions from 859 volcanoes. The database also lists 1,113 uncertain eruptions and 168 discredited eruptions for
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5216-486: Is marked by the presence of clouds in the afternoon and low rainfall. In winter (June and July), the temperature drops to an average of 6 °C (43 °F). The average relative humidity is 46%, with an average high of 70% in the summer season and a minimum average of 27% during autumn, winter and spring, according to data from the Goyeneche Hospital weather station. The mountainous topography surrounding
5379-531: Is needed to aid future planning and mitigation. Glacial meltwater has a low content of regulated metals while springs sometimes have very high concentrations. Off the coast of Peru, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of five–seven centimetres per year (2.0–2.8 in/year) or nine centimetres per year (3.5 in/year). This subduction process, along with
5542-491: Is no habitation on Coropuna above 5,200 metres (17,100 ft), but numerous villages dot the lower slopes. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the most common economic activities; there are copper and gold mines as well. The city of Arequipa lies 150 km (93 mi) to the southeast. Seen from above, Coropuna has a pear-shaped outline and is a 20 km (12 mi) east–west ridge that features four summits that are separated by broad saddles . In addition, there
5705-537: Is one of the several tuyas in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such landform analysed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near
5868-784: Is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the East African Rift , the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field , and the Rio Grande rift in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs from the core–mantle boundary , 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in hotspot volcanism , of which the Hawaiian hotspot
6031-401: Is the seat of the city government. The city had a nominal GDP of US$ 9,445 million, equivalent to US$ 10,277 per capita (US$ 18,610 per capita PPP) in 2015, making Arequipa the city with the second-highest economic activity in Peru. Arequipa is also an important industrial and commercial center of Peru, and is considered as the second industrial city of the country. Within its industrial activity
6194-423: Is threatened by the retreat of the glaciers and would require costly mitigation measures to compensate for its reduction. The Peruvian government is making preparations for Coropuna ceasing to be a contributor to the local water supply by 2025; a 2018 study and re-evaluation of past data concluded that the ice cap should persist until about 2120, and recommends that greater in situ monitoring of Coropuna's glaciers
6357-518: Is thus of concern. A 2003 study by Bryan G. Mark and Geoffrey O. Seltzer estimated that about 30 per cent of the dry season runoff in the Cordillera Blanca comes from glaciers. Meltwater from the glaciers on Coropuna sustains the baseflow of the rivers during dry periods; Coropuna is an important source of water for the valleys of the surrounding areas and for the desert-like piedmont , with an estimated 38,000 people depending directly or indirectly on water originating from it. This water supply
6520-471: Is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland , as well. Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of Mount St. Helens , but can also form independently, as in
6683-662: The Altiplano below Coropuna, such as the Chuquibamba landslide, which took place over the last 120,000 years in the form of multiple collapse events within a fault -controlled basin. Geomorphologically, Coropuna lies at the edge of the Altiplano high plateau on the Western Cordillera mountain range; in the Central Andes this mountain chain is split into two ranges – the western and
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6846-617: The Cascade Volcanoes or the Japanese Archipelago , or the eastern islands of Indonesia . Hotspots are volcanic areas thought to be formed by mantle plumes , which are hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary. As with mid-ocean ridges, the rising mantle rock experiences decompression melting which generates large volumes of magma. Because tectonic plates move across mantle plumes, each volcano becomes inactive as it drifts off
7009-473: The Colca River valley. Lahars are dangerous phenomena owing to their high speed and density, causing large scale destruction and fatalities, and can be generated both by volcanic and meteorological processes. Lakes lie on the flanks of the volcano. These include Lake Pallarcocha on the southwestern flank on formerly glaciated terrain, Laguna Pucaylla on Coropuna's northeastern side and Laguna Caracara on
7172-526: The Majes River watershed. An endorheic area that receives meltwater from the volcano also exists northeast from Coropuna, on Pampa Pucaylla where the lake of the same name lies. Coropuna rises two km (1.2 mi) above the surrounding terrain from a base elevation of 4,500 m (14,800 ft), and about 3.5 km (2.2 mi) on the southern side where the Rio Llacllaja has incised
7335-512: The Miocene . Andean uplift in the area of Coropuna is ongoing. Coropuna is part of the volcanic arc of southern Peru and is considered to be a member of the Barroso volcanic arc. There are over six hundred volcanoes in southern Peru, and the entire Cordillera Occidental from southern Peru to northern Chile is covered with volcanic rocks, although present-day volcanic activity is scarce. Many of
7498-485: The Peruvian War of Independence . Since 1553, by order of Viceroy Martín Enríquez de Almanza, the application of the system of insaculation and under this system a mayor "of neighbors" and another "of soldiers" are elected, who were later replaced by the mayor "of neighbors" and "of citizens." The Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa began construction in 1544 but was destroyed due to an earthquake in 1583. The cathedral
7661-622: The Younger Dryas cold period or the Antarctic Cold Reversal . During the Little Ice Age , glaciers on Coropuna did not expand much, although some rock glaciers might have formed during that time. The glaciers descended to 4,900 m (16,100 ft) elevation. Glaciers in Peru are important sources of water for local communities and for hydropower generation, especially during the dry season; their shrinkage
7824-834: The landform and may give rise to smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻŌʻō on a flank of Kīlauea in Hawaii. Volcanic craters are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as with Lake Taupō in New Zealand. Some volcanoes can be low-relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognize as such and be obscured by geological processes. Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of Jupiter , Saturn , and Neptune ; and mud volcanoes , which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when
7987-709: The mountain is worshiped to the present day. The ice cap of Coropuna, which during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) had expanded to over 500 km (190 sq mi), has been in retreat since at least 1850 . Estimates published in 2018 imply that the ice cap will persist until about 2120. The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people relying upon its watershed , and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be hazardous to surrounding populations. Because of this,
