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145-417: The concept of the anima mundi ( Latin ), world soul ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : ψυχὴ κόσμου , psychḕ kósmou ), or soul of the world ( ψυχὴ τοῦ κόσμου , psychḕ toû kósmou ) posits an intrinsic connection between all living beings, suggesting that the world is animated by a soul much like the human body. Rooted in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy , the idea holds that the world soul infuses

290-460: A Corinthian , but a citizen of the world." They held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco-Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato

435-424: A deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes". A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus , "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy", thus positing

580-515: A "completely autonomous" individual will, and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as " Classical Pantheism " (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza ). Philosopher Julian Baggini has characterized what constitutes one being a Stoic: "To become a stoic is to endorse the truthfulness of its worldview and accept its prescription for how you ought to live, not just to like how it makes you feel." Baggini asserts that

725-422: A Living Creature, one and visible, containing within itself all the living creatures which are by nature akin to itself. Plato's Timaeus describes this living cosmos as being built by the demiurge , constructed to be self-identical and intelligible to reason, according to a rational pattern expressed in mathematical principles and Pythagorean ratios describing the structure of the cosmos, and particularly

870-410: A Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or " askēsis "), an active process of constant practice and self-reminder. Epictetus in his Discourses , distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination. which Hadot identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics respectively. Hadot writes that in

1015-563: A beginning or end to the Universe. According to the Stoics, the logos was the active reason or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal reason (" logos spermatikos "), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter . Humans, too, each possess

1160-410: A belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity—or "persistent evil"—of humankind, and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and attachments. Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions, such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be awakened and developed. Stoic influence can also be seen in

1305-443: A certain way; I am the father of my children, the fellow citizen of my fellow citizens, disposed in a certain way in relation to something else. The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason . Truth can be distinguished from fallacy —even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through

1450-491: A clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason ( logos ). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being: " Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature." This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy", and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature". The Stoic ethic espouses

1595-434: A coherent cosmological vision. The Stoic school of philosophy , founded by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BCE, significantly contributed to the development of the concept of the world soul. Stoicism posits that the universe is a single, living entity permeated by a divine rational principle known as the logos . This principle organizes and animates the cosmos, functioning as its soul. Central to Stoic cosmology

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1740-603: A disciple of Socrates . Zeno's most influential successor was Chrysippus , who followed Cleanthes as leader of the school, and was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism. Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray , "nearly all the successors of Alexander [...] professed themselves Stoics". Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting

1885-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After

2030-743: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before

2175-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in

2320-616: A life in harmony within the universe within which we are active participants. Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: the Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding to Antipater ; the Middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius ; and the Late Stoa, including Musonius Rufus , Seneca , Epictetus , and Marcus Aurelius . No complete works survived from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from

2465-507: A more elaborate structure, with the World Soul divided into a higher, more divine aspect and a lower, more material aspect. This dual nature allows the World Soul to mediate between the purely intellectual and the physical realms, ensuring the coherence and order of the universe. The Neoplatonists viewed the World Soul not only as a metaphysical principle but also as a means to achieve personal and cosmic harmony. By aligning one's soul with

2610-560: A native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until

2755-486: A person behaved. To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they believed everything was rooted in nature. Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century CE, and among its adherents was Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius . It experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century CE. Since then, it has seen revivals, notably in

2900-445: A portion of the divine logos , which is the primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the Universe. The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, in wisdom and self-control. One must therefore strive to be free of the passions . For the Stoics, reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things. The Greek word pathos

3045-639: A rational pattern expressed through mathematical principles. Plato describes the world soul as a mixture of sameness and difference, forming a unified, harmonious entity that permeates the cosmos. This soul animates the universe, ensuring its rational structure and function according to a divine plan, with the motions of the seven classical planets reflecting the deep connection between mathematics and reality in Platonic thought. Stoicism and Gnosticism are two significant philosophical systems that elaborated on this concept. Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium in

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3190-567: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through

3335-438: A resurgence during the Renaissance when Hermeticism was revived and integrated into Renaissance thought, influencing various intellectual and spiritual movements of the time. Plato described the universe as a living being in his dialogue Timaeus (30b–d): Thus, then, in accordance with the likely account, we must declare that this Cosmos has verily come into existence as a Living Creature endowed with soul and reason [...]

3480-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to

3625-709: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross

3770-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be

3915-572: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite

4060-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as

4205-1173: A system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see Syllogism ). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many close similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking". Bobzien also notes that, "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of predicates , indexicals , existential propositions , sentential connectives , negations , disjunctions , conditionals , logical consequence , valid argument forms, theory of deduction , propositional logic, modal logic , tense logic , epistemic logic , logic of suppositions , logic of imperatives , ambiguity and logical paradoxes ". The Stoics held that all beings ( ὄντα )—though not all things (τινά)—are material . Besides

4350-409: A unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of logic , monistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions ; the philosophy holds that becoming

4495-693: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than

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4640-434: A virtuous life, such as if they fell victim to severe pain or disease, but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty. For example, Plutarch reports that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato 's self-consistency ( constantia ) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices. A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism ; according to

4785-599: A vision of the cosmos that was both mystical and rational. Bruno's emphasis on