122-647: The Cuban Junta was a group of Cuban nationalists that advocated for Cuban independence before and during the Spanish-American War (April 21 – August 13, 1898). The Junta was primarily made up of naturalized Cubans located in the United States. The main goal of the Junta was to free Cuba from the Spanish Empire by securing financial and military aid from the United States. The Junta used
244-483: A "crusade" and a combination of "knight-errantry and national self- assertiveness." Osgood argued: In his War and Empire , Prof. Paul Atwood of the University of Massachusetts (Boston) writes: The Spanish–American War was fomented on outright lies and trumped up accusations against the intended enemy. ... War fever in the general population never reached a critical temperature until the accidental sinking of
366-790: A Spanish political system that was not stable and could not risk a blow to its prestige. The eruption of the Cuban revolt, Weyler's measures, and the popular fury these events whipped up proved to be a boon to the newspaper industry in New York City. Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential for great headlines and stories that would sell copies. Both papers denounced Spain but had little influence outside New York. American opinion generally saw Spain as
488-449: A committee of German merchants and landowners created a troop to defend their possessions in 1870. A neutral force initially, as ordered by Otto von Bismarck in a telegram to consul Luis Will, they were considered to favor the government. Ignacio Agramonte was killed by a stray bullet on 11 May 1873, and was replaced in the command of the central troops by Máximo Gómez. Because of political and personal disagreements and Agramonte's death,
610-730: A double attack against the Spanish. When the Spaniards (following then-standard tactics) formed a square, they were vulnerable to rifle fire from infantry under cover, and pistol and carbine fire from charging cavalry. In the event, as with the Haitian Revolution , the European forces suffered the most fatalities due to yellow fever because the Spanish-born troops had no acquired immunity to this endemic tropical disease of
732-495: A few years earlier to face the announced invasion by John A. Quitman in collaboration with Ramón Pintó. By early-1869 more than 70,000 men, both peninsulares and creoles had joined the Volunteers. In the big cities, the Volunteers were used to keep public order in the cities, earning some notoriety for their lack of discipline and harsh acts of repression against independence supporters. Its forces executed eight students from
854-492: A hopelessly backward power that was unable to deal fairly with Cuba. American Catholics were divided before the war began but supported it enthusiastically once it started. The U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening uncertainty about Cuba's future. Shipping firms that had relied heavily on trade with Cuba now suffered losses as the conflict continued unresolved. These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to
976-653: A leading Latin American intellectual and Cuba's foremost national hero, its primary architect of the 1895–98 Cuban War of Independence . After some initial victories and defeats, in 1868 Céspedes replaced Gomez as head of the Cuban Army with United States General Thomas Jordan , a veteran of Confederate States Army in the American Civil War. He brought a well-equipped force, but General Jordan's reliance on regular tactics, although initially effective, left
1098-501: A massive scale as the mechanisms to express it were restricted. This discontent was particularly felt by the powerful planters and hacienda owners in Eastern Cuba. The failure of the latest efforts by the reformist movements, the demise of the "Information Board," and another economic crisis in 1866/67 heightened social tensions on the island. The colonial administration continued to make huge profits which were not re-invested in
1220-448: A policy of brotherhood, tolerance, and justice, and to consider all men equal, and to not exclude anyone from these benefits, not even Spaniards, if they choose to remain and live peacefully among us. Our aim is that the people participate in the creation of laws, and in the distribution and investment of the contributions. Our aim is to abolish slavery and to compensate those deserving compensation. We seek freedom of assembly, freedom of
1342-518: A request to the U.S. State Department to send a U.S. warship to Cuba. This request led to the armored cruiser USS Maine being sent to Cuba. While Maine was docked in Havana harbor, a spontaneous explosion sank the ship. The sinking of Maine was blamed on the Spanish and made the possibility of a negotiated peace very slim. Throughout the negotiation process, the major European powers, especially Britain, France, and Russia, generally supported
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#17327826485161464-412: A result of the explosion. Of the 94 survivors only 16 were uninjured. In total, 260 servicemen were killed in the initial explosion, six more died shortly thereafter from injuries, marking the greatest loss of life for the American military in a single day since the defeat at Little Bighorn twenty-one years prior. While McKinley urged patience and did not declare that Spain had caused the explosion,
1586-451: A revolt against Spanish rule, which was brutally suppressed by the colonial authorities. Yellow journalism in the U.S. exaggerated the atrocities in Cuba to sell more newspapers and magazines, which swayed American public opinion in support of the rebels. President Grover Cleveland resisted mounting demands for U.S. intervention, as did his successor William McKinley . Though not seeking
1708-447: A strong abolitionist movement on the island, and rising costs among the slave-holding planters in the east. New technologies and farming techniques made large numbers of slaves unnecessary and prohibitively expensive. In the economic crisis of 1857 many businesses failed, including many sugar plantations and sugar refineries. The abolitionist cause gained strength, favoring a gradual emancipation of slaves with financial compensation from
1830-538: A three-pronged invasion of the island. The plan called for one group from Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic led by Máximo Gómez , one group from Costa Rica led by Antonio Maceo Grajales , and another from the United States (preemptively thwarted by U.S. officials in Florida) to land in different places on the island and provoke an uprising. While their call for revolution, the grito de Baire ,
1952-446: A training ground for its army. Spanish Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo announced that "the Spanish nation is disposed to sacrifice to the last peseta of its treasure and to the last drop of blood of the last Spaniard before consenting that anyone snatch from it even one piece of its territory". He had long dominated and stabilized Spanish politics. He was assassinated in 1897 by Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo , leaving
