66-802: Central African Airways ( CAA ) was a supranational airline corporation serving as flag carrier for Southern Rhodesia , Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland (respectively the present day countries of Zimbabwe , Zambia and Malawi ), which were organised as the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , also known as the Central African Federation, from 1953 to 1963. Based in Salisbury , it offered an extensive network of domestic passenger and cargo flights, as well as international services to major cities in Southern and Central Africa, and
132-436: A meta-analysis of 18 African countries found that a third of them experienced increased economic growth post-independence. Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa's linguistic diversity has been eroded. Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities, which have led to conflicts and tensions between African nations. In
198-410: A national airline or a national carrier , although this can have different legal meanings in some countries. Today, it is any international airline with a strong connection to its home country or that represents its home country internationally, regardless of whether it is government-owned. Flag carriers may also be known as such due to laws requiring aircraft or ships to display the state flag of
264-572: A century. Ferhat Abbas and Messali Hadj 's movements marked the period between the two wars, but both sides radicalised after the Second World War. In 1945, the Sétif massacre was carried out by the French army. The Algerian War started in 1954. Atrocities characterized both sides , and the number killed became highly controversial estimates that were made for propaganda purposes. Algeria
330-486: A deeper political awareness and the expectation of greater respect and self-determination, which went largely unfulfilled. Because the victorious allied powers had no intention of withdrawing from their colonial holdings at the end of the war, and would instead need to rely on the resources and manpower of their African colonies during postwar reconstruction in Europe, the colonial powers downplayed Africans' contributions to
396-625: A result of their fight for independence. Historian James Meriweather argues that American policy towards Africa was characterized by a middle road approach, which supported African independence but also reassured European colonial powers that their holdings would remain intact. Washington wanted the right type of African groups to lead newly independent states, in other words communist and not especially democratic. Meriweather argues that nongovernmental organizations influenced American policy towards Africa. They pressured state governments and private institutions to disinvest from African nations not ruled by
462-546: A result, the financial situation worsened and A. E. P. Robinson became new chairman in 1957. No further growth of the route network occurred over the following years. With the Douglas C-47 Dakota , another aircraft type was introduced, which allowed for both passenger and cargo flights. During the 1960s, Central African Airways ordered two BAC One-Eleven -207 aircraft, but delivery was blocked by United Nations sanctions following UDI and one Douglas DC-6 which
528-885: A route to London. In 1960, CAA owned 15 aircraft and had 1,155 employees. Prior to the Second World War , commercial flights in Southern Rhodesia were offered by Southern Rhodesia Air Services (SRAS), whilst Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland had a joined airline company called Rhodesia and Nyasaland Airways (RANA). In 1946, it was decided to consolidate the airline operations of the three territories into one corporation, thus creating Central African Airways. Air Vice-Marshal Sir Charles Warburton Meredith served as founding chairman, overseeing an initial fleet of fifteen de Havilland Dragon Rapide , five Avro Anson , one de Havilland Tiger Moth and one de Havilland Leopard Moth , all of which had previously been operated by
594-429: Is a transport company, such as an airline or shipping company, that, being locally registered in a given sovereign state , enjoys preferential rights or privileges accorded by the government for international operations. Historically, the term was used to refer to airlines owned by the government of their home country and associated with the national identity of that country. Such an airline may also be known as
660-912: Is now known as the Cape Coast Castle . The Colony of Liberia, later the Commonwealth of Liberia, was a private colony of the American Colonization Society (ACS) beginning in 1822. It became an independent nation—the Republic of Liberia —after declaring independence in 1847. Colonialism in the colonial era, mostly refers to Western European countries' colonisation of lands in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The main European countries active in this form of colonization included Spain , Portugal , France ,
