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120-495: The Antemoro (or Antaimoro , lit.   ' people of the shore ' ) are an ethnic group of Madagascar living on the southeastern coast, mostly between Manakara and Farafangana . Numbering around 500,000, this ethnic group mostly traces its origins back to East African Bantu and Indonesian Austronesian speakers like most other Malagasy . A minority of them belonging to the Anteony (aristocrats), Antalaotra (scribes of

240-675: A battle between two giants. The conflict evolved as additional Arab settlers arrived and joined with their fellow newcomers to become Antemoro themselves. Around 1550 the mounting conflict seems to have reached a turning point with the Zafikasimambo noble family rising to power in Matitana following the family leader's marriage to a local woman. Historical texts tie the lineage of the family's leader, Zafikazimambobe, to Anteony noble Ramarohala, who had settled there at least three generations before. Other historical sources confirm however that

360-414: A distinct personality—and offered their own house with guardians dedicated to their service. Ralambo then transformed the nature of the relationship between sampy and ruler: whereas previously the sampy had been seen as tools at the disposal of community leaders, under Ralambo they became divine protectors of the king's sovereignty and the integrity of the state, which would be preserved through their power on

480-444: A given Antemoro clan could only eat with others of the same clan. The death of any member of the community is mourned in the same way, regardless of social class. All community members participate in a week-long period of mourning for the deceased, during which time they are forbidden to wash or change clothing. On the eighth day, the mourning period is broken and everyone bathes and dresses in fresh attire. A female widow must continue

600-600: A heroic and near mythical status among the greatest ancient sovereigns of Merina history. Ralambo was the first to assign the name of Imerina ("Land of the Merina people ") to the central highland territories where he ruled. Ralambo expanded and defended the Kingdom of Imerina through a combination of diplomacy and successful military action aided by the procurement of the first firearms in Imerina by way of trade with kingdoms on

720-505: A large margin of error. According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects the total population was 28,915,653 in 2021, compared to only 4,084,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 43.1%, 53.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.1% was 65 years or older. Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2019) (Unrevised data. Data refer to projections based on

840-425: A large rolled stone disc acting as a barrier) – that rendered the town more resistant to Vazimba attacks. Andrianjaka's policies and tactics highlighted and increased the separation between the king and his subjects. He transformed social divisions into spatial divisions by assigning each clan to a specific geographical region within his kingdom. Andrianjaka unified the principalities on what he later designated as

960-409: A loincloth made of fanto (beaten barkcloth ) was worn beneath the ensemble. Women wore sleeveless sheath dresses made from two or three reed mats sewn together and belted at the waist or drawn over one shoulder. Adolescent and adult women often also wore a mat bandeau or halter top. It was historically forbidden for women to wear lambas made of cotton or any other material than woven raffia mats, as it

1080-601: A network of powerful spiritual advisers across the island is credited with forcing an awareness among Malagasy of communities beyond their own and sparking a sense of a common Malagasy identity. The Antemoro kingdom was disbanded in the late 19th century following an uprising of the Antemoro commoners against the noble class. Today the Antemoro remain clustered around the southeast coastal homeland, where they grow rice and coffee, produce salt, and manufacture charms. The Antemoro often leave their homeland for six to ten months out of

1200-648: A palace on the site that became the seat of royal power in the Merina kingdom. A significant alteration of the landscape made under the rule of Andrianampoinimerina was the introduction of irrigation systems that allowed for the farming of rice paddies. To the present day rice remains a staple of Malagasy cuisine. The digging of canals and dikes was done by vast numbers of slaves placed under royal servitude, or fanompoana. The landscape of Imerina and its geographical manipulation had significant ritual meaning in Merina culture. The irrigation system introduced to Antananarivo,

1320-420: A place within them. Upon rising to power, the Zafikasimambo clan absorbed the ritual privileges of the former Zafiraminia clan and had established themselves as the premier ombiasy (wise men) who practiced astrology and served as scribes; they regularly left the Antemoro homeland to provide their services where needed. These ombiasy also often trained the spiritual leaders of other communities, further reinforcing

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1440-503: A preparation reserved uniquely for this holiday. This delicacy was made during the festival by sealing shredded zebu meat with suet in a decorative clay jar. The confit would then be conserved in a pit for twelve months to be served at the next year's fandroana. The marriage tradition of the vodiondry , still practiced to this day throughout the Highlands, is said to have originated with Andriamanelo. According to oral history, after

1560-572: A revival of Islamic practices among the Antemoro. Many Antemoro have reportedly reconverted to Islam or began practicing it more devoutly. East African Bantu, Arab and Islamic influences strongly mark Antemoro culture. Traditionally, Antemoro men's clothing included a turban or fez style hat and long, loose robes similar to those worn in many other parts of the Muslim world. Harefo reeds were woven to form mats ( tafitsihy ) that were sewn together to form jackets and tunics (with long sleeves for older men);

1680-470: A row on the Rova grounds). To commemorate his greatness, his subjects erected a small wooden house called a small sacred house on top of his tomb. Future Merina sovereigns and nobles continued to construct similar tomb houses on their tombs well into the 19th century. After the conquests of the 19th century, approximately half of the Merina population consisted of the descendants of slaves. This distinction

1800-678: A shipwrecked British sailor who wrote about the Malagasy slave trade of in his journal that would be published and widely distributed in England. It was this fixation on the slave trade in Madagascar that initially drew the British to the Merina, giving the Merina the firepower to extend their empire and trading networks across Madagascar. Though the British later returned the island of Réunion to France, they retained Mauritius and included it in