2074-427: A united European stand against the United States but took no action. The U.S. Navy's investigation, made public on March 28, concluded that the ship's powder magazines were ignited when an external explosion was set off under the ship's hull. This report poured fuel on popular indignation in the U.S., making war virtually inevitable. Spain's investigation came to the opposite conclusion: the explosion originated within
2196-487: A war, McKinley made preparations in readiness for one. In January 1898, the U.S. Navy armored cruiser USS Maine was sent to Havana to provide protection for U.S. citizens. After the Maine was sunk by a mysterious explosion in the harbor on February 15, 1898, political pressures pushed McKinley to receive congressional authority to use military force. On April 21, the U.S. began a blockade of Cuba, and soon after Spain and
2318-638: A war. On April 19, while Congress was considering joint resolutions supporting Cuban independence, Republican Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado proposed the Teller Amendment to ensure that the U.S. would not establish permanent control over Cuba after the war. The amendment, disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, passed the Senate 42 to 35; the House concurred the same day, 311 to 6. The amended resolution demanded Spanish withdrawal and authorized
2440-508: The Battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill on July 1 and the destroying the fleet at and capturing Santiago de Cuba on July 17. On June 20, the island of Guam surrendered without resistance, and on July 25, U.S. troops landed on Puerto Rico , which a blockade had begun on May 8 and where fighting continued until an armistice was signed on August 13. The war ended with the 1898 Treaty of Paris , signed on December 10 with terms favorable to
2562-519: The Great War ( Guerra Grande ) and the War of '68 , was part of Cuba 's fight for independence from Spain . The uprising was led by Cuban-born planters and other wealthy natives. On 10 October 1868, sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and his followers proclaimed independence, beginning the conflict. This was the first of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being
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#17327826485162684-518: The Las Clavellinas Uprising and, in early February 1869, Las Villas followed. The uprising was not supported in the westernmost provinces of Pinar del Río , Havana and Matanzas . With few exceptions (Vuelta Abajo), resistance was clandestine. A staunch supporter of the rebellion was José Martí who, at the age of 16, was detained and condemned to 16 years of hard labour. He was later deported to Spain. Eventually he developed as
2806-686: The Little War (1879–1880) and the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898). The final three months of the last conflict escalated with United States involvement, leading to the Spanish–American War . Cuban bourgeoisie demanded fundamental social and economic reforms from the Crown. Lax enforcement of the slave trade ban had resulted in a dramatic increase in imports of Africans, estimated at 90,000 slaves from 1856 to 1860. This occurred despite
2928-544: The USS Maine was deliberately, and falsely, attributed to Spanish villainy. ... In a cryptic message ... Senator Lodge wrote that 'There may be an explosion any day in Cuba which would settle a great many things. We have got a battleship in the harbor of Havana, and our fleet, which overmatches anything the Spanish have, is masked at the Dry Tortugas. In his autobiography, Theodore Roosevelt gave his views of
3050-508: The University of Havana on 27 November 1871. The corps seized the steamship Virginius in international waters on 31 October 1873. Starting on 4 November, its forces executed 53 persons, including the captain, most of the crew, and a number of Cuban insurgents on board. The serial executions were stopped only by the intervention of a British man-of-war under the command of Sir Lambton Lorraine . Apart from their controversial role in
3172-569: The "Cuba Libre" movement, led by Cuban intellectual José Martí until he died in 1895, had established offices in Florida. The face of the Cuban revolution in the U.S. was the " Cuban Junta ", under the leadership of Tomás Estrada Palma , who in 1902 became Cuba's first president. The Junta dealt with leading newspapers and Washington officials and held fund-raising events across the U.S. It funded and smuggled weapons. It mounted an extensive propaganda campaign that generated enormous popular support in
3294-657: The 1840s, inspired by the independence movement. Many people saw the potential advantages of annexation , however, they were concerned about slavery and the United States' slavery laws. The first of the Juntas was founded in New York in 1848 and lasted until 1855. It was started by Cuban leaders Don Gaspar Betancourt Cisneros , Don Manuel De Jesus Arango, Don Domingo de Goicouria , Don Jose Elias Hernandez, and Don Porfirio Valiente with financial support from Havana , their main goal to encourage United States politicians to purchase
3416-603: The 333 years of Spanish rule, the Philippines developed from a small overseas colony governed from the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain to a land with modern elements in the cities. The Spanish-speaking middle classes of the 19th century were mostly educated in the liberal ideas coming from Europe. Among these Ilustrados was the Filipino national hero José Rizal , who demanded larger reforms from
3538-402: The American position and urged Spain to give in. Spain repeatedly promised specific reforms that would pacify Cuba but failed to deliver; American patience ran out. McKinley sent USS Maine to Havana to ensure the safety of American citizens and interests, and to underscore the urgent need for reform. Naval forces were moved in position to attack simultaneously on several fronts if the war
3660-652: The American press as a device to distribute propaganda on Spanish rule in Cuba, fostering support among American citizens. The deciding factor that sent the United States into the Spanish-American War was the publication of the De Lôme Letter by the revolutionaries of the Cuban Junta. The letter was written by the Spanish ambassador to the United States, Enrique Dupuy de Lôme , and was very critical of President William McKinley The publication of
3782-527: The Americas, Asia, and the Pacific; the United States meanwhile not only became a major world power, but also gained several island possessions spanning the globe, which provoked rancorous debate over the wisdom of expansionism . The 19th century represented a clear decline for the Spanish Empire , while the United States went from a newly founded country to a rising power. In 1895, Cuban nationalists began