8150-766: The 2007 census , 70% of the Department of Arequipa's total population and 90% of its urban population lives in Arequipa city proper. The city is the second most populous in Peru after the capital, Lima. In an early census in 1796, Arequipa had a population of 37,241, of which 22,207 (59.6%) were Spaniards, 5,929 (15.9%) were Native Americans, 4,908 (13.2%) were mestizos , 2,487 (6.7%) were castizos , and 1,710 (4.6%) were Africans. Population growth accelerated from 1.1% growth between 1876 and 1917 to 3.3% growth between 1940 and 1960. The city's population increased from 80,000 in 1940 to 158,000 in 1961. An earthquake in 1958 and
8313-625: The 4,855 m (15,928 ft) high Antapuna , while the Andahua " Valley of the Volcanoes " is 20 km (12 mi) east-northeast of Coropuna. Coropuna is the largest and highest volcano in Peru, the highest peak of the Cordillera Ampato and the third-highest mountain in Peru. The highest point of Coropuna is the northwestern dome named Coropuna Casulla, with 6,377 metres (20,922 ft) elevation. Mountaineering sources also cite an elevation of 6,425 m (21,079 ft) for
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#17327658238638476-498: The Andean batholiths . Volcanic activity in southern Peru commenced about 13 million years ago in the Miocene. One volcanic unit – after being folded and eroded – was covered by a second lava and tuff unit, which in turn was followed by the emplacement of large volcanoes. Ignimbrites and stratovolcano activity, at times subdivided into a "rhyolitic" and an "andesitic" formation, alternated. Coropuna
8639-565: The Andes feature thick, extensive layers of volcanic lava. The climate of the city is predominantly dry in winter , autumn and spring due to low atmospheric humidity and a level of precipitation corresponding to that of a desert climate ( BWk , according to the Köppen climate classification ). On average, Arequipa has 300 days of sunshine each year. Typically, temperatures neither exceed 25 °C (77 °F) nor drop below 5 °C (41 °F). The wet season lasts from December to March and
8802-706: The Bolivarian constitution for life. It was during this period that the Academia Lauretana promoted the creation of the Colegio Nacional de la Independencia Americana and the National University of San Agustín in 1827. Arequipa's strategic location at the crossroads of the colonial silver trade route and that of the post-independence wool trade route allowed the city to emerge as an administrative, commercial, and industrial hub. In
8965-591: The Cabana and Collagua tribes they developed an agrarian economy in the valley. When the Inca Mayta Cápac arrived in the valley of the Chili river, he didn't build cities. Instead, through the mitma policy, he forced the resettlement of his subjects to solidify control of existing territories, conduct intelligence duties, and strengthen border enclaves to control unconquered villages. A Hispanic version of
9128-524: The Chili River and the monastery of Nuestra Señora de Gracia. The city became one of the most known and important in the Viceroyalty of Peru , being second from the capital, Lima . A town council was organized soon after the city of founded, which was in charge of electing mayors and authorities for the city. The organization was broken during civil wars carried out by rebel groups, leading up to
9291-495: The Chili River valley affects low-pressure fronts and local winds. These winds occur mainly in the early morning and the evening. Mountain breezes typically flow northeast, and valley breezes typically flow southwest. Wind velocity fluctuates between 1.5 m/s and 2.5 m/s. Solar radiation in Arequipa ranges from 850 to 950 W/m (watts per square meter), one of the highest levels of radiation in South America and
9454-604: The Convent of Santa Catalina and the San Francisco Monastery. Urban expansion occurred at the expense of the countryside, and this phenomenon has accelerated in recent decades. Arequipa expanded east of the historic center, and new avenues such as Parra Boulevard and Siglo Veinte Avenue were built to connect the historic center with newer neighborhoods, such as Vallecito (developed in the 1940s) or with already existing towns like Yanahuara, which were absorbed by
9617-487: The Coropuna complex the third-highest of Peru . Its thick ice cap is the most extensive in Earth's tropical zone , with several outlet glaciers stretching out to lower altitudes. Below an elevation of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft), there are various vegetation belts which include trees, peat bogs , grasses and also agricultural areas and pastures . The Coropuna complex consists of several stratovolcanoes . These are composed chiefly of ignimbrites and lava flows on
9780-589: The El Toro summit, which would make Coropuna the 22nd highest mountain in the Andes. Estimates on the height of Coropuna have changed over time. In the 19th century, it was one of the candidates for "highest mountain in Peru", with the Mapa del Perú (Map of Peru) of Antonio Raimondi giving an estimated height of 6,949 m (22,799 ft); other candidates were peaks in the Cordillera Blanca . In 1910 it
9943-594: The Incas resettled part of the population thousands of kilometres away in Aconcagua Valley . On 15 August 1540, Spanish lieutenant Garcí Manuel de Carbajal named the cluster of Native American villages in the area "Villa de la Asunción de Nuestra Señora del Valle Hermoso de Arequipa". At the time of its foundation, Arequipa already had a city council because Carbajal also led relocation efforts for an existing coastal city named Villa Hermosa de Camana. The name
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#173276582386310106-566: The National University of San Agustin, moved out of the city center to more spacious land lots in peripheral areas to accommodate their growing facilities. Residential zones also developed in peripheral suburbs, causing the main function of the city center to be a tourist and business district. The metropolitan area of Arequipa consists of 19 districts, with a total area of 305,798 acres (123,752 hectares) of which 10,142 acres (4,104 ha) are distinctly urban. According to
10269-715: The National University of San Agustin. The Department of Arequipa's GDP is the second highest in Peru, after that of the Department of Lima . From 2003 to 2008, Arequipa was the "city with the greatest economic growth in Latin America" with a 66.1% increase in GDP per capita, according to a 2009 report of "America Economia". According to a government survey, Arequipa has the largest "workforce" in Peru with 625,547 people, and an economically active population (PEA) which amounts to 376,764 people having an employment rate similar to
10432-409: The Pacific , President Lizardo Montero Flores arrived in Arequipa and declared it the capital of Peru, which changed back to Lima after its occupation ended in 1823. On 22 April 1883, Montero installed a National Congress which was located at Independence College, also counting military support from a local army and important financial support from quotas and taxes coming from the economic elite and