1920-428: A sizable cache of firearms and gunpowder, materials that helped to establish and preserve his dominance and expand his rule over greater Imerina. Political life on the island from the 16th century was characterised by sporadic conflict between the Merina and Sakalava kingdoms, originating with Sakalava slave-hunting incursions into Imerina. By the early 19th century, the Merina were able to overcome rival tribes such as

2040-460: Is a major product marketed to tourists. The first formal school in the Kingdom of Imerina was established and run from 1800 to 1804 by two Antemoro ombiasy, Andriamahazonoro and Ratsilikaina, who taught the future King Radama I and four or five other children to read using sorabe, trained them to manufacture ink and paper, and educated them in the art of astrology and divination. Andriamahazonoro

2160-403: Is calcified in the present day by the classification of the descendants of slaves as "blacks" and those of freemen as "whites". The use of color to describe social distinction is further supplemented by the racial distinctions of the Malagasy population tracing back to the original settlement of the island, with Austronesian racial features are contrasted by African racial features. Andriamanelo

2280-468: Is credited with introducing astrology in Imerina. The Merina rite of circumcision , described by Bloch (1986) in great detail, continued to be practiced by the Merina monarchy through the end of the 19th century in precisely the way first established by Andriamanelo generations before. Many elements of these rituals continue to form part of the circumcision traditions of Merina families in the 21st century. The origins of these practices can be traced back to

2400-470: Is located in the central highlands of Madagascar. It is notable that the word Imerina is derived from the Malagasy word meaning the "occupancy of a prominent place." Consistent with the name, much of the documented manipulation of the land in the Merina kingdom involve the building of palaces for royalty or of temples. Andrianampoinimerina (c.1745–1809) was the first to use the toponym of Imerina after conquering Antananarivo. He projected his power by constructing

2520-672: Is predominantly populated by people broadly classified as belonging to the Malagasy ethno-linguistic group. This group is further subdivided a number of ethnic groups, often into the standard eighteen. In addition, communities of Indians in Madagascar and Arabs and Somalis have long been established on the island and have assimilated into local communities to varying degrees, in some places having long since become identified "Malagasy" ethnic groups, and in others maintaining distinct identities and cultural separation. More recent arrivals include Europeans and Chinese immigrants. Madagascar

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2640-470: Is the written classic of Merina culture, compiled from oral traditions and stories. The Tantara was collected by the Jesuit priest François Callet in the 1860s. The Tantara and other printed works are held in such high regard that very few can be obtained for any price. Present day Malagasy culture is still tied extensively to the past. Many ceremonies involve reenactments of the past, such as tromba , or

2760-407: Is traditionally written using the sorabe script, and those who master this form of writing are called katibo and are considered to possess unusual power. Sorabe writings traditionally ranged from instructional texts for teaching astrology, to historical records and other forms of documentation, and materials written using the sorabe script were considered to be sacred. Among various Antemoro clans,

2880-636: The Bezanozano , the Betsimisaraka , and eventually the Sakalava kingdom and bring them under the Merina crown. It is through this process that the ethnonym "Merina" began to be commonly used, as it denotes prominence in the Malagasy language . Though some sources describe the Merina expansion as the unification of Madagascar, this period of Merina expansion was seen by neighboring tribes such as

3000-442: The Kingdom of Imerina is likewise attributed to an Antemoro ombiasy. Taboos ( fady ) among the Antemoro derive from ancestral traditions as well as from aspects of Islamic and Arab culture. An Antemoro taboo against dogs as unclean, although shared by Islam, actually predates the arrival of the religion on the island. The prohibition against eating pork, however, originated with the introduction of Islam. Traditionally, members of

3120-550: The Merina , Tanala and Antanosy may have had ancestors who migrated away from Antemoro country. By the early 18th century, the Antemoro had established themselves as major rice and slave exporters. Throughout the 1700s, the Antemoro were embroiled in a conflict with the Ikongo- Tanala that culminated in a bloody Tanala invasion of the eastern coastal plain. Shortly afterward, a major Antemoro leader named Andriamamohotra established an alliance and vassal relationship with

3240-510: The Sorabe alphabet) or Anakara clans claim being descendants of settlers who arrived from Arabia , Persia the Islamic religion was soon abandoned in favor of traditional beliefs and practices associated with respect for the ancestors, although remnants of Islam remain in fady such as the prohibition against consuming pork. In the 16th century an Antemoro kingdom was established, supplanting

3360-404: The sampin'andriana : the "Royal Sampy") which were all in the possession of the king. These royal sampy, including Kelimalaza , continued to be worshiped until their supposed destruction in a bonfire by Queen Ranavalona II upon her public conversion to Christianity in 1869. Also beginning under Ralambo, the ritual sanctification of the realm occurred through the annual fandroana festival at

3480-441: The twelve sacred hills of Imerina at Ambohitratrimo, Ambohimanga, Ilafy, Alasora, Antsahadita, Ambohimanambony, Analamanga, Ambohitrabiby, Namehana, Ambohidrapeto, Ambohijafy and Ambohimandranjaka. These hills became and remain the spiritual heart of Imerina, which was further expanded over a century later when Andrianampoinimerina redesignated the twelve sacred hills to include several different sites. Under Andriamasinavalona,