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3904-737: The Assembly deposed Céspedes as president, replacing him with Cisneros. Agramonte had realized that his dream Constitution and government were ill-suited to the Cuban Republic in Arms, which was the reason he quit as secretary and assumed command of the Camaguey region. He became a supporter of Cespedes. Céspedes was later surprised and killed on 27 February 1874, by a swift-moving patrol of Spanish troops. The new Cuban government had left him with only one escort and denied permission to leave Cuba for
4026-635: The French invasion of that country), as Chief of the Armed Forces. By early 1869, the Spanish authorities had failed to reach an agreement with the insurrection forces. Harsher measures to repress the insurrection and its supporters were taken, and troops began to flood in from the Peninsula. Apart from the regular army, the government relied on the Voluntary Corps, a militia created in 1855
4148-616: The Government for slaveholders. Additionally, some planters preferred hiring Chinese immigrants as indentured workers and in anticipation of ending slavery. Before the 1870s, more than 125,000 were sent to Cuba. In May 1865, Cuban creole elites placed four demands upon the Spanish Parliament: tariff reform, political representation in Parliament, judicial equality for all Spaniards (including Cubans), and full enforcement of
4270-534: The Junta still fought for what they thought was going to be best for Cuba. Despite their efforts to spread awareness by the end of the Ten Years War annexation once again seemed improbable. The third Cuban Junta was led by Tomás Estrada Palma , elected president of the Cuban Junta in 1895. The success that finally came from the third Junta was largely due to those who came before in the first and second Juntas. José Martí and Tomás were key leaders that founded
4392-652: The Philippines on June 1, 1896, known as "the Kimball Plan". On April 23, 1898, a document from Governor General Basilio Augustín appeared in the Manila Gazette newspaper warning of the impending war and calling for Filipinos to participate on the side of Spain. Roosevelt, who was at that time Assistant Secretary of the Navy, ordered Commodore George Dewey , commanding the Asiatic Squadron of
4514-476: The President to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuba gain independence from Spain. President McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, 1898, and the ultimatum was sent to Spain. In response, Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba. On April 23, Spain reacted to the blockade by declaring war on
4636-512: The South. The prospect of a naval war gave anxiety to those in the South. The financial security of those working and living in the cotton belt relied heavily upon trade across the Atlantic which would be disrupted by a nautical war, the prospect of which fostered a reluctance to enlist. Potential volunteers were also not financially incentivized, with pay per month initially being $ 13.00 which then
4758-580: The Spanish and the Cubans, but promised the U.S. it would give the Cubans more autonomy. However, with the election of a more liberal Spanish government in November, Spain began to change its policies in Cuba. First, the new Spanish government told the United States that it was willing to offer a change in the Reconcentration policies if the Cuban rebels agreed to a cessation of hostilities. This time
4880-612: The Spanish authorities. This movement eventually led to the Philippine Revolution against Spanish colonial rule. The revolution had been in a state of truce since the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato in 1897, with revolutionary leaders having accepted exile outside of the country. Lt. William Warren Kimball, Staff Intelligence Officer with the Naval War College prepared a plan for war with Spain including
5002-483: The Spanish government as a tyrannical oppressor. Historian Louis Pérez notes that "The proposition of war in behalf of Cuban independence took hold immediately and held on thereafter. Such was the sense of the public mood." Many poems and songs were written in the United States to express support of the "Cuba Libre" movement. At the same time, many African Americans , facing growing racial discrimination and increasing retardation of their civil rights, wanted to take part in
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5124-419: The Spanish tyranny in Cuba. Historian Nick Kapur argues that McKinley's actions as he moved toward war were rooted not in various pressure groups but in his deeply held "Victorian" values, especially arbitration, pacifism, humanitarianism, and manly self-restraint. A speech delivered by Republican Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont on March 17, 1898, thoroughly analyzed the situation and greatly strengthened
5246-553: The U.S. On April 25, the U.S. Congress responded in kind , declaring that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain had de facto existed since April 21, the day the blockade of Cuba had begun. It was the embodiment of the naval plan created by Lieutenant Commander Charles Train four years ago, stating once the US enacted a proclamation of war against Spain, it would mobilize its N.A. (North Atlantic) squadron to form an efficient blockade in Havana, Matanzas and Sagua La Grande . The Navy
5368-404: The U.S. The treaty ceded ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S., and set Cuba up to become independent state in 1901, although in practice became a U.S. protectorate. The cession of the Philippines involved payment of $ 20 million ($ 730 million today) to Spain by the U.S. to cover infrastructure owned by Spain. In Spain, the defeat in the war was a profound shock to
5490-465: The U.S. declared war. The war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific, where American war advocates correctly anticipated that U.S. naval power would prove decisive. On May 1, a squadron of U.S warships destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay in the Philippines and captured the harbor. The first U.S. Marines landed in Cuba on June 10 in the island's southeast, moving west and engaging in at
5612-469: The U.S. in favor of the Cubans. Protestant churches and most Democrats were supportive, but business interests called on Washington to negotiate a settlement and avoid war. Cuba attracted enormous American attention, but almost no discussion involved the other Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico , also in the Caribbean, or of the Philippines or Guam . Historians note that there was no popular demand in