726-613: The Françafrique had replaced formal direct rule. They argued that while de Gaulle was granting independence, on one hand, he was creating new ties with the help of Jacques Foccart , his counsellor for African matters. Foccart supported in particular the Nigerian Civil War during the late 1960s. Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire practically had come to an end, as
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#1732780127554792-728: The Atlantic Charter , which in part stipulated that they would, "respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them." This agreement became the post-WWII stepping stone toward independence as nationalism grew throughout Africa. Consumed by post-war debt, European powers could no longer afford to maintain control of their African colonies. This allowed African nationalists to negotiate decolonisation very quickly and with minimal casualties. Some territories, however, saw large death tolls as
858-458: The Bermuda I and Bermuda II agreements specify rights awardable only to locally registered airlines, forcing some governments to jump-start airlines to avoid being disadvantaged in the face of foreign competition. Some countries also establish flag carriers such as Israel 's El Al or Lebanon 's Middle East Airlines for nationalist reasons or to aid the country's economy, particularly in
924-562: The European Union with the signing of the Open Skies agreement. One of the features of such agreements is the right of a country to designate multiple airlines to serve international routes with the result that there is no single "flag carrier". The chart below lists airlines considered to be a "flag carrier", based on current or former state ownership or other verifiable designation as a national airline. Minority (20.05%) in
990-631: The French Community . Only Guinea refused by referendum to take part in the new colonial organisation. However, the French Community dissolved itself amid the Algerian War; almost all of the other African colonies were granted independence in 1960, following local referendums. Some colonies chose instead to remain part of France, under the status of overseas départements (territories) . Critics of neocolonialism claimed that
1056-718: The Gold Coast (present Ghana ) from 22 April 1650 to 20 April 1663, when Fort Carlsborg and the capital Fort Christiansborg were seized by Denmark. In 1652, the Swedes took Cape Coast (in modern Ghana) which had previously been under the control of the Dutch and before that the Portuguese . Cape Coast was centered on the Carolusburg Castle which was built in 1653 and named after King Charles X Gustav of Sweden but
1122-587: The Lufthansa Group acquired in 2020 was sold in 2022. Decolonization of Africa The decolonisation of Africa was a series of political developments in Africa that spanned from the mid-1950s to 1975, during the Cold War . Colonial governments gave way to sovereign states in a process often marred by violence, political turmoil, widespread unrest, and organised revolts . Major events in
1188-539: The National Liberation Front was able to negotiate a peace accord with French President Charles de Gaulle, the Évian Accords in which Europeans would be able to return to their native countries, remain in Algeria as foreigners or take Algerian citizenship. Most of the one million Europeans in Algeria poured out of the country. The French Union was replaced in the new Constitution of 1958 by
1254-634: The Tsardom of Russia (later Russian Empire and Soviet Union ), the Kingdom of England (later Great Britain ), the Netherlands , Belgium and the Kingdom of Prussia (now mostly Germany), and, beginning in the 18th century, the United States . Most of these countries had a period of almost complete dominance of world trade at some stage in the period from roughly 1500 to 1900. Beginning in
1320-543: The Vickers Viscount was introduced with CAA on 25 April 1956. With a seating capacity of 52, this was a significantly higher capacity than the 24 passengers of a Viking. In the same year, Salisbury Airport was opened, and CAA moved its hub and headquarters to the new facilities. The new airport attracted foreign airlines (most notably South African Airways ), so that for the first time, Central African Airways experienced competitors on its international routes. As
1386-545: The colonial police on a protest march. Riots broke out in Accra and though Nkrumah and other Ghanaian leaders were temporarily imprisoned, the event became a catalyst for the independence movement. After being released from prison, Nkrumah founded the Convention People's Party (CPP), which launched a wide-scale campaign in support of independence with the slogan "Self Government Now!" Heightened nationalism within
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#17327801275541452-543: The "Colonial Coach Service", linking Salisbury , Ndola and Lusaka with London. The Doves were intended to be used for so called bush flights to poorly prepared landing strips, but proved unsuitable for the prevailing hot and high conditions. Therefore, from 1951 onwards, they were replaced by de Havilland Beavers , which had the desired STOL capabilities. Under the leadership of Sir Ellis Robins (later created, in 1958, The 1st Baron Robins ), who had taken over as chairman in 1947, another modernisation took place when