3600-460: The 18h May to 10 June 2018 census numbered 25 674 186 inhabitants. [1] The problem with population estimation in Madagascar is that data is very old and limited. The last population census was carried out in 1993, after an initial 1975 census. There was an attempt at a census in 2009, but this attempt ultimately failed due to political instability. Therefore, the demographic situation is inferred but reliability of any estimates from any source has

3720-506: The 1993 Population Census.): UN medium variant projections: Registration of vital events in Madagascar is not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates. Source: UN DESA , World Population Prospects, 2022 Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Fertility data as of 2008-2009 (DHS Program): Source: UN World Population Prospects The island of Madagascar

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3840-517: The Anakara lived in villages sealed off by spiked wooden palisades where none could enter without permission. Rulers were further distinguished by fady forbidding them to wear shirts or hats. Each Antemoro clan was endogamous and marriage outside the clan was deeply taboo. Those who transgressed were mourned as if dead and were entirely cut off from the community. The Antemoro adhere to the traditional spiritual beliefs and practices common throughout

3960-641: The Antemoro and Zafiraminia nobles and the resulting Zafikasimambo rule also established a tradition of emigration from this part of the island. Unlike the majority of Malagasy who generally seek to return to their ancestral land, the Antemoro initially felt no such call to remain linked to a geographic area. As a result, the ombiasy of the Antemoro traveled widely, some moving from place to place and others settling permanently at royal courts and elsewhere. Their arcane knowledge of writing, medicine, technology and other areas both established their reputation as indispensable advisers to nobles and commoners alike, and instilled

4080-552: The Betsimisaraka as aggressive acts of colonialism. By 1824, the Merina captured the port of Mahajanga situated on the western coast of the island marking a further expansion of power. Under Radama I , the Merina continued to launch military expeditions that both expanded imperial control and enriched military chiefs. The ability of the Merina to overcome neighboring tribes was due to British firepower and military training. The British had an interest in establishing trade with

4200-459: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah's Witnesses , Seventh-day Adventists , Eastern Orthodox Christians and evangelicals. Many incorporate the cult of the dead with their other religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites. They also may invite a pastor to attend a famadihana. A historical rivalry exists between

4320-412: The Highlands were first domesticated for food in Imerina under the reign of Ralambo, and he introduced the practice and design of cattle pen construction, as well as the traditional ceremony of the fandroana (the "Royal Bath"), to celebrate his culinary discovery. Upon succeeding his father, Andrianjaka (1612–1630) led a successful military campaign to capture the final major Vazimba stronghold in

4440-502: The Hova favored male heirs, and the marriage between Andriamanelo's Vazimba and Hova parents had produced two sons and a daughter. To prevent conflict, the queen decided that Andriamanelo would inherit the crown upon his mother's death and would be succeeded not by his own child but by his younger brother. This system of succession was ordered by the queens to be followed for all time, and applied to families as well: in any instance where there

4560-614: The Indians in Madagascar have a high level of education, particularly the younger generation. A sizeable number of Europeans also reside in Madagascar , mostly of French descent. Religion in Madagascar (2020) according to the Pew Research Center According to the 1993 national census, 41% of Malagasies practised Christianity and 52% practise traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between

4680-487: The Kingdom of Imerina was composed of six provinces ( toko ): Avaradrano, constituting Antananarivo and land to the northeast of the capital, including Ambohimanga; Vakinisisaony, including the land to the south of Avaradrano and its capital at Alasora; Vonizongo to the northwest of Antananarivo with its capital at Fihaonana; Marovatana to the south of Vonizongo, with its capital at Ambohidratrimo; Ambodirano, south of Marovatana with its capital at Fenoarivo; and Vakinankaratra to

4800-414: The Malagasy highlands in general, ritual circumcision has remained a constant factor in Merina and Malagasy culture. The permanence of the circumcision ritual continues to the modern day. Indigenous silk clothing ( landibe ) is especially important in highland cultures, including with the Merina. It was worn during ancestral funerary ceremonies . The Tantaran'ny Andriana or Histories of Kings

4920-570: The Merina Kingdom signed a trade agreement with the United States in 1867. She replaced the incumbent Prime Minister with his brother, Rainilaiarivony , who retained the role for three decades and married each successive queen. The next sovereign, Ranavalona II , converted the nation to Christianity and had all the sampy (ancestral royal talismans) burnt in a public display. The last Merina sovereign, Queen Ranavalona III , acceded

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5040-530: The Merina Kingdom to establish a protectorate . France invaded again in 1894 and conquered the kingdom, making it a French colony , in what became known as the Franco-Hova Wars . Madagascar's central highlands were first inhabited between 200 BC–300 AD by the island's earliest settlers, the Vazimba , who appear to have arrived by pirogue from southeastern Borneo to establish simple villages in

5160-477: The Merina dialect. Indians in Madagascar descend mostly from traders who arrived in the newly independent nation looking for better opportunities. The majority of them came from the west coast of India known as Karana (Muslim) and Banian (Hindu). The majority speak Hindi or Gujarati , although some other Indian languages are also spoken. Nowadays the younger generations speak at least three languages, including French, Gujarati and Malagasy. A large number of

5280-410: The Merina kingdom due to its central position on the island since 1815. Merina imperial expeditions became more frequent and violent after the renunciation of the second Merina-British treaty . Between 1828 and 1840, more than 100,000 men were killed and more than 200,000 enslaved by Merina forces. Imperial rule was met with resistance from escaped slaves and other refugees from imperial rule numbering in