10595-486: The Peruvian geological agency, INGEMMET , monitors Coropuna and has published a hazard map for the volcano. In Quechua , puna means "plateau", and coro is a common component of toponyms such as with Coro Coro, Bolivia , though its etymology is unclear. The name may mean Qoripuna , "Puna of Gold", "golden mountain", "cold, snowy" or "cut off at the top". The name is also spelled Qhuru Puna . The mountain
10758-622: The Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy. Ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes has historically posed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much more viscous, than lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promoting explosive eruptions that produce great quantities of ash, as well as pyroclastic surges like
10921-426: The Republic, arguing that the country was leaderless as Orbegoso was outside the capital. Orbegoso then sought support from Bolivian president Andrés de Santa Cruz against the claims of Salaverry. On 4 February 1836, Salaverry's Army of Reunification won a battle at Uchumayo. However, three days later in Socabaya, Salaverry surrendered to Santa Cruz On 18 February 1836, Salaverry and his nine officers were shot in
11084-470: The Spanish Monarchy gave the city the title of Faithful by Royal Charter. Because of its distance from other Peruvian cities, Arequipa was not heavily influenced by libertarian movements and was mostly loyal to the Spanish Empire . In 1814, Mateo Pumacahua 's pro-independence troops only briefly occupied Arequipa. The city would remain under Spanish control until the Battle of Ayacucho (1824), due to struggles for local political power. After independence
11247-562: The USGS defines a volcano as active whenever subterranean indicators, such as earthquake swarms , ground inflation, or unusually high levels of carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide are present. The USGS defines a dormant volcano as any volcano that is not showing any signs of unrest such as earthquake swarms, ground swelling, or excessive noxious gas emissions, but which shows signs that it could yet become active again. Many dormant volcanoes have not erupted for thousands of years, but have still shown signs that they may be likely to erupt again in
11410-494: The Universidad Nacional de San Agustín, a military backing made up of all males between the ages of 20 and 60They made up an army of 4,000 men and 8,000 to 10,000 National Guardsmenand significant economic support based on the quotas and expenditures imposed on both the economic elite and the various southern agricultural districts. The Republican Era brought many improvements to the city's infrastructure and economy. The Southern Railroad built by Henry Meiggs connected Arequipa with
11573-533: The area that was covered with ice during the LGM, with an expansion occurring in particular in the eastern sector of the volcano. Moraines older than marine isotope stage 2 are widespread. Those close to the village of Viraco may date back 40,000–45,000 years and thus be part of an earlier glaciation, and old dates of 47,000–31,000 and 61,000–37,000 years ago in the Huayllaura and Sigue Chico valleys could reflect even larger glacier expansions during marine isotope stage 3 or 4. Glaciers retreated after
11736-510: The boundary with the Yukon Territory . Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although several processes may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometres in diameter and reach 700 meters high. The material that is expelled in a volcanic eruption can be classified into three types: The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably from one volcano to
11899-497: The capital of the eponymous province and department . It is the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru and often dubbed the "legal capital of Peru". It is the second most populated city in Peru, after the capital Lima , with an urban population of 1,296,278 inhabitants according to the 2017 national census. Its metropolitan area integrates twenty-one districts, including the foundational central area, which it
12062-402: The case of Lassen Peak . Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent. Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge, which later collapsed down
12225-472: The central sector, and Coropuna Este and Yana Ranra at 6,305 m (20,686 ft) in the eastern sector. Coropuna features the largest ice cap of the tropics. As of 2014 it was 8.5 km (5.3 mi) wide and eleven km (6.8 mi) long. It is larger than the Quelccaya Ice Cap 250 km (160 mi) farther northeast, which was considered to be the largest, but has since shrunk to
12388-489: The city is split by the Chili River from north to south; to the north and east of Arequipa are the Andes Mountains, while to the south and west are sub-ranges of the Andes. The valley of Arequipa strategically links the coastal and highland regions of southern Peru. A series of volcanic cones dominates the city skyline – Misti and the extinct volcanic groups Pichu Pichu and Chachani . The western slopes of
12551-472: The city is the third most visited city in the country after Cusco and Lima . In 2010, Arequipa received a total of 1.395 million visitors according to the Ministry of Commerce and Tourism. Since the 20th century, many factories tied to the primary sector, especially textiles and agriculture, have emerged. Arequipa's serves as an important commercial and industrial hub in the southern Andes in Peru, linking
12714-551: The city's expansion. Shantytowns appeared in the districts of Miraflores, Barrio Obrero, and Jacinto Ibanez. A permanent marketplace was built in a vacant lot previously occupied by the San Camilo Monastery. The Goyeneche Hospital was built between 1905 and 1910. Two theaters (Municipal and Ateneo), a hotel (Hotel de Turistas), a public library and the campus of San Agustin University were other city developments of
12877-491: The city. The early inhabitants of the modern-day Arequipa area were nomads who relied on fishing as well as hunting and gathering for survival. Later, pre-Inca cultures domesticated llamas and became sedentary with the rise of agriculture . Terraces used for crop irrigation were built on both sides of the Chili River valley. The Yarabaya and Chimbe tribes settled in the city's current location, and together with
13040-541: The cradle of notable intellectual, political and religious figures. In the Republican era, it was awarded the title of "Heroic city of the free people of Arequipa". Its historical center extends over an area of 332 hectares and has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Historical heritage and monumental that it houses and its diverse scenic and cultural spaces turn it into a host city of national and international tourism, in its historical center it highlights
13203-670: The decade following Peru's 1821 declaration of independence from Spain, society in Arequipa and Peru at-large was in transition. Thus, Arequipa not only became the birthplace of notable political figures but also the site of key political movements that helped defend the legal and economic stability of the city; thus elevating Arequipa to a status second only to its rival city and the capital, Lima. On 13 January 1835, President Luis José de Orbegoso moved his government from Lima to Arequipa by presidential decree. Meanwhile, in Lima, General Felipe Santiago Salaverry named himself Supreme Chief of