5734-457: The US, from where he intended to help prepare and send armed expeditions. Activities in the Ten Years' War peaked in the years 1872 and 1873, but after the deaths of Agramonte and Céspedes, Cuban operations were limited to the regions of Camagüey and Oriente . Gómez began an invasion of Western Cuba in 1875, but the vast majority of slaves and wealthy sugar producers in the region did not join
5856-798: The United States Navy: "Order the squadron ...to Hong Kong. Keep full of coal. In the event of declaration of war with Spain, your duty will be to see that the Spanish squadron does not leave the Asiatic coast, and then offensive operations in Philippine Islands." Dewey's squadron departed on April 27 for the Philippines, reaching Manila Bay on the evening of April 30. Ten Years%27 War [REDACTED] Spanish Empire 50,000 –100,000 dead 81,248 –90,000 dead The Ten Years' War ( Spanish : Guerra de los Diez Años ; 1868–1878), also known as
5978-403: The United States and soften support for war with Spain. An attempt was made to negotiate a peace before McKinley took office. However, the Spanish refused to take part in the negotiations. In 1897 McKinley appointed Stewart L. Woodford as the new minister to Spain, who again offered to negotiate a peace. In October 1897, the Spanish government refused the United States' offer to negotiate between
6100-518: The United States for an overseas colonial empire. The first serious bid for Cuban independence, the Ten Years' War, erupted in 1868 and was subdued by the authorities a decade later. Neither the fighting nor the reforms in the Pact of Zanjón (February 1878) quelled the desire of some revolutionaries for wider autonomy and, ultimately, independence. One such revolutionary, José Martí, continued to promote Cuban financial and political freedom in exile. In early 1895, after years of organizing, Martí launched
6222-536: The United States to achieve Cuban independence. The third Junta was finally successful in 1898 with the defeat of the Spanish. Although Spain had been expelled, Cuba wasn't officially declared independent until the United States occupation ended in 1902. In the early nineteenth century, Cuban communities in the United States expanded significantly. Some of the main cities the Cubans resided in were New York, New Orleans and Tampa which served as places of refuge. Many Cuban emigrants started their journey over to America in
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#17327826485166344-491: The United States to be enforced. Florida Cubans also contributed a significant amount of money to the Junta to fund filibusters sending money and supplies to revolutionaries. Some Cubans contributed up to 10% of their incomes to the cause. The entrance of the United States into the Spanish-American war was the primary goal of the Cuban Junta for fifty years, and on April 25, 1898, the goal was finally achieved. One of
6466-464: The United States would see "a duty imposed by our obligations to ourselves, to civilization and humanity to intervene with force". Intervention in terms of negotiating a settlement proved impossible—neither Spain nor the insurgents would agree. Louis Perez states, "Certainly the moralistic determinants of war in 1898 has been accorded preponderant explanatory weight in the historiography." By the 1950s, however, American political scientists began attacking
6588-400: The United States, which also provided 40% of Cuba's imports. Cuba's total exports to the U.S. were almost twelve times larger than the export to Spain. U.S. business interests indicated that while Spain still held political authority over Cuba, it was the U.S. that held economic power over Cuba. The U.S. became interested in a trans-isthmus canal in either Nicaragua or Panama and realized
6710-505: The United States, wrote that S=Cuba was entirely dependent on the outside world for food supplies, coal, and maritime supplies and that Spain would not be able to resupply a naval expeditionary force locally. While tension increased among the Cubans and Spanish government, popular support of intervention began to spring up in the United States. Many Americans likened the Cuban revolt to the American Revolution, and they viewed
6832-594: The abandonment of the first Junta in 1855. Before the Second Cuban Junta, annexation was becoming less popular amongst the Cubans and the national leaders at the time. The second Junta was rallied in 1869 during the Ten Years' War , also in New York, with the same goal of ensuring the annexation by the United States. The headquarters, based at 71 Broadway in Manhattan, occupied a suite of three rooms on
6954-601: The aftermath of the Spanish–American War. In 1823, the fifth American President James Monroe (1758–1831, served 1817–25) enunciated the Monroe Doctrine , which stated that the United States would not tolerate further efforts by European governments to retake or expand their colonial holdings in the Americas or to interfere with the newly independent states in the hemisphere. The U.S. would, however, respect
7076-479: The areas that had joined the uprising. The assembly discussed whether a centralized leadership should be in charge of both military and civilian affairs, or if there should be a separation between civilian government and military leadership, the latter being subordinate to the first. The overwhelming majority voted for the separation option. Céspedes was elected president of this assembly; and General Ignacio Agramonte y Loynáz and Antonio Zambrana , principal authors of
7198-462: The business community to find a negotiated solution. Wall Street, big business, high finance and Main Street businesses across the country were vocally opposed to war and demanded peace. After years of severe depression, the economic outlook for the domestic economy was suddenly bright again in 1897. However, the uncertainties of warfare posed a serious threat to full economic recovery. "War would impede
7320-423: The cities, hundreds of Volunteer units were created in the countryside. Most of the Volunteers there were Cubans loyal to Spain who organised sections and companies to defend their hometowns from rebel attacks, giving a tone of civil war to Cuba's first war of independence. According to a Spanish journalist, by 1872, 52,000 of the 80,000 Volunteers were Cuban-born. In the so-called "Creciente de Valmaseda" incident,
7442-548: The concept of "empire" to dovetail with the emerging Spanish nationalism . Cánovas made clear in an address to the University of Madrid in 1882 his view of the Spanish nation as based on shared cultural and linguistic elements—on both sides of the Atlantic—that tied Spain's territories together. Cánovas saw Spanish colonialism as more "benevolent" than that of other European colonial powers. The prevalent opinion in Spain before