5400-449: The Merina population began holding slaves. As imperial conquests continually increased the supply of slaves captured from neighboring tribes, the population of Antananarivo grew from around 10,000 in 1820 to 50,000 in 1833. The demand in slaves matched the rise in supply as a result of fanompoana , or mandatory military service , being established in the Merina kingdom thereby drawing able bodied free men away from agricultural labor and into

5520-480: The Rova, and in 1820 he designated the building as the first site to house what came to be known as the Palace School , the first formal European-style school in Imerina. Sovereigns were enthroned in this building and their mortal remains were displayed here before burial, rendering Besakana "the official state room for civil affairs... regarded as the throne of the kingdom." The early Merina fighters under

5640-592: The Swahili coast. Some of the more recent settlers on the island of Madagascar are found amongst the Antemoro Apart from their native Ampanabaka clan which form the majority, three other clans are descended from Muslim seafarers who are believed to have arrived on the southeast coast around 1500: the Anteony, the Antalaotra and the Anakara. Boats carrying Muslim settlers had arrived on Madagascar's shores in

5760-659: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Madagascar is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with

5880-434: The army. In the second half of the 19th century, the Merina had begun to import slaves from East Africa . This was driven by an economy that critically relied on slave labor as well as the demands of Merina court officials that had personal financial interests. Emancipation of domestic slaves began in 1877, when an estimated 150,000 slaves were freed. However, these newly freed slaves were made into an imperial labor reserve,

6000-670: The assistance of Kulanu, a nonprofit organization focusing on remote Jewish communities. In 2023, the country scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom. Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022. The following demographic are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated. The largest city in Madagascar is Antananarivo . The next largest cities are Toamasina , Antsirabe , Fianarantsoa , Mahajanga , Toliara , Antsiranana and Ambovombe . note: on 21 March 2022,

6120-408: The central authority of Imerina, represented the unification between the Merina royalty and its people. This infrastructural feat paralleled the ritual sprinkling of water known as tsodrano done to represent the unification of land and people. Merina beliefs held the connection between cultural history and the landscape in high regard. The use of water to represent spiritual connections between people,

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6240-412: The coast. Imposing a capitation tax for the first time (the vadin-aina , or "price of secure life"), he was able to establish the first standing Merina royal army and established units of blacksmiths and silversmiths to equip them. He famously repelled an attempted invasion by an army of the powerful western coastal Betsimisaraka people . According to oral history, the wild zebu cattle that roamed

6360-552: The condition that the line of sovereigns ensured the sampy were shown the respect due to them. By collecting the twelve greatest sampy—twelve being a sacred number in Merina cosmology—and transforming their nature, Ralambo strengthened the supernatural power and legitimacy of the royal line of Imerina. Oral history recounts numerous instances where sampy were taken into battle, and subsequent successes and varying miracles were attributed to them, including several key victories against Sakalava marauders. The propagation of similar sampy at

6480-509: The construction and use of pirogues . While these technologies were not discovered during his reign, Andriamanelo may have been among the first sovereigns in Imerina to make wide-scale use of them. Captives from tribal raids were made into the Malagasy slave population. Surpluses of these populations were sent to foreign traders on the coast. These traders were initially Arab and Indian, though Europeans began to join those demanding slaves at

6600-434: The creator. By the time of conversion to Islam, the creator god had been all but forgotten, with much greater focus placed on the spirits, who had been raised to the level of deities. The arrival of Somali settlers prompted large scale conversion to Islam, but the core tenets were soon lost and gave way to the honoring of ancestors and their fady . Since the late 20th century, Muslim missionaries and organizations have sparked

6720-495: The creature's survival, the poison would instead be ingested by the accused himself. Andriamanelo was the first in the highlands to transform lowland swamps into irrigated rice paddies through the construction of dikes in the valleys around Alasora. Under Andrianjaka, the plains surrounding Antananarivo were gradually transformed into vast, surplus-producing rice paddies. This feat was accomplished by mobilizing large numbers of his able-bodied subjects to construct dikes that enabled

6840-401: The first king of Imerina were equipped with iron-tipped spears, an innovation credited to Andriamanelo himself, who may have been the first among the Hova to use smithed iron in this way. Andrianjaka imposed an intimidating change to the traditional form of justice, the trial by ordeal : rather than administering tangena poison to an accused person's rooster to determine their innocence by

6960-620: The full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine 2020 figures (2021 est.) noun: Malagasy (singular and plural) adjective: Malagasy Malayo-Indonesian ( Merina and related Betsileo ), coastal ethnics (mixed African , Malayo - Indonesian , and Arab ancestry – Betsimisaraka , Tsimihety , Antaisaka , Sakalava ), French , Indian , Creole , Comorian , Chinese Malagasy (official, and national language), French (official). definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2018 est.) Kingdom of Imerina In 1883, France invaded

7080-519: The genealogy described in these texts is not factual, and that the Zafikazimambo family had only newly arrived and so had no demonstrable descent from local nobles. Rather, these texts suggest that it took over three generations for the Antemoro to successfully integrate into the society through intermarriage and other means, and also reflect an awareness among the Antemoro of the importance of local caste and lineage traditions and their need to find