1518-512: The 1945 Pan-African Congress , the Gold Coast's (modern-day Ghana's) independence leader Kwame Nkrumah made his focus clear. In the conference's declaration, he wrote, "We believe in the rights of all peoples to govern themselves. We affirm the right of all colonial peoples to control their own destiny. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist control, whether political or economic." In 1948, three Ghanaian veterans were killed by
1584-535: The Belgian Congo. The colony was founded in 1908 following the transfer of sovereignty from the Congo Free State , which was the personal property of Belgium's king, Leopold II . The violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country. Belgian rule in
1650-502: The Congo was based on the "colonial trinity" ( trinité coloniale ) of state, missionary and private company interests. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced extensive urbanization and the administration aimed to make it into a "model colony". As the result of a widespread and increasingly radical pro-independence movement, the Congo achieved independence, as the Republic of Congo-Léopoldville in 1960. Of Belgium's other colonies,
1716-530: The Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples stated that colonial exploitation is a denial of human rights, and that power should be transferred back to the countries or territories concerned. Colonial economic exploitation involved diverting resource extraction (such as mining) profits to European shareholders at the expense of internal development, causing significant local socioeconomic grievances. For early African nationalists, decolonisation
1782-720: The Soviet Union's proletarian internationalism . Many Africans fought in both World War and World War II. In the First World War, African labor was essential on the Western Front, and African soldiers fought in the Egypt and Palestine campaigns. Many Africans were not allowed to bear arms or serve on an equal basis with whites. The sinking of the SS Mendi in 1917 was a particularly tragic incident for Africans in
1848-556: The United States' sphere of influence, and Ethiopia , which won its independence at the Battle of Adwa but was later occupied by Italy in 1936. Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany , Spain , Italy , Belgium , and Portugal also had colonies. By 1977, 50 African countries had gained independence from European colonial powers. The early twentieth century was a time of rising nationalism throughout
1914-681: The Vichy France regime controlled the Empire. One after another, most of the colonies were occupied by foreign powers (Japan in Indochina, Britain in Syria , Lebanon, and Madagascar , the United States and Britain in Morocco and Algeria , and Germany and Italy in Tunisia ). Control was gradually reestablished by Charles de Gaulle , who used the colonial bases as a launching point to help expel
1980-604: The Vichy government from Metropolitan France. De Gaulle, together with most Frenchmen, was committed to preserving the Empire in its new form. The French Union , included in the Constitution of 1946 , nominally replaced the former colonial empire, but officials in Paris remained in full control. The colonies were given local assemblies with only limited local power and budgets. A group of elites, known as evolués, who were natives of
2046-553: The allied victory. On February 12, 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss the post-war world. The result was the Atlantic Charter . It was not a treaty and was not submitted to the British Parliament or the Senate of the United States for ratification, but it turned out to be a widely acclaimed document. Clause Three referred to
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2112-420: The apportionment of aviation rights to local or international markets. Near the end of the 20th century, many of these airlines have been corporatized as a public company or a state-owned enterprise , while others have been completely privatized . The aviation industry has also been gradually deregulated and liberalized, permitting greater freedoms of the air particularly in the United States and in
2178-449: The area of tourism. In many cases, governments would directly assist in the growth of their flag carriers typically through subsidies and other fiscal incentives. The establishment of competitors in the form of other locally registered airlines may be prohibited or heavily regulated to avoid direct competition. Even where privately run airlines may be allowed to be established, the flag carriers may still be accorded priority, especially in
2244-598: The colonial era, principally the Belgian Congo (modern DRC ) from 1908 to 1960 and Ruanda-Urundi (modern Rwanda and Burundi ) from 1922 to 1962. It also had a small concession in China (1902–1931) and was a co-administrator of the Tangier International Zone in Morocco . Roughly 98% of Belgium's overseas territory was just one colony (about 76 times larger than Belgium itself) – known as