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#17327826485167564-497: The constitutional organs of the Cuban government were dissolved; the remaining leaders among the insurgents started negotiating for peace in Zanjón, Puerto Príncipe. General Arsenio Martínez Campos , in charge of applying the new policy, arrived in Cuba. It took him nearly two years to convince most of the rebels to accept the Pact of Zanjón ; it was signed on 10 February 1878, by a negotiating committee. The document contained most of
7686-429: The corps captured farmers (Guajiros) and the families of Mambises, killing them immediately or sending them en masse to concentration camps on the island. The Mambises fought using guerrilla tactics and were more effective on the eastern side of the island than in the west, where they lacked supplies. Another Voluntary Corps was formed by Germans, the so-called "Club des Alemanes". Presided by Fernando Heydrich ,
7808-678: The country. Generally speaking, those rich enough settled in Europe or else in northern cities in America like New York, Philadelphia, or Boston. Meanwhile, the poorer workers moved to south Florida , first settling in Key West , and then in Tampa . On 10 April 1869, a constitutional assembly took place in the town of Guáimaro (Camagüey). It was intended to provide the revolution with greater organizational and juridical unity, with representatives from
7930-505: The deaths of hundreds of American sailors held the public's attention. McKinley asked Congress to appropriate $ 50 million for defense, and Congress unanimously obliged. Most American leaders believed that the cause of the explosion was unknown. Still, public attention was now riveted on the situation and Spain could not find a diplomatic solution to avoid war. Spain appealed to the European powers, most of whom advised it to accept U.S. conditions for Cuba in order to avoid war. Germany urged
8052-445: The destruction could have been caused by a mine." After Maine was destroyed, New York City newspaper publishers Hearst and Pulitzer decided that the Spanish were to blame, and they publicized this theory as fact in their papers. Even prior to the explosion, both had published sensationalistic accounts of "atrocities" committed by the Spanish in Cuba; headlines such as "Spanish Murderers" were commonplace in their newspapers. Following
8174-611: The eastern region of Cuba. On 13 October, the rebels took eight towns in the province that favoured the insurgency and acquisition of arms. By October's end, the insurrection had enlisted some 12,000 volunteers. That same month, Máximo Gómez taught the Cuban forces what would be their most lethal tactic: the machete charge . He was a former cavalry officer for the Spanish Army in the Dominican Republic. Forces were taught to combine use of firearms with machetes, for
8296-563: The explosion of USS Maine . President McKinley issued two calls for volunteers, the first on April 23 which called for 125,000 men to enlist, followed by a second appeal for a further 75,000 volunteers. States in the Northeast, Midwest, and the West quickly filled their volunteer quota. In response to the surplus influx of volunteers, several Northern states had their quotas increased. Contrastingly, some Southern states struggled to fulfil even
8418-511: The explosion, this tone escalated with the headline "Remember The Maine, To Hell with Spain!", quickly appearing. Their press exaggerated what was happening and how the Spanish were treating the Cuban prisoners. The stories were based on factual accounts, but most of the time, the articles that were published were embellished and written with incendiary language causing emotional and often heated responses among readers. A common myth falsely states that when illustrator Frederic Remington said there
8540-450: The factors that drove the United States to finally declare war on Cuba was the publication of the De Lôme letter, an international scandal. De Lôme, Spanish ambassador to the United States, had written a private correspondence to a Spaniard stationed in Cuba insulting the leadership of President McKinley. The letter asserted that he was weak, and implied that he would not challenge Spain's claim over Cuba. The letter, however, never made it into
8662-457: The families of Cuban rebels far too vulnerable to the " ethnic cleansing " tactics of the ruthless Blas Villate , Count of Valmaceda (also spelled Balmaceda). Valeriano Weyler , known as the "Butcher Weyler" in the 1895–1898 War, fought alongside the Count of Balmaceda. After General Jordan resigned and returned to the US, Cespedes returned Máximo Gómez to his command. Gradually a new generation of skilled battle-tested Cuban commanders rose from
8784-504: The first mandated quota, namely Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. The majority of states did not allow African American men to volunteer which impeded recruitment in Southern states, especially those with large African American populations. Quota requirements, based on total population, were unmanageable, as they were disproportionate compared to the actual population permitted to volunteer. This
8906-672: The first serious independence movement, especially in the eastern part of the island. In July 1867, the "Revolutionary Committee of Bayamo" was founded under the leadership of Cuba's wealthiest plantation owner, Francisco Vicente Aguilera . The conspiracy rapidly spread to Oriente's larger towns, most of all Manzanillo , where Carlos Manuel de Céspedes became the main protagonist of the uprising in 1868. Originally from Bayamo, Céspedes owned an estate and sugar mill known as La Demajagua . The Spanish, aware of Céspedes' anti-colonial intransigence, tried to force him into submission by imprisoning his son Oscar. Céspedes refused to negotiate and Oscar
9028-548: The goals of the Cuban Junta. Spanish%E2%80%93American War U.S. victory [REDACTED] United States [REDACTED] Cuban Liberation Army [REDACTED] Philippine Revolutionaries [REDACTED] Spain Total: 339,783 (only 20–25 percent of the army capable of field operations) [REDACTED] 288,452 (Caribbean) Total: 4,119 American: Total: 56,400–56,600 Spanish: The Spanish–American War (April 21 – December 10, 1898)
9150-434: The hands of the intended recipient; instead, it was intercepted by Cuban Rebels who forwarded the message to the Cuban Junta based in New York. The Junta published the letter, causing significant strain on the relationship between Spain and the United States. This played a significant part in the decision made by the United States to declare war on Spain and officially enter the Spanish-American War, annexing Cuba, and completing
9272-550: The island for the benefit of its residents. It funded military expenditures (44% of the revenue), colonial government's expenses (41%), and sent some money to the Spanish colony of Fernando Po (12%). The European Spaniards (known as peninsulares ) concentrated a good deal of the island's wealth through their paramount role in Cuban trade. In addition, the Cuban-born population still had no political rights and no representation in Parliament. Objections to these conditions sparked