7200-599: The highlands on the hill of Analamanga . There he established the fortified compound ( rova ) that would form the heart of his new capital city of Antananarivo . Upon his orders, the first structures within this fortified compound (known as the Rova of Antananarivo ) were constructed: several traditional royal houses were built, and plans for a series of royal tombs were designed. These buildings took on an enduring political and spiritual significance, ensuring their preservation until being destroyed by fire in 1995. Andrianjaka obtained

7320-424: The individual wearer only and were commonplace objects possessed by anyone from slave children to kings. After Ralambo received a highly powerful sampy called Kelimalaza that was distinguished by its supposed capacity to extend protection to an entire community, he sought out and amassed a total of twelve others from communities across Imerina believed to have such a quality. These sampy were personified—complete with

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7440-490: The island's dense forests. By the 15th century the Hova people from the southeastern coast had gradually migrated into the central highlands where they established hilltop villages interspersed among the existing Vazimba settlements, which were ruled by local kings and queens. The two peoples coexisted peacefully for several generations and are known to have intermarried. In this way, a reigning Vazimba queen (alternately given in

7560-668: The island's resources. His liberal policies angered the aristocracy , however, and Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony had the King strangled in a coup d'état . This aristocratic revolution saw Rasoherina , the queen dowager , placed on the throne upon her acceptance of a constitutional monarchy that gave greater power to the Prime Minister. Under her reign, the Lambert Charter was publicly burned in January 1866, and

7680-538: The island, although different Antemoro clans and families incorporate aspects of Islam to varying degrees. They commonly make and wear amulets upon which verses of the Qur'an are written using the sorabe script. Before converting to Islam in the seventh or eighth century, the Malagasy clans that later intermarried with Dir clan to found the Antemoro dynasty were monotheists who believed in a creator god and numerous spirits that served as intermediaries between living beings and

7800-475: The island-wide feature of the community astrologer who shapes daily life. The ombiasy of Matitana were According to historian Bethwell Ogot, the network of stationary and itinerant Antemoro ombiasy were key in transforming the societies of Madagascar from an amalgam of insular clans to outward looking communities with greater awareness of others, leading to territorial expansion and larger, more complex kingdoms. In addition, oral histories suggest that sovereigns among

7920-418: The island. The Merina kingdom nearly consolidated all of Madagascar into a single nation before French colonization in 1895. King Andriamasinavalona quartered the kingdom to be ruled by his four favourite sons, producing persistent fragmentation and warfare between principalities in Imerina. He extended the borders of the kingdom to their largest historical extent prior to the kingdom's fragmentation. It

8040-505: The king then ruling Imerina, Andrianampoinimerina , to reestablish peace. Antemoro villages are primarily clustered in the southeastern coastal area near Vohipeno and Manakara . Society was traditionally divided into two broad categories: the mpanombily (or tompomenakely ), who were nobles said to be descended from Somalis from the Dir clan, and the menakely , composed of the working and slave classes, who were said to have descended from

8160-403: The kingdom to be his royal due. From the time of Andriamanelo forward, it became a marriage tradition for the groom to offer vodiondry to the bride's family. Over time the customary offerings of meat have been increasingly replaced by a symbolic piastre , sums of money and other gifts. Andriamanelo's son Ralambo is credited with introducing the tradition of polygamy in Imerina. He also introduced

8280-399: The land, and ancestors remains common in the present day. By the 1820s, an increased European population had superimposed many Western geographic features onto Imerina. This involved the introduction of non native plants and trees. This proved particularly successful for Europeans as the Malagasy soil and climate were particularly conducive to growing European plants and vegetables. Before

8400-556: The living and the razana (ancestors); by 2020, only 4.5% of Malagasies exclusively practised folk religions and 85% were Christian (according to the Pew Research Center ). The Association of Religion Data Archives noted that in 2020, 58.1% of the population is Christian , 2.1% is Muslim and 39.2% practices traditional faiths, while 0.6% of the population is non-religious or adheres to other faiths. Madagascar's traditional religions tend to emphasize links between

8520-428: The living and the dead. They believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants. This spiritual communion is celebrated by the Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of famadihana , or "turning over the dead". In this ritual, relatives' remains are removed from the family tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds, and returned to

8640-467: The local Malagasy who submitted to Somali rule, or alternately from slaves that the Somalis had brought with them. The mpanombily comprised many noble clans such as the Anakara, Onjatsy, Tsimaito, Antaiony, Antalaotra, Antaisambo, Antaimahazo and others. Particular clans within Antemoro society historically held distinct privileges and responsibilities. The butchering of certain animals for human consumption

8760-541: The monarchy of Madagascar. Prime Minister Rainilaiarivory had succeeded in playing Great Britain and France against one another, but now France could meddle without fear of reprisals from Britain. In 1895, a French flying-column landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched by way of the Betsiboka River to the capital, Antananarivo , taking the city's defenders by surprise since they had expected an attack from

8880-584: The mourning period until the parents of the deceased declare it completed. A male widower remains shut away in his home for a period of one or two weeks, during which time the parents of the deceased send a female family member to care for him and keep him company. The Antemoro speak a dialect of the Malagasy language , which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo . The language

9000-828: The much closer eastern coast. Twenty French soldiers died in combat while 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the Second Franco-Hova War ended. In 1896, the Merina Kingdom was put under French protection as the Malagasy Protectorate and in 1897 the French Parliament voted to annex the island as a colony, effectively ending Merina sovereignty. Andriamanelo established the first fortified rova (royal compound) at his capital at Alasora. This fortified palace bore specific features – hadivory (dry moats), hadifetsy (defensive trenches) and vavahady (town gates protected by