2310-585: The country grew their power and the political party widely expanded. In February 1951, the CPP gained political power by winning 34 of 38 elected seats, including one for Nkrumah who was imprisoned at the time. The British government revised the Gold Coast Constitution to give Ghanaians a majority in the legislature in 1951. In 1956, Ghana requested independence inside the Commonwealth , which
2376-520: The country of their registry . For example, under the law of the United States, a U.S. flag air carrier is any airline that holds a certificate under Section 401 of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (i.e., any U.S.-based airline operating internationally), and any ship registered in the United States is known as a U.S. flag vessel . The term "flag carrier" is a legacy of the early days of commercial aviation when governments often took
2442-910: The decolonisation of Africa included the Mau Mau rebellion , the Algerian War , the Congo Crisis , the Angolan War of Independence , the Zanzibar Revolution , and the events leading to the Nigerian Civil War . The " Scramble for Africa " between 1870 and 1914 was a significant period of European imperialism in Africa that ended with almost all of Africa, and its natural resources, claimed as colonies by European powers, who raced to secure as much land as possible while avoiding conflict amongst themselves. The partition of Africa
2508-435: The defeated Central Powers . The independence demands of Egyptian and Tunisian leaders, which would have compromised the interests of the victorious Allies, were not entertained. Though Wilsonian ideals did not endure as the interwar order broke down, the principle of an international order based on the self-determination of peoples remained relevant. After 1919, anti-colonial leaders increasingly oriented themselves toward
2574-592: The end of World War II, recognised all people as being born free and equal. After World War II , the US and the African colonies put pressure on Britain to abide by the terms of the Atlantic Charter. After the war, some Britons considered African colonies childish and immature. British colonisers introduced democratic government at local levels in the colonies. Britain was forced to agree but Churchill rejected
2640-473: The end of colonialism, and delegates included future presidents of Ghana , Kenya and Malawi among other nationalist activists. Following World War II, rapid decolonisation swept across the continent of Africa as many territories gained their independence from European colonisation. In August 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss their post-war goals. In that meeting, they agreed to
2706-748: The establishment of elected territorial assemblies, representation in Paris in a new "French Federation", and the eventual representation of Sub-Saharan Africans in the French Assembly. However, Independence was explicitly rejected as a future possibility: After the war ended, France was immediately confronted with the beginnings of the decolonisation movement. In Algeria demonstrations in May 1945 were repressed with an estimated 20,000-45,000 Algerians killed. Unrest in Haiphong, Indochina, in November 1945
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2772-419: The exclusion of any indigenous languages from administrative (and often, any public) use. An extensive body of literature has examined the legacy of colonialism and colonial institutions on economic outcomes in Africa, with numerous studies showing disputed economic effects . Modernisation theory posits that colonial powers built infrastructure to integrate Africa into the world economy ; however, this
2838-491: The following destinations. Please note: This list follows the then valid naming of countries, cities and airports. Central African Airways (CAA) was a member of the Quadripartite agreements with South African Airways (SAA), East African Airways (EAA) and British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), thus allowing its passengers to be booked on any of the four airlines. Flag carrier A flag carrier
2904-458: The late 19th century, Imperial Japan also engaged in settler colonization, most notably in Hokkaido and Korea . While some European colonisation focused on shorter-term exploitation of economic opportunities ( Newfoundland , for example, or Siberia ) or addressed specific goals such as settlers seeking religious freedom ( Massachusetts ), at other times long-term social and economic planning
2970-642: The lead by establishing state-owned airlines because of the high capital costs of running them. However, not all such airlines were government-owned; Pan Am , TWA , Cathay Pacific , Union de Transports Aériens , Canadian Pacific Air Lines and Olympic Airlines were all privately owned, but were considered to be flag carriers as they were the "main national airline" and often a sign of their country's presence abroad. The heavily regulated aviation industry also meant aviation rights are often negotiated between governments, denying airlines access to an open market. These Bilateral Air Transport Agreements similar to