13366-483: The early 20th century. Housing projects and new neighborhoods were also built, such as Cuarto Centenario and Selva Alegre. In the late 1950s, the city rapidly grew, especially in peripheral areas. Around this time, industrial operations located in areas of Barrio del Solar and Barrio Obrero, near the city center, moved outwards to the industrial zone (Parque Industrial), causing the former industrial areas to become commercial zones. Some educational institutions, such as
13529-514: The east. Glacial valleys radiate from Coropuna, and glaciofluvial landforms are associated with moraines. Regional climate oscillations are recorded in the ice masses of Coropuna. The glacial history of the volcano has been reconstructed with tephrochronology (using dated tephra layers such as those from the 1600 Huaynaputina eruption), radiocarbon dating and surface exposure dating using helium-3 . Three separate moraine generations and about five separate glacial stages have been recorded on
13692-420: The eastern Cordillera – separated by the Altiplano. The Pucuncho Basin and Firura volcano lie north of Coropuna, while Solimana volcano is northwest from Coropuna. Sara Sara is another volcano in the area. A large lava dome lies northwest of Coropuna while Cerro Pumaranra , a 5,089 m (16,696 ft) eroded volcano, is to the northeast. 19 km (12 mi) west-southwest from Coropuna lies
13855-478: The eastern side, emanate from cirques . The ongoing downward movement of the ice on Coropuna produces icequakes . Glaciers descend to elevations of about 5,100 to 5,300 m (16,700 to 17,400 ft) on the southern flank, and to about 5,500 to 5,800 m (18,000 to 19,000 ft) on the northern flank. This is higher than the freezing level , owing to the dry climate; the freezing level at Coropuna lies at about 4,900 m (16,100 ft) elevation. In 2001,
14018-703: The end of the last glacial maximum 20,000–18,000 years ago and then re-expanded. During the Late Glacial , a group of moraines formed between the position of the LGM moraines and the position of the recent moraines, with one lateglacial advance dated to either 13,400–10,000 or 13,900–11,900 years ago. Full glacial conditions lasted until 10,000–9,000 years ago; minor advances took place about 13,000–9,000 years ago, and again some 6,000 years ago. The late glacial advances coincide with similar glacier expansions worldwide and some of them may correlate with
14181-799: The enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment under vegetation and glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to identify in the geologic record without careful geologic mapping . Known examples include Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupō in New Zealand; Lake Toba in Sumatra , Indonesia; and Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Volcanoes that, though large, are not large enough to be called supervolcanoes, may also form calderas in
14344-472: The events, detailed by chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega , which has been described as historically inaccurate, suggests that around 1170 Huayna Capac stopped in the Chili River valley with his army, calling the area Ari qepay which means "Let's stay here." Lands were then distributed among 3,000 families who founded communities such as Yanahuara, Cayma, Tiabaya, Socabaya, and Characato, all of which are districts in Arequipa today. After their conquest of Chile
14507-557: The first human settlement of the area, the ice cap on Coropuna was much larger than today, with its surface exceeding 500 km (190 sq mi) and its glaciers descending to much lower elevations. Additionally, glaciers also expanded from the mountains Pumaranra, Pucaylla and Cuncaicha to the east of Coropuna. They covered the Pampa Pucaylla northeast from Coropuna and descended the Jellojello valley and other valleys to
14670-431: The flow is covered with angular, vesicle-poor blocks. Rhyolitic flows typically consist largely of obsidian . Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases when it flows to the surface . These violent explosions produce particles of material that can then fly from
14833-409: The flows have been affected by later glacial advances. These lava flows are found on the west–northwest, south–southeast and northeast side of the mountain: Volcano#Dormant A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object , such as Earth , that allows hot lava , volcanic ash , and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. The process that forms volcanoes
14996-634: The form of hot springs . Coropuna is located 150 kilometres (93 mi) northwest of the city of Arequipa . People have lived on the slopes of Coropuna for millennia. The mountain was regarded as sacred by the Inca , and several archaeological sites have been discovered there, including the Inca sites of Maucallacta and Acchaymarca . The mountain was considered one of the most important Inca religious sites in their realm; human sacrifices were performed on its slopes, Coropuna forms part of many local legends and
15159-610: The formation of a submarine volcano off the coast of Mayotte . Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath ice caps . They are made up of lava plateaus capping extensive pillow lavas and palagonite . These volcanoes are also called table mountains, tuyas , or (in Iceland) mobergs. Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and in British Columbia . The origin of the term comes from Tuya Butte , which
15322-585: The future. In an article justifying the re-classification of Alaska's Mount Edgecumbe volcano from "dormant" to "active", volcanologists at the Alaska Volcano Observatory pointed out that the term "dormant" in reference to volcanoes has been deprecated over the past few decades and that "[t]he term "dormant volcano" is so little used and undefined in modern volcanology that the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2000) does not contain it in
15485-579: The glaciers, while debris cover is rare. Mudflows (lahars) originated from the ice cap and left deposits at the bottom of valleys. A number of glaciers flow down from the ice cap, their number variously estimated to be 15, 17 and 23. Some glaciers have been named; on the southwestern flank two glaciers are known as Azufrioc 1 and 2, three Rio Blanco 1 through 3 and six Tuialqui 1 through 6. Eighteen separate accumulation areas have been found as well. There are no substantive valley glaciers presently on Coropuna and some glaciers, especially in
15648-517: The glossaries or index", however the USGS still widely employs the term. Previously a volcano was often considered to be extinct if there were no written records of its activity. Such a generalization is inconsistent with observation and deeper study, as has occurred recently with the unexpected eruption of the Chaitén volcano in 2008. Modern volcanic activity monitoring techniques, and improvements in