9120-638: The northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. Meanwhile, in Europe, diplomats partitioning the African continent worked out an agreement whereby Britain, in order to obtain the Sultanate of Zanzibar , ceded its rights over Heligoland to the German Empire and renounced all claims to Madagascar in favor of France. The agreement proved detrimental for

9240-461: The oral histories as Rafohy or Rangita ) married a Hova man named Manelobe. Their oldest son, Andriamanelo (r. 1540–1575), broke this tradition by launching a largely successful war to subjugate the surrounding Vazimba communities and force them to either submit to Hova dominance and assimilate, or flee. Andriamanelo was succeeded by his son Ralambo (r. 1575–1612), whose many enduring and significant political and cultural achievements earned him

9360-603: The paper is commonly sold to tourists and exported overseas. "Antemoro", in the Malagasy language , means "people of the coast". They live on the southeastern coast, mostly between Manakara and Farafangana . The Antemoro are partially descendants of the Somalis who settled in Madagascar in the 14th century and intermarried with the local population. In 2013 the Antemoro population was estimated at 500,000. While there are claims that link them to Arabia, other scholars argue these people are more likely linked to groups originating in

9480-590: The past, but there was a marked uptick in arrivals around this time. Upon arrival they encountered several other Malagasy ethnic groups including the Zafiraminia, who also traced their origins back to Mecca by way of East Africa, although some scholars suggest that the origins of the Zafiraminia was in Sumatra. The Zafiraminia had developed a high status among Malagasy communities for the knowledge and technology they had carried with them from overseas, and who had

9600-455: The politically and economically advantaged highlanders of the central plateaux and the people along the coast. For example, in the 1970s there was widespread opposition among coastal ethnics against the policy of "Malagasization" which intended to phase out the use of the French language in public life in favour of a more prominent position for the Malagasy language , whose orthography is based on

9720-444: The population. Madagascar 's population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian and East African origin. Since the country's independence in 1960, three general census of population and dwellings (RGPH) have been conducted by the national statistics office INSTAT under the supervision of the ministry of economy. The first census in 1975 counted 7.4 million Malagasy people , the second one in 1993 censused 12.3 million citizens and

9840-626: The power of the earlier Zafiraminia , who descended from seafarers of Sumatran origin. The Antemoro (Anteony clan) soon developed a reputation as powerful sorcerers and astrologers, in large part owing to their monopoly on knowledge of writing, termed sorabe , which uses the Arabic script to transcribe the Malagasy language . Antemoro ombiasy (astrologer sages) migrated throughout the island, where they practiced their arts for local communities, served as advisers to kings, and even founded new principalities. This Antemoro mobility and their creation of

9960-476: The pre-colonial period for their astrologers , who would predict the future based on lunar phases . They were known all across Madagascar and acted as advisers at the court of many Malagasy kings , including the celebrated Merina king Andrianampoinimerina , whose Antemoro astrologers advised him and taught him sorabe writing. The pan-Madagascar tradition of the ombiasy is rooted in this element of Antemoro culture. The introduction of royal sampy (idols) into

10080-649: The predominantly Catholic masses, considered to be underprivileged, and the predominantly Protestant Merina aristocrats, who tend to prevail in the civil service, business, and professions. Followers of Islam constitute approximately 3% of the population in 2022, according to the US Department of State; there are also small numbers of Hindus and Jews . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had more than 13,000 members in 42 congregations in Madagascar in 2013. A small community started practicing Judaism in 2010, and formally converted in 2016 with

10200-400: The preeminence of the Matitana ombiasy as masters of arcane knowledge and those outside their clan who sought to learn or dispense it. The Zafikasimambo used their right to conduct sombily (ritual sacrifice) to shape and increasingly control political and economic activities in the area. To end the conflict with the Zafiraminia, they executed as many males of the group as possible and relegated

10320-448: The prerogative of practicing ritual animal sacrifice for the ancestors ( sombili ), a highly powerful and important rite among Malagasy communities. Oral and written historical traditions of the Antemoro describe their desire to secure marriages between the two communities, but these efforts were rejected by the Zafiraminia. A conflict developed between the two groups for supremacy, which the oral histories of other Malagasy groups describe as

10440-445: The redirection of rainwater for controlled flooding of planted areas. Andrianjaka was reportedly the first Merina leader to receive Europeans around 1620 and traded slaves in exchange for guns and other firearms to aid in the pacification of rival principalities, obtaining 50 guns and three barrels of gunpowder to equip his army. Andriamanelo is traditionally credited with discovering the technique of silversmithing, iron smithing and

10560-476: The religious specialists (especially the Anakara) preserve and speak a secret language called Kalamo. Kalamo is an Arabic language that utilizes Malagasy morphology and syntax that the locals call kalamon' Antesitesy . Many Antemoro work as ombiasy and earn their livelihood selling their services as astrologers, sorcerers, or crafters of powerful amulets; it is common for men to travel for six to ten months out of

10680-514: The sacred Antemoro idols and texts, spoke a secret language for communicating arcane knowledge amongst themselves, and rarely intermarried with other Antemoro clans. This clan was believed to be in communication with powerful genies ( ziny ) and other spirits and was reputed to produce the most powerful sorcerers and astrologers on the island. They knew how to manufacture charms, cast spells, and practice geomancy using local gemstones. To maintain their distinction from other members of Antemoro society,