3036-516: The majority population. These efforts also helped change American policy towards South Africa, as seen with the passage of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986. Occupied by Italy briefly [REDACTED] Togoland South African Border War On 6 March 1957, Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast ) became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence from European colonisation. Starting with
3102-470: The most significant was Ruanda-Urundi , a portion of German East Africa , which was given to Belgium as a League of Nations Mandate , when Germany lost all of its colonies at the end of World War I . Following the Rwandan Revolution , the mandate became the independent states of Burundi and Rwanda in 1962. The French colonial empire began to fall during the Second World War when
3168-543: The overseas territories but lived in metropolitan France emerged. De Gaulle assembled a major conference of Free France colonies in Brazzaville, in central Africa, in January–February 1944. The survival of France depended on support from these colonies, and De Gaulle made numerous concessions. These included the end of forced labour, the end of special legal restrictions that applied to natives but not to whites,
3234-677: The remaining colonies were quite small and lacked active nationalist movements. However, there was trouble in French Somaliland ( Djibouti ), which became independent in 1977. There also were complications and delays in the New Hebrides Vanuatu , which was the last to gain independence in 1980. New Caledonia remains a special case under French suzerainty. The Indian Ocean island of Mayotte voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and forgo independence. Sweden temporarily controlled several settlements on
3300-485: The respective air forces. Originally, the airline was headquartered at Belvedere Airport (serving Salisbury, now demolished). Between 1948 and 1949, two Bristol Freighters joined the fleet. To get larger and more modern aircraft, CAA purchased three Vickers VC.1 Viking and five de Havilland Dove , the first of which were delivered in 1947. The Vikings formed the backbone for mainline passenger flights until their withdrawal from service in 1958, most notably (since 1953)
3366-656: The right to decide what form of government people wanted, and to the restoration of self-government. Prime Minister Churchill argued in the British Parliament that the document referred to "the States and nations of Europe now under the Nazi yoke". President Roosevelt regarded it as applicable across the world. Anticolonial politicians immediately saw it as relevant to colonial empires. The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, three years after
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#17327801275543432-533: The route network in the respective countries. In 1965, Air Rhodesia was founded as a third CAA subsidiary. Thenceforth, only the prestigious international flights from Salisbury to London and Johannesburg were operated under the Central African Airways brand. In 1967, Zambia Airways, Air Malawi and Air Rhodesia decided to become independent of each other, and CAA was disestablished. During the 1950s and early 1960s, CAA offered scheduled flights to
3498-410: The rule of King Leopold II of Belgium in the 19th century and Siddharth Kara has described colonial rule and European and Chinese influence in the 20th and 21st centuries. Colonisation may be used as a method of absorbing and assimilating foreign people into the culture of the imperial country. One instrument to this end is linguistic imperialism , or the use of non-indigenous colonial languages to
3564-546: The southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau Uprising . In Rhodesia , the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, which set the terms for recognised independence in 1980, as the new nation of Zimbabwe . Belgium controlled several territories and concessions during
3630-581: The struggles for African nationalism . During the Second World War, some local African industries and towns expanded when U-boats patrolling the Atlantic Ocean impeded the shipping of raw materials to Europe. Over time, urban communities, industries, and trade unions grew, improving literacy and education, and leading to the establishment of pro-independence newspapers. By 1945, the Fifth Pan-African Congress demanded
3696-437: The universal applicability of self-determination for subject nations. Italy, a colonial power, lost its African empire, Italian East Africa , Italian Ethiopia , Italian Eritrea , Italian Somalia and Italian Libya , as a result of World War II. Furthermore, colonies such as Nigeria , Senegal and Ghana pushed for self-governance as colonial powers were exhausted by war efforts. The United Nations 1960 Declaration on
3762-483: The war, with 607 of the 646 crew killed being Black South Africans . In the Second World War, Africans fought in both the European and Asian theatres of war. Approximately one million sub-Saharan Africans served in European armies in some capacity. Many Africans were compelled or even forced into military service by their respective colonial regimes, but some voluntarily enlisted in search of better opportunities than they could find in civilian employment. This led to
3828-403: The world. The end of the First World War saw the breakup of the German , Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires according to the principles espoused in Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points . Though many anti-colonial intellectuals saw the potential of Wilsonian Internationalism to advance their aims, Wilson had no intention of applying the principle of self-determination outside the lands of
3894-703: Was a moral imperative around which a political movement could be assembled. In the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently, a small elite of local African leaders educated in Western universities, where they became familiar with ideas such as self-determination . Although independence was not encouraged, arrangements between these leaders and the colonial powers developed, and such figures as Jomo Kenyatta ( Kenya ), Kwame Nkrumah ( Gold Coast , now Ghana ), Julius Nyerere ( Tanganyika , now Tanzania ), Léopold Sédar Senghor ( Senegal ), Nnamdi Azikiwe ( Nigeria ), Patrice Lumumba ( DRC ) and Félix Houphouët-Boigny ( Côte d'Ivoire ) came to lead
3960-456: Was a three-way conflict due to the large number of " pieds-noirs " (Europeans who had settled there in the 125 years of French rule ). The political crisis in France caused the collapse of the Fourth Republic, as Charles de Gaulle returned to power in 1958 and finally pulled the French soldiers and settlers out of Algeria by 1962. Lasting more than eight years, the estimated death toll typically falls between 300,000 and 400,000 people. By 1962,
4026-479: Was built mainly for extraction purposes. African economies were structured to benefit the coloniser and any surplus was likely to be 'drained', thereby stifling local capital accumulation . Dependency theory suggests that most African economies continued to occupy a subordinate position in the world economy after independence with a reliance on primary commodities such as copper in Zambia and tea in Kenya . Despite this continued reliance and unfair trading terms,
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#17327801275544092-421: Was confirmed at the Berlin Conference of 1885, without regard for the existing political and social structures. Almost all the pre-colonial states of Africa lost their sovereignty. The only exceptions were Liberia , which had been settled in the early 19th century by formerly enslaved African-Americans and was recognized as independent by the United States in 1862 but was viewed by European powers as being in
4158-611: Was granted peacefully in 1957 with Nkrumah as prime minister and Queen Elizabeth II as sovereign. Prime Minister Harold Macmillan gave the famous "Wind of Change" speech in South Africa in February 1960, where he spoke to the country's Parliament of "the wind of change blowing through this continent." Macmillan urgently wanted to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria. Under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly. Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for Southern Rhodesia , were all granted independence by 1968. British withdrawal from
4224-413: Was involved for both parties, but more on the colonizing countries themselves, based on elaborate theory-building (note James Oglethorpe 's Colony of Georgia in the 1730s and Edward Gibbon Wakefield 's New Zealand Company in the 1840s). In some cases European colonization appeared to be primarily for long-term economic gain, as in the Congo where Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness described life under
4290-458: Was leased from Alitalia between 1962 and 1965. In the wake of the Decolonization of Africa and the African independence movements , the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved on 31 December 1963. In 1964, the independent states of Zambia and Malawi were proclaimed in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. To recognise this move, Zambia Airways and Air Malawi were founded as wholly owned subsidiaries of Central African Airways, taking over
4356-507: Was met by a warship bombarding the city. Paul Ramadier 's ( SFIO ) cabinet repressed the Malagasy Uprising in Madagascar in 1947. French officials estimated the number of Malagasy killed from as low as 11,000 to a French Army estimate of 89,000. In Cameroun , the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon 's insurrection which began in 1955 headed by Ruben Um Nyobé , was violently repressed over two years, with perhaps as many as 100,000 people killed. French involvement in Algeria stretched back
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