9394-467: The island. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes called on men of all races to join the fight for freedom. He raised the new flag of an independent Cuba, and rang the bell of the mill to celebrate his proclamation from the steps of the sugar mill of the manifesto signed by him and 15 others. It cataloged Spain's mistreatment of Cuba and then expressed the movement's aims: Our aim is to enjoy the benefits of freedom, for whose use, God created man. We sincerely profess
9516-467: The land from the Spaniards . This was the first attempt by Cubans to get the United States to annex Cuba. After some failed annexation attempts, the Junta collaborated with filibusterers like Narciso López and John Quitman . The United States government did not tolerate this activity and tried to shut it down. This concluded with Spain making it clear they were not willing to sell the land, leading to
9638-417: The letter heightened tensions between the United States and Spain, and President McKinley was forced to confront Spain; he did so in demanding that Cuba be granted independence, which resulted in the beginning of the Spanish-American War on April 21, 1898. There were three Cuban Juntas established in the United States between 1848 and 1898. They each had different leadership, but similar goals of using aid from
9760-575: The march of prosperity and put the country back many years," warned the New Jersey Trade Review. The leading railroad magazine editorialized, "From a commercial and mercenary standpoint it seems peculiarly bitter that this war should come when the country had already suffered so much and so needed rest and peace." McKinley paid close attention to the strong antiwar consensus of the business community, and strengthened his resolve to use diplomacy and negotiation rather than brute force to end
9882-641: The national psyche and provoked a thorough philosophical and artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of '98 . The combined problems arising from the Peninsular War (1807–1814), the loss of most of its colonies in the Americas in the early 19th-century Spanish American wars of independence , and three Carlist Wars (1832–1876) marked a low point for Spanish colonialism. Liberal Spanish elites like Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Emilio Castelar offered new interpretations of
10004-510: The need for naval protection. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was an exceptionally influential theorist; his ideas were much admired by future 26th President Theodore Roosevelt , as the U.S. rapidly built a powerful naval fleet of steel warships in the 1880s and 1890s. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy from 1897 to 1898 and was an aggressive supporter of an American war with Spain over Cuban interests. Meanwhile,
10126-468: The origins of the war: Our own direct interests were great, because of the Cuban tobacco and sugar, and especially because of Cuba's relation to the projected Isthmian [Panama] Canal. But even greater were our interests from the standpoint of humanity. ... It was our duty, even more from the standpoint of National honor than from the standpoint of National interest, to stop the devastation and destruction. Because of these considerations I favored war. In
10248-410: The press and the freedom to bring back honest governance; and to honor and practice the inalienable rights of men, which is the foundations of the independence and the greatness of a people. Our aim is to throw off the Spanish yoke, and to establish a free and independent nation…. When Cuba is free, it will have a constitutional government created in an enlightened manner. After three days of combat,
10370-414: The pro-war cause. Proctor concluded that war was the only answer. Many in the business and religious communities which had until then opposed war, switched sides, leaving McKinley and Speaker Reed almost alone in their resistance to a war. On April 11, McKinley ended his resistance and asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba to end the civil war there, knowing that Congress would force
10492-537: The promises made by Spain. The Ten Years' War came to an end, except for the resistance of a small group in Oriente led by General Garcia and Antonio Maceo Grajales , who protested in Los Mangos de Baraguá on 15 March. Under the terms of the pact, a constitution and a provisional government was set up, but the revolutionary élan was gone. The provisional government convinced Maceo to give up, and with his surrender,
10614-605: The proposed Constitution , were elected secretaries. After completing its work, the Assembly reconstituted itself as the House of Representatives and the state's supreme power. They elected Salvador Cisneros Betancourt as president, Miguel Gerónimo Gutiérrez as vice president, and Agramonte and Zambrana as secretaries. Céspedes was elected on 12 April 1869, as the first president of the Republic in Arms and General Manuel de Quesada (who had fought in Mexico under Benito Juárez during
10736-556: The ranks, including Antonio Maceo Grajales , José Maceo , Calixto García , Vicente García González and Federico Fernández Cavada . Raised in the United States and with an American mother, Fernández Cavada had served as a colonel in the Union Army during the American Civil War . His brother Adolfo Fernández Cavada also joined the Cuban fighting for independence. On 4 April 1870, the senior Federico Fernández Cavada
10858-587: The rebels refused the terms in hopes that continued conflict would lead to U.S. intervention and the creation of an independent Cuba. The liberal Spanish government also recalled the Spanish Governor-General Valeriano Weyler from Cuba. This action alarmed many Cubans loyal to Spain. The Cubans loyal to Weyler began planning large demonstrations to take place when the next Governor General, Ramón Blanco , arrived in Cuba. U.S. consul Fitzhugh Lee learned of these plans and sent
10980-567: The rebels seized the important city of Bayamo. In the enthusiasm of this victory, poet and musician Perucho Figueredo composed Cuba's national anthem, " La Bayamesa ”. The first government of the Republic in Arms, headed by Céspedes, was established in Bayamo. The city was retaken by the Spanish after 3 months on 12 January, but the fighting had burned it to the ground. The war spread in Oriente: on 4 November 1868, Camagüey rose up in arms during
11102-450: The rebels, and many persons loyal to Spain also wanted to abolish it. Finally in 1880, the Spanish legislature abolished slavery in Cuba and other colonies in a form of gradual abolition. The law required slaves to continue to work for their masters for a number of years, in a kind of indentured servitude, but masters had to pay the slaves for their work. The wages were so low, however, that the freedmen could barely support themselves. After
11224-481: The residents of some Cuban districts to move to reconcentration areas near the military headquarters. This strategy was effective in slowing the spread of rebellion. In the United States, this fueled the fire of anti-Spanish propaganda. In a political speech, President William McKinley used this to ram Spanish actions against armed rebels. He even said this "was not civilized warfare" but "extermination". Spain depended on Cuba for prestige and trade, and used it as
11346-519: The revolt. After his most trusted general, the American Henry Reeve , was killed in 1876, Gómez ended his campaign. Spain's efforts to fight were hindered by the civil war ( Third Carlist War ) that broke out in Spain in 1872. When the civil war ended in 1876, the government sent more Spanish troops to Cuba, until they numbered more than 250,000. The severe Spanish measures weakened the liberation forces ruled by Cisneros. Neither side in
11468-451: The revolt. Campos's reluctance to accept his new assignment and his method of containing the revolt to the province of Oriente earned him criticism in the Spanish press. The mounting pressure forced Cánovas to replace General Campos with General Valeriano Weyler , a soldier who had experience in quelling rebellions in overseas provinces and the Spanish metropole. Weyler deprived the insurgency of weaponry, supplies, and assistance by ordering
11590-446: The revolt. Other American business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, looked to the Spanish to restore order. Stability, not war, was the goal of both interests. How stability would be achieved would depend largely on the ability of Spain and the U.S. to work out their issues diplomatically. Lieutenant Commander Charles Train, in 1894, in his preparatory notes in an outlook of an armed conflict between Spain and
11712-425: The second floor, overlooking Trinity Churchyard . The second Cuban Junta of New York was led by José Morales Lemus who was succeeded by Miguel Aldama . There were many critics of the Junta at this time that ultimately wanted "absolute independence" for Cuba rather than being financially obligated to the United States. During the war they wanted a victory over the Spaniards that would lead to their freedom. Members of
11834-453: The ship. Other investigations in later years came to various contradictory conclusions, but had no bearing on the coming of the war. In 1974, Admiral Hyman George Rickover had his staff look at the documents and decided there was an internal explosion. A study commissioned by National Geographic magazine in 1999, using AME computer modeling, reported: "By examining the bottom plating of the ship and how it bent and folded, AME concluded that
11956-433: The slave trade ban. The Spanish Parliament at the time was changing; gaining much influence were reactionary, traditionalist politicians who intended to eliminate all liberal reforms. The power of military tribunals was increased; the colonial government imposed a six percent tax increase on the Cuban planters and businesses. Additionally, all political opposition and the press were silenced. Dissatisfaction in Cuba spread on
12078-521: The slaves of Matanzas would break the weak existing balance between whites and blacks. The Spanish changed their policy towards the Mambises, offering amnesties and reforms. The Mambises did not prevail for a variety of reasons: lack of organization and resources; lower participation by whites; internal racist sabotage (against Maceo and the goals of the Liberating Army); the inability to bring
12200-543: The status of the existing European colonies. Before the American Civil War (1861–1865), Southern interests attempted to have the United States purchase Cuba and convert it into a new slave state . The pro-slavery element proposed the Ostend Manifesto of 1854. Anti-slavery forces rejected it. After the American Civil War and Cuba's Ten Years' War , U.S. businessmen began monopolizing the devalued sugar markets in Cuba. In 1894, 90% of Cuba's total exports went to
12322-425: The struggle. 10 October is now commemorated in Cuba as a national holiday under the name Grito de Yara (" Cry of Yara "). During the first few days, the uprising almost failed: Céspedes intended to occupy the nearby town of Yara on 11 October. In spite of this initial setback, the uprising of Yara was supported in various regions of the Oriente province, and the independence movement continued to spread throughout
12444-520: The support of American Citizens. The Junta frequently hosted "Sympathy Meetings," rallies gathering sympathy to the Cuban independence cause among American citizens. They were often held in large cities and at times that were important in American politics; many sympathy meetings were held right before congress began their next session to create positive pressure on the congressmen. The Junta also hosted "Cuban Carnivals" in many cities, larger events that provided opportunities for fundraising. The primary goal
12566-399: The third Junta. Cuban revolutionaries did not believe that independence from Spain was possible without both military and ideological aid from the United States. The United States had not shown any inclination that it was planning to intervene, even during the Ten Years' War . In pursuit of securing American aid, the Cuban Junta launched a United States-based propaganda campaign that employed
12688-401: The use of sympathy meetings, carnivals, performances, articles published via American press sources, and its own newspaper. The campaign attempted to get Americans to sympathize with Cuba and apply to it the stereotypical American values of liberty and freedom. The Yellow journalism used by the Junta, bringing light to some of the worst parts of the Spanish rule of Cuba, also helped in gathering
12810-401: The war as a mistake based on idealism, arguing that a better policy would be realism. They discredited the idealism by suggesting the people were deliberately misled by propaganda and sensationalist yellow journalism. Political scientist Robert Osgood, writing in 1953, led the attack on the American decision process as a confused mix of "self-righteousness and genuine moral fervor," in the form of
12932-563: The war ended on 28 May 1878. Many of the graduates of the Ten Years' War became central players in Cuba's War of Independence that started in 1895. These include the Maceo brothers, Maximo Gómez, Calixto Garcia and others. The Pact of Zanjón promised various reforms to improve the financial situation for residents of Cuba. The most significant reform was the manumission of all slaves who had fought for Spain. Abolition of slavery had been proposed by
13054-400: The war ended, tensions between Cuban residents and the Spanish government continued for 17 years. This period, called "The Rewarding Truce", included the outbreak of the Little War ( La Guerra Chiquita ) between 1879 and 1880. Separatists in that conflict became supporters of José Martí , the most passionate of the rebels who chose exile over Spanish rule. Overall, about 200,000 people died in
13176-467: The war regarded the spreading of " civilization " and Christianity as Spain's main objective and contribution to the New World . The concept of cultural unity bestowed special significance on Cuba, which had been Spanish for almost four hundred years, and was viewed as an integral part of the Spanish nation. The focus on preserving the empire would have negative consequences for Spain's national pride in
13298-408: The war to the western provinces (Havana in particular); and opposition by the US government to Cuban independence. The US sold the latest weapons to Spain, but not to the Cuban rebels. Tomás Estrada Palma succeeded Juan Bautista Spotorno as president of the Republic in Arms. Estrada Palma was captured by Spanish troops on 19 October 1877. As a result of successive misfortunes, on 8 February 1878,
13420-430: The war was able to win a single concrete victory, let alone crush the opposing side to win the war, but in the long run Spain gained the upper hand. The deep divisions among insurgents regarding their organisation of government and the military became more pronounced after the Assembly of Guáimaro, as resulting in the dismissal of Céspedes and Quesada in 1873. The Spanish exploited regional divisions, as well as fears that
13542-399: The war. They saw it as a way to advance the cause of equality, service to country hopefully helping to gain political and public respect amongst the wider population. President McKinley, well aware of the political complexity surrounding the conflict, wanted to end the revolt peacefully. He began to negotiate with the Spanish government, hoping that the talks would dampen yellow journalism in
13664-575: Was especially evident in some states, such as Kentucky and Mississippi, which accepted out-of-state volunteers to aid in meeting their quotas. This Southern apprehension towards enlistment can also be attributed to "a war weariness derived from the Confederacy's defeat in the Civil War." Many in the South were still recuperating financially after their losses in the Civil War, and the upcoming war did not provide much hope for economic prosperity in
13786-457: Was executed. Céspedes and his followers had planned the uprising to begin 14 October, but it had to be moved up four days earlier, because the Spaniards had discovered their plan of revolt. In the early morning of 10 October, Céspedes issued the cry of independence, the "10th of October Manifesto" at La Demajagua , which signaled the start of an all-out military uprising against Spanish rule in Cuba. Céspedes freed his slaves and asked them to join
13908-679: Was fought between Spain and the United States in 1898. It began with the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba , and resulted in the U.S. acquisitions of Puerto Rico , Guam , and the Philippines , and its domination of Cuba. It represented U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence and Philippine Revolution , with the latter later leading to the Philippine–American War . The Spanish–American War brought an end to almost four centuries of Spanish presence in
14030-546: Was named Commander-in-Chief of all the Cuban forces. Other war leaders of note fighting on the Cuban Mambí side included Donato Mármol , Luis Marcano-Alvarez , Carlos Roloff , Enrique Loret de Mola, Julio Sanguily , Domingo de Goicuría , Guillermo Moncada , Quintin Bandera , Benjamín Ramirez, and Julio Grave de Peralta . Because of the escalating violence, after the first year of the war, around 100,000 Cubans fled
14152-492: Was no war brewing in Cuba, Hearst responded: "You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war." However, this new " yellow journalism " was uncommon outside New York City, and historians no longer consider it the major force shaping the national mood. Public opinion nationwide did demand immediate action, overwhelming the efforts of President McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed , and
14274-540: Was not avoided. As Maine left Florida, a large part of the North Atlantic Squadron was moved to Key West and the Gulf of Mexico . Others were also moved just off the shore of Lisbon, and others were moved to Hong Kong too. At 9:40 P.M. on February 15, 1898, Maine sank in Havana Harbor after suffering a massive explosion. More than 3/4 of the ship's crew of 355 sailors, officers and Marines died as
14396-462: Was often unable to stop the ships, called filibusters, from leaving American ports and landing in Cuba. The large Cuban communities in Key West and Tampa, Florida, proved to be essential in the filibuster effort. Cubans in Florida were aware of the actions of the Cuban Junta, and would often sit on juries in filibuster trials, resulting in no convictions. This made it much more difficult for the law of
14518-451: Was ready, but the Army was not well-prepared for the war and made radical changes in plans and quickly purchased supplies. In the spring of 1898, the strength of the U.S. Regular Army was just 24,593 soldiers. The Army wanted 50,000 new men but received over 220,000 through volunteers and the mobilization of state National Guard units , even gaining nearly 100,000 men on the first night after
14640-435: Was successful, the result was not the grand show of force Martí had expected. With a quick victory effectively lost, the revolutionaries settled in to fight a protracted guerrilla campaign. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the architect of Spain's Restoration constitution and the prime minister at the time, ordered General Arsenio Martínez-Campos , a distinguished veteran of the war against the previous uprising in Cuba, to quell
14762-466: Was then raised to $ 15.60 for combat pay. It was more economically promising for most southern men to continue in their own enterprises rather than enlist. The overwhelming consensus of observers in the 1890s, and historians ever since, is that an upsurge of humanitarian concern with the plight of the Cubans was the main motivating force that caused the war with Spain in 1898. McKinley put it succinctly in late 1897 that if Spain failed to resolve its crisis,
14884-562: Was to foster American humanitarianism in the general public, while publishing stories of Cuban success and the failure of the Spanish Government to rule fairly. A military filibuster refers to an unauthorized military expedition sent to a foreign territory to aid in political revolutionary efforts. This was one of the main strategies used by the Cuban Junta that kept the insurrection alive in Cuba. The United States did not approve of this practice as it violated international law, but
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