10800-447: The second British-Merina treaty of 1820. This treaty declared an end to the export of slaves in Madagascar under the Merina crown. However, the internal slave market still boomed after 1820 despite British efforts. It is estimated that between 6,000 to 10,000 slaves per year were exported from Antananarivo by 1820. In 1828, Ranavalona I revoked the second British-Merina treaty and expelled most foreigners from Madagascar by 1836. Due to

10920-447: The service of less powerful citizens consequently increased throughout Imerina under Ralambo's rule: nearly every village chief, as well as many common families, had one in their possession and claimed the powers and protection their communal sampy offered them. These lesser sampy were destroyed or reduced to the status of ody by the end of the reign of Ralambo's son, Andrianjaka, officially leaving only twelve truly powerful sampy (known as

11040-408: The south of Antananarivo with its capital at Betafo. Andrianampoinimerina reunited these provinces and added Imamo to the west, which has been described by some historians as having been incorporated into Ambodirano, and by others as separate from it; and Valalafotsy to the northwest. Together, these areas constitute the core territory rightly called Imerina, the homeland of the Merina people. Imerina

11160-627: The southeastern part of the island that the Hova had left behind as they migrated into the central highlands. Astrology, for instance, had been introduced early to the island by way of trade contacts between coastal Malagasy communities and Arab seafarers. Under Andriamanelo's son Ralambo, the sovereign became imbued with increasing power to protect the realm. This was preserved by honoring the sampy , traditional amulets made from assorted natural materials. Amulets and idols called ody had long occupied an important place among many ethnic groups of Madagascar , but these were believed to offer protection to

11280-437: The sovereign and others present at the ceremony. Afterward the sovereign would bathe in sanctified water, then sprinkle it upon attendees to purify and bless them and ensure an auspicious start to the year. Children would celebrate the fandroana by carrying lighted torches and lanterns in a nighttime processional through their villages. The zebu meat eaten over the course of the festival was primarily grilled or consumed as jaka ,

11400-432: The sovereign had successfully contracted a marriage with Ramaitsoanala, sole daughter of Vazimba King Rabiby, Andriamanelo sent her a variety of gifts including vodiondry—meat from the hindquarters of a sheep—which he believed to be the tastiest portion. The value placed on this cut of meat was reaffirmed by Ralambo who, upon discovering the edibility of zebu meat, declared the hindquarters of every slaughtered zebu throughout

11520-472: The spirit possession ceremony. Generally, the concept of history in Madagascar places a great emphasis on feeling and experiencing rather than knowing. The line of succession in Imerina used a system called fanjakana arindra ("organized government"), which was established by the Vazimba noblewomen who raised Andriamanelo, founder of Imerina. While the Vazimba had historically tended to favor rule by queens,

11640-556: The start of each year. Although the precise form of the original holiday cannot be known with certainty and its traditions have evolved over time, 18th- and 19th-century accounts provide insight into the festival as it was practiced at that time. Accounts from these centuries indicate that all family members were required to reunite in their home villages during the festival period. Estranged family members were expected to attempt to reconcile. Homes were cleaned and repaired and new housewares and clothing were purchased. The symbolism of renewal

11760-703: The start of the 16th century. Malagasy slaves were exported to Arabia, India, Réunion and Mauritius , and the Americas, primarily Brazil . After the British emerged victorious from the Napoleonic wars , they captured the French Mascarene Islands which lie east of Madagascar. These islands facilitated the export of slaves and agricultural products. Some of the first stories of Madagascar to be told in Britain were those told by Robert Drury ,

11880-458: The stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed

12000-481: The structures with deep symbolic and spiritual meaning. As Andrianjaka's residence, the Besakana was particularly significant: the original building was torn down and reconstructed in the same design by Andriamasinavalona around 1680, and again by Andrianampoinimerina in 1800, each of whom inhabited the building in turn as their personal residence. King Radama I likewise inhabited the building for much of his time at

12120-434: The tens of thousands. These refugees formed raiding brigands that were dealt with by imperial troops who hunted them down in 1835. Notably, the rate of escaping refugees only heightened the demand for slave labor in the Merina kingdom, further fueling campaigns of military expansion. Throughout the middle of the 19th century, continued imperial expansion and increasing control in coastal trade solidified Merina predominance over

12240-412: The thin population density of Madagascar, domestic slavery was a way to broadcast control over resources and manpower. The elite of Imerina relied heavily upon slave labor . Because of this, the Merina king Radama I had little intent to abide by the first British-Merina treaty signed in 1817. Slave ownership became increasingly common in the following decades. As the slave caste expanded, more and more of

12360-515: The throne at age 22 and was exiled to Réunion Island and later French Algeria following French colonisation of the island in 1896. Angry at the cancellation of the Lambert Charter and seeking to restore property taken from French citizens, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the First Franco-Hova War ( Hova referring to the andriana ). At the war's end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diégo Suarez) on

12480-459: The tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor. In the festivities, they eat, drink, and literally dance with the dead. After one or two days of celebrating, they shower the body with gifts and rebury it. Malagasy Christians are roughly 50% Catholic and 50% Protestant (mainly Reformed Protestant Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (FJKM) , Lutheran , and Anglican ) or Roman Catholic , but there are also smaller groups such as members of

12600-509: The traditions of circumcision and family intermarriage (such as between parent and step-child, or between half-siblings) among Merina nobles, these practices having already existed among certain other Malagasy ethnic groups. According to oral history, the institution of lengthy formal mourning periods for deceased sovereigns in Imerina may also have begun with the death of Andrianjaka. He was succeeded by his son, Andriantsitakatrandriana . Despite plenty of religious variation across Imerina and

12720-410: The unification of the Merina kingdom under Andrianampoinimerina, the social structure of the central highlands of Madagascar were distinguished by a class of petty princes and peasant masses. Andriamanelo was reportedly the first to formally establish the andriana as a caste of Merina nobles, thereby laying the foundation for a stratified and structured society. From this point forward, the term Hova

12840-432: The women and children to restricted areas. In this way they established the first strong Antemoro kingdom. They are rare among Malagasy clans as newcomers who successfully established their own kingdom within a short time after landing on the island. Under Antemoro Zafikasimambo leadership, the commoners' freedom was significantly reduced and religion became a central feature of social and political life. The conflict between

12960-430: The year or more to work as ombiasy offering charms, spells, divinations and other arcane services. Nearly every village in Madagascar has an ombiasy, and many are either Antemoro themselves or have traveled to the Antemoro homeland to receive training. The community's historic production of Antemoro paper, a flower-embedded paper traditionally used to record secret knowledge using sorabe, is another major source of income as

13080-428: The year. Coffee production is widespread in the Antemoro homeland and generates income for many families. Those who own little or no land often emigrate to work as agricultural laborers in the north and west. The Antemoro Ampanira clan was historically a main producer and trader of sea salt. The Antemoro are well known for their handmade paper, which is often decorated using pressed fresh flowers and leaves. Antemoro paper

13200-450: Was among the party of three who served as the first ambassadors to Britain and Mauritius; he died in 1838 from tangena poison administered in a trial by ordeal during the reign of Queen Ranavalona I . Ethnic groups of Madagascar Demographic features of the population of Madagascar include population density , ethnicity , education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of

13320-404: Was an elder child and a younger one, the parents would designate an elder child to assume authority within the family upon their death, and that authority would be handed to the designated younger child in the event of the death of the elder child. Ralambo was the first Merina sovereign to practice polygamy, and his second wife was the first to give him a son. While his younger son by his first wife

13440-503: Was assigned to specific clans. Antemoro kings ( andrianony ) were selected by popular decision from among the Anteony clan, originally clustered around the mouth of the Matitanana river near the town of Manakara that shares their name. Once selected, these rulers were accorded a near-sacred status. The fady they established were scrupulously observed for centuries after the ruler's death. The Anakara were responsible for safeguarding

13560-506: Was believed this could render them more attractive to men outside their clan, with whom they were forbidden to marry. The Antemoro were reputed across the island for being the only ethnic group to have developed a written form of the Malagasy language, sorabe, which used Arabic script; this form of writing was largely replaced elsewhere by the Latin alphabet under the Merina monarchy in the 19th century. The Antemoro were also widely reputed in

13680-409: Was from this context in 1787 that Prince Ramboasalama, nephew of King Andrianjafy of Ambohimanga (one of the four kingdoms of Imerina) expelled his uncle and took the throne under the name Andrianampoinimerina . The new king used both diplomacy and force to reunite Imerina with the intent to bring all of Madagascar under his rule. This objective was largely completed under his son, Radama I , who

13800-406: Was particularly embodied in the traditional sexual permissiveness encouraged on the eve of the fandroana (characterized by early 19th-century British missionaries as an "orgy") and the following morning's return to rigid social order with the sovereign firmly at the helm of the kingdom. On this morning, the first day of the year, a red rooster was traditionally sacrificed and its blood used to anoint

13920-534: Was probably uninhabited prior to Austronesian settlement in the early centuries AD. Austronesian (particularly Malay ) features are most predominant in the central highlands peoples, while coastal peoples are phenotypically more East African , sometimes with minor Arab, Somali, European and Indian admixtures. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1,500,000) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). Malagasy society has long been polarized between

14040-419: Was shifted by his son Ralambo to Ambohidrabiby, location of the former capital of his maternal grandfather King Rabiby. Andrianjaka moved his capital from Ambohidrabiby to Ambohimanga upon ascending to the throne around 1610. The Besakana, Masoandrotsiroa and Fitomiandalana houses at the Rova of Antananarivo were preserved and maintained over the centuries by successive generations of Merina sovereigns, imbuing

14160-533: Was the first to admit and regularly engage European missionaries and diplomats in Antananarivo. The 33 year reign of Queen Ranavalona I , the widow of Radama I, was characterised by a struggle to preserve the cultural isolation of Madagascar from modernity, especially as represented by the French and British . Her son and heir, King Radama II , signed the unpopular Lambert Charter giving French entrepreneur Joseph-François Lambert exclusive rights to many of

14280-435: Was to rule, Ralambo sought to assuage the elder son by declaring that the crown could henceforth only be passed to a child born of the reigning sovereign and a princess from the elder son Andriantompokoindrindra's family line. The practice of sanctifying deceased Merina sovereigns is believed to have originated with Ralambo. Imerina was initially ruled under Andriamanelo from his mother's home village of Alasora. The capital

14400-469: Was used to refer only to the non-noble free people of the society which would later be renamed Merina by Andriamanelo's son Ralambo. The first sub-divisions of the andriana noble caste were created when Ralambo split it into four ranks. Andrianjaka was the first king to be buried on the grounds of the Rova of Antananarivo, his tomb forming the first of the Fitomiandalana (seven tombs placed in

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