15811-552: The highest recorded in Peru. Arequipa's proximity to the Atacama Desert and pollution contribute to the higher levels of radiation. On 15 August 1540, the Spanish plan for Arequipa resembled a checkerboard made of fifty-six blocks, each one of "400 Castilian feet" (111.40 meters) per side. Each block consisted of four or eight land lots, which were distributed according to the status of the new owners. Over time, some religious institutions would occupy an entire block as did
15974-426: The ice cap may reflect the position of the glaciers before the onset of glacier retreat which has left small mounds that often contain ice between these moraines and the ice cap and small, discontinuous moraines. Apart from normal glaciers, 78 rock glaciers have been counted on Coropuna, but only 11 of them are considered to be active. Permafrost occurs at elevations exceeding 5,100 metres (16,700 ft) on
16137-543: The ice cap of Coropuna is about 80.8 m (265 ft) thick, with maximum thicknesses exceeding 180 m (590 ft). In 2003–2004 the ice cap had a volume of about 3.69 cubic kilometres (0.89 cu mi) snow water equivalents . Ice cores have been taken from the Coropuna ice cap and from a summit crater; one of these ice cores covers a timespan beginning from 20,000 years ago. Penitentes reaching heights of two m (6 ft 7 in) and seracs (blocks of ice in glaciers delimited by cracks) occur on
16300-495: The ice limits were located at elevations of 5,300 m (17,400 ft) on the southern and at 5,600 m (18,400 ft) on the northern flank. Moraines are mostly found on Coropuna's northern and southern side and reach lengths of three to eight km (1.9 to 5.0 mi), with longer moraines on the northern flank. In general, moraines on Coropuna are steep and have prominent crests as they are little eroded. Grey-coloured, fresh moraines up to 500 m (1,600 ft) from
16463-492: The interior of a continent and lead to rifting. Early stages of rifting are characterized by flood basalts and may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split. A divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere (such as in an aulacogen ), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual alkali lava or carbonatites . Examples include
16626-604: The magma. The beginning of Coropuna's growth has variously been placed over 5 million years ago, during the Pliocene or late Miocene, but most of its structure developed during the Quaternary. Volcanic activity has been subdivided into two stages: explosive eruptions during the now mostly eroded Coropuna I stage produced volcanic ash, pyroclastic flows and pumice but also lava flows, while Coropuna II above 6,000 m (20,000 ft) elevation erupted lava flows from
16789-623: The main square of the city. After expressing their rejection to the Peru–Bolivian Confederation , the Chilean government sent a military expedition that arrived in Arequipa on 12 October 1837. To avoid military conflict, negotiations led to a peace treaty signing in Paucarpata, a small town near Arequipa on 17 November 1837. In the following years, the city was the site of uprisings and successive military coups, which ended with
16952-535: The manufactured products and the textile production of wool of camelids. The town maintains close commercial links with Chile , Bolivia , and Brazil and with the cities connected by the South trainway , as well as with the port of Matarani . The city was founded on 15 August 1540, under the name of "Beautiful Villa of Our Lady of the Assumption" in the name of Marquis Francisco Pizarro . On 22 September 1541,
17115-419: The mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands are formed, such as Iceland . Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. The oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath the continental plate), forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting , water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of
17278-551: The modelling of the factors that produce eruptions, have helped the understanding of why volcanoes may remain dormant for a long time, and then become unexpectedly active again. The potential for eruptions, and their style, depend mainly upon the state of the magma storage system under the volcano, the eruption trigger mechanism and its timescale. For example, the Yellowstone volcano has a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, and Toba of around 380,000 years. Vesuvius
17441-496: The monarch Carlos V ordered that it should be called the "City of Arequipa". During the viceregal period , it acquired importance for its outstanding economic role, and is characterized by the fidelismo towards the Spanish Crown, which honored Arequipa with titles such as "Very Noble and Very Loyal". In the Republican history of Peru, the city has been the focus of popular, civic and democratic rebellions. It has also been
17604-415: The most dangerous type, are very rare; four are known from the last million years , and about 60 historical VEI 8 eruptions have been identified in the geologic record over millions of years. A supervolcano can produce devastation on a continental scale, and severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the atmosphere. Because of
17767-490: The mountain, especially around its central sector. A sector collapse took place on the southwestern flank and formed a landslide deposit as well as a horseshoe-shaped valley that was later filled by glaciers. Also on the southern side, mud-water flow deposits have been found in the Capiza River valley and appear to relate to Coropuna; at least eight such debris flows have been identified. Lahars (mudflows) have reached
17930-471: The mountain. Glacial activity has eroded these volcanic rocks, carving valleys into them or removing them altogether. This process created U-shaped valleys such as Buenavista, Cospanja and Tuilaqui on the southern flank, and glacial valleys such as Chaque, Mapa Mayo, Río Blanco, Torcom and Ullulo on the northern slopes. Glacial valleys of Coropuna are up to 300 m (980 ft) deep and seven km (4.3 mi) long. There are several collapse scarps on
18093-438: The mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano. Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which lava emerges. Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically but are characterized by relatively gentle effusive eruptions . Since low-viscosity magma
18256-463: The name of the city came from an ancient Aymara phrase, "ari qquepan", supposedly meaning "trumpet sound", in reference to the sound produced from blowing into an empty conch-like seashell. Another possible origin of the city's name comes from the Aymara phrase "qhipaya ari" or "Ari qipa" (from 'ari': acute, sharp or pointed; and 'qhipaya': behind), which translates to "behind the peak", referring to
18419-401: The national average with an average monthly income of 928 soles. The main economic sectors for the economically active population are manufacturing (12.9%), trade (23%), and non-personal services (36.6%). The unemployment rate in the Arequipa metropolitan area is 8%, compared to only 5% unemployment in Arequipa city proper. In Arequipa, tourism is a vital contributor to the local economy, as
18582-434: The nearby volcano, Misti. Historians debate the origin of the crimson flag of the city. By 1940, several historians, most notably Francisco Mostajo and Victor M. Barriga, confirmed the royal origin of the crimson color of the flag, contrary to a blue banner which historian Victor Benavente hypothesized to be the original. This matches the color that local sports organizations use. On 2 September 1940, Francisco Mostajo sent
18745-452: The next. Water vapour is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide . Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide , hydrogen chloride , and hydrogen fluoride . A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example hydrogen , carbon monoxide , halocarbons , organic compounds, and volatile metal chlorides. The form and style of an eruption of
18908-876: The north side of the mountain. Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 metres (100 to 1,300 ft) high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be found in monogenetic volcanic fields that may include other features that form when magma comes into contact with water such as maar explosion craters and tuff rings . Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own. Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in Arizona are examples of cinder cones. In New Mexico , Caja del Rio
19071-512: The northern and western sides, probably due to airflow-mediated variations in sublimation. The growth of the ice cap has been explained by a decrease of the equilibrium line altitude of about 750 m (2,460 ft). Assuming constant precipitation, temperatures may have decreased by 4.5–5.5 °C (8.1–9.9 °F). The glaciers began to retreat between 12,000 and 11,000 years ago. Ice has been present on Coropuna for at least 80,000 years. At least two pre-LGM advances spread beyond
19234-547: The now snow-covered vents. The existence of a Coropuna III sequence has been proposed. The most recent eruption products have been described as the "Andahua Group". About 5.3 million years ago, the Sunjillpa volcano was active southwest from Coropuna, while Cunciacha east of Coropuna is of lower Pleistocene and Pumaranra of Pliocene to Quaternary age. A major ignimbrite eruption took place about 2 million years ago at Coropuna; its deposits have been identified west of
19397-549: The ocean surface as new islands or floating pumice rafts . In May and June 2018, a multitude of seismic signals were detected by earthquake monitoring agencies all over the world. They took the form of unusual humming sounds, and some of the signals detected in November of that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. An oceanographic research campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming noises were caused by
19560-420: The ocean surface, due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to air), which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor. Hydrothermal vents are common near these volcanoes, and some support peculiar ecosystems based on chemotrophs feeding on dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so large that they break
19723-471: The ocean's surface. In the deep ocean basins, the tremendous weight of the water prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however, submarine eruptions can be detected by hydrophones and by the discoloration of water because of volcanic gases . Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form underwater. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb
19886-628: The older volcanoes are deeply eroded by glaciation, while younger volcanoes often still resemble cones. Volcanic activity in the Andes occurred during three eras. The first was between 195 and 190 million years ago in the Early Jurassic , and generated the Chocolate Formation . The second between 78 and 50 million years ago (Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene) generated the Toquepala Formation and
20049-468: The one that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loose tephra are material for dangerous lahars . Large pieces of tephra are called volcanic bombs . Big bombs can measure more than 1.2 metres (4 ft) across and weigh several tons. A supervolcano is defined as
20212-425: The overlying mantle wedge, thus creating magma . This magma tends to be extremely viscous because of its high silica content, so it often does not reach the surface but cools and solidifies at depth . When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is formed. Thus subduction zones are bordered by chains of volcanoes called volcanic arcs . Typical examples are the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire , such as
20375-619: The plume, and new volcanoes are created where the plate advances over the plume. The Hawaiian Islands are thought to have been formed in such a manner, as has the Snake River Plain , with the Yellowstone Caldera being part of the North American plate currently above the Yellowstone hotspot . However, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned. Sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under
20538-411: The port city of Mollendo in 1871 and with Cuzco and Juliaca in 1876. In 1908, the first telegraph system in the Arequipa region connected Mollendo , Arequipa and Vitor. In 1914, the city built its first drinking water supply system as well as an aqueduct. In 1940, the city's international airport, Rodríguez Ballón International Airport , named after the Peruvian pilot from Arequipa, Rodríguez Ballón,
20701-592: The qualification of "Restoration Province of the Collao". For these services, King Charles IV issued a Royal Decree in the city of San Lorenzo on December 5, 1805, in which he ordered her to be called and titled Fidelísima. Independence Since the Spanish founding of Arequipa, the mostly Spanish population retained heavy loyalty to the Spanish crown, a phenomenon called fidelismo. Among its most notable proponents were Francisco de Paula Quiroz, Mariano de Rivero, Nicolás Fernández, and José Miguel de Lastarria. In 1805,
20864-429: The rank of city by royal decree, awarding it a coat of arms on which a mythical animal carries a banner inscribed with Karlos V or Del Rey. The city anthem is Fourth Centenary Anthem . Lyrics and music were composed by Emilio Pardo Valle and Aurelio Diaz Espinoza, who won a 1939 contest which the city council organize to dedicate a new anthem. Since then, the song has been sung at all important civic events held in
21027-610: The recent volcanism; the alignment of Coropuna with Sara Sara, Solimana and El Misti may indicate a tectonic control on the volcano in general. On the southern flank, Holocene normal faults have offset lava flows and streams. The rocks released by Coropuna are dark brown to black and porphyritic . They consist of andesite , dacite , rhyodacite , rhyolite , trachy- basaltic andesite , trachyandesite and trachydacite . The more recent lava flows have been dacitic or trachydacitic. Phenocryst phases include amphibole , biotite , plagioclase , pyroxene and titanomagnetite . Aside from
21190-532: The region as they were impressed by the beauty of the landscape and the mild climate. The Inca answered "Ari qhipay" (Quechua: "Yes, stay") . However, another similar tale states that when the first Europeans arrived to the valley, they pointed at the ground and asked for the name of the land. The local chief, not understanding the question, assumed they were asking for permission to sit down and gave an affirmation, which sounded like "Arequipa". Chroniclers Blas Valera and Inca Garcilaso de la Vega suggested that
21353-523: The religious architecture viceregal and republican product of mixture of Spanish and autochthonous characteristics, that constituted an own stylistic school called "Arequipeña School" whose influence arrived in Potosí (Bolivia). A local tradition states that Sapa Inca Mayta Cápac received a petition from his subjects to reach the valley of the River Chili. They asked him for permission to stay in
21516-458: The safety of the city and its history. Around the 2010s, the city experienced a large economic growth, partially due to its mining sector, being near copper reserves. The city has also tackled socio-environmental challenges, such as water management and urban planning. Arequipa's Urban Development Plan 2025 is a reflection of these efforts. The urban transport system has evolved, including the modernization of buses. Sustainable mobility has also been
21679-435: The same time interval. Volcanoes vary greatly in their level of activity, with individual volcanic systems having an eruption recurrence ranging from several times a year to once in tens of thousands of years. Volcanoes are informally described as erupting , active , dormant , or extinct , but the definitions of these terms are not entirely uniform among volcanologists. The level of activity of most volcanoes falls upon
21842-492: The same way; they are often described as "caldera volcanoes". Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic activity during the Holocene Epoch has been documented at only 119 submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one million geologically young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above
22005-737: The sedimentary Murco and Socosani formations and the Yura Group, which are sediments of Jurassic-Cretaceous age with intruded plutons of the same age; finally there is a Basal Complex of Precambrian age. The basement is cut by faults and lineaments such as the Viraco-San Antonio Fault that crosses the edifice, Pampacolca Fault on the southern side of the volcano and the Pumaranra and Cerro Casulla lineaments , which trend southeast–northwest and northeast–southwest, respectively. One east–west lineament may have influenced
22168-622: The solidified erupted material that makes up the mantle of a volcano may be stripped away that its inner anatomy becomes apparent. Using the metaphor of biological anatomy , such a process is called "dissection". Cinder Hill , a feature of Mount Bird on Ross Island , Antarctica , is a prominent example of a dissected volcano. Volcanoes that were, on a geological timescale, recently active, such as for example Mount Kaimon in southern Kyūshū , Japan , tend to be undissected. Eruption styles are broadly divided into magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions. The intensity of explosive volcanism
22331-522: The southeastern flank was covered by glaciers in the Yanaorco, Viques, Cospanja, Buena Vista Este, Buena Vista Oeste and Huasi valleys. Rock bars occur in some glacial valleys on the southern and southwestern side of the volcano. There are large cirques around Cerro Cuncaicha. The LGM ice cap had an area of at least 365 km (141 sq mi), with glaciers descending to 3,780–4,540 m (12,400–14,900 ft) elevation. Glacier ends were lower on
22494-471: The southeastern side. A number of streams and rivers originate on the mountain. Clockwise around Coropuna, these include Quebrada Chauqui-Huayco, Rio Amayani on the northern side, Quebrada Chinchina/Infernillo, Quebrada Jollpa, Quebrada Caspanja with the lake Laguna Caracara, Quebrada Buena Vista, Quebrada Tuallqui, Rio Testane on the southern flank, Rio de Huayllaura on the southwestern flank, Quebrada del Apacheta, Quebrada Sigue Chico and Quebrada Sepulturayoc on
22657-473: The southern agricultural districts. However, on 25 October 1883, a popular uprising overthrew the government of President Montero, who managed to escape to La Paz . Four days later, with support from city authorities, Chilean troops occupied Arequipa until August 1884. Montero's government had a "National Congress" installed on April 22, 1883 in the cloisters of the Colegio Independencia and
22820-423: The southern and 5,750 metres (18,860 ft) on the northern flank. Cryoturbation , gelifluction , patterned grounds , solifluction and other periglacial landforms are noticeable at over 4,500 m (14,800 ft) elevation. Measuring the surface area of Coropuna's ice cap is difficult as seasonal snow can be mistaken for ice, and different studies come to various conclusions about the retreat rate, due to
22983-737: The subduction of the Antarctic Plate also underneath the South American Plate, is responsible for the volcanism in the Andes and the uplift of the mountain chain. In the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera) uplift commenced about 50 million years ago in the Eocene , paused until 25 million years ago in the Oligocene , and increased substantially after about 10 million years ago in
23146-406: The surrounding areas, and initially not seismically monitored before its unanticipated and catastrophic eruption of 1991. Two other examples of volcanoes that were once thought to be extinct, before springing back into eruptive activity were the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat , thought to be extinct until activity resumed in 1995 (turning its capital Plymouth into
23309-434: The theory of plate tectonics. For example, some volcanoes are polygenetic with more than one period of activity during their history; other volcanoes that become extinct after erupting exactly once are monogenetic (meaning "one life") and such volcanoes are often grouped together in a geographical region. At the mid-ocean ridges , two tectonic plates diverge from one another as hot mantle rock creeps upwards beneath
23472-444: The thinned oceanic crust . The decrease of pressure in the rising mantle rock leads to adiabatic expansion and the partial melting of the rock, causing volcanism and creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, and so most volcanic activity on Earth is submarine, forming new seafloor . Black smokers (also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where
23635-550: The three recent lava flows. In postglacial times lava bombs , lapilli and volcanic ash were deposited on previously glaciated terrain. Pumice deposits may have formed during the Holocene. No eruptions of Coropuna during historical or modern times are known, and the volcano was considered to be long-extinct. However, young-looking ʻaʻā lava or block lava flows erupted during the Holocene and in part overlie late-glacial moraines. Their vents are now hidden beneath glacier ice, and
23798-545: The town of Andahua, either from Arequipa or through Aplao from the Pan-American Highway . Roads also pass along the northern and western sides of the volcano. The Andes stretch along the western coast of South America from Tierra del Fuego northwards to Venezuela , forming the longest mountain chain in the world. More regionally, the volcano is in the Cordillera Ampato [ es ] ,
23961-464: The underlying basement almost to the foot of the volcano, forming sharp, amphitheatre-like valleys. In general, many deep valleys cut into the flanks of the volcano and give the mountain an "impressive topographic relief". The region is characterised by high plateaus separated by deep canyons , including some of the world's deepest gorges that reach depths of 600–3,000 m (2,000–9,800 ft). Apart from river erosion, giant landslides have affected
24124-431: The underlying ductile mantle , and most volcanic activity on Earth takes place along plate boundaries, where plates are converging (and lithosphere is being destroyed) or are diverging (and new lithosphere is being created). During the development of geological theory, certain concepts that allowed the grouping of volcanoes in time, place, structure and composition have developed that ultimately have had to be explained in
24287-410: The urban way of life. Evolution of the population of Arequipa in the period between 1796 and 2017 Sources: Population Census 1804 (Gil de Toboada) Viceroyalty of Peru in 1812, Census of inhabitants of Peru (1876), Census of the City of Arequipa in 1917 INEI, INEI 2012 population estimate 74.2% of the Department of Arequipa's GDP is generated by the city of Arequipa, according to studies by
24450-428: The use of different time periods and methodological practices. However, all studies conclude that the net retreat trend is obvious and that the ice cap is diminishing. Retreat rates shortly before 2009 reached 13 per cent in only 21 years. Between 1980 and 2014 the ice cap shrank at a rate of 0.409 km/a (0.158 sq mi/a) with a 2015 estimate amounting to 0.5 km/a (0.19 sq mi/a), and
24613-507: The victory of forces led by Miguel de San Román against the army of Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco in the Battle of Paucarpata on 29 June 1857. Around this time, Arequipa gained prominence as a center of business and trade, focused in agricultural products and the production of wool, sometimes through exploitation of peasants. On 31 August 1882, following the occupation of Lima during the War of
24776-437: The volcanic rocks, deposits of salts , sulfur and travertine produced by hot springs are found on the southern flank. The volcanic rocks define a calc-alkaline potassium -rich suite which resembles that of Chilean and Peruvian volcanoes such as Tutupaca. They contain large amounts of rubidium , strontium and barium . Complicated processes of crystallisation and interaction with Earth's crust appear to have produced
24939-489: The volcano and it led to the destruction of the edifice, which later re-formed on the remains of the old volcano. The occurrence of explosive eruptions during a mostly effusive activity has been found at Chachani and Sara Sara as well. In addition, the Upper Sencca Ignimbrite, the Lower Sencca Ignimbrite and the Chuquibamba (Huaylillas) Ignimbrite may have originated here as well; the latter was produced by
25102-556: The volcano. Glacial advances on Coropuna appear to be synchronous to advances of the ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere . Glaciers developed on other mountains in the region as well. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 25,000–20,000 years ago, valley glaciers on Coropuna were considerably longer than today. The longest glacier, at 12 km (7.5 mi), was in the Quebrada Ullulo. The glaciers had
25265-492: The volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter ( sand-sized or smaller) are called volcanic ash. Tephra and other volcaniclastics (shattered volcanic material) make up more of the volume of many volcanoes than do lava flows. Volcaniclastics may have contributed as much as a third of all sedimentation in the geologic record. The production of large volumes of tephra is characteristic of explosive volcanism. Through natural processes, mainly erosion , so much of
25428-424: The volcanoes of the East African Rift . A volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma (e.g. a magma chamber), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava. The erupted volcanic material (lava and tephra) that is deposited around the vent is known as a volcanic edifice , typically a volcanic cone or mountain. The most common perception of
25591-690: The western flank. The Rio Blanco and Rio Amayani eventually form the Rio Arma , while the Rio Capiza discharges water from Coropuna to the Colca River. During the winter dry season , most of these rivers do not carry substantial discharge. The volcano is situated on a drainage divide . To the west, the Rio Arma is a tributary of the Ocoña River , while to the east, the Colca River is part of
25754-561: Was believed that the volcano was over 7,000 m (23,000 ft) high and thus the highest mountain in South America, ahead of Aconcagua , although a North American expedition during the preceding year had determined that Coropuna was not the highest, as they only found an elevation of 6,615 m (21,703 ft), and Huascaran is higher than this. Varying snow elevations might also lead to varying height estimates. Coropuna has several summits (up to ten overall according to one count) which exceed 6,000 m (20,000 ft) elevation, plus
25917-421: Was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its unexpected eruption of 79 CE , which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii . Accordingly, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between an extinct volcano and a dormant (inactive) one. Long volcano dormancy is known to decrease awareness. Pinatubo was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in
26080-413: Was opened. Politically, Arequipa was no stranger to the tumults of the century. On August 22, 1930, Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro assumed control, forcing the departure of President Augusto B. Leguía . In a similar twist, on October 27, 1948, General Manuel A. Odría established a junta government after deposing President José Luis Bustamante y Rivero. But beyond the military movements, Arequipa also shone as
26243-759: Was proclaimed, the area of the Intendancy of Arequipa was established as a department by a decree of May 26, 1822. During the Congress of 1826 and the Constituent Assembly of 1827, Javier de Luna Pizarro, from Arequipa and Loreto, assumed the presidency. Under Simón Bolívar , Arequipa established itself as a staunch opponent of the dictatorial tendencies of the Liberator after his triumph at Ayacucho . Prominent Arequipeños such as Domingo Tristán, Benito Lazo and Gualberto Valdivia openly spoke out against
26406-541: Was rebuilt in 1590 and in 1609, Pope Paul V created the Arequpa Diocese. The cathedral was complete in 1950. One aspect that distinguished Arequipa from other localities in Peru, and Lima , in particular, was the explicit public adherence of the city's ruling classes to the Spanish Crown during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the eighteenth century, with the occurrence of the different indigenous and mestizo movements and rebellions, Arequipa maintained
26569-518: Was shortened to Villa Hermosa de Arequipa. Charles V of Germany and I of Spain gave the town a status of 'city' by Royal Decree on 22 September 1541. The relocation efforts were led by Garcí Manuel de Carbajal , who was selected as the political authority for the foundation of the new town. Among the first public works carried out in the city are the Main Church, the City Hall, the bridge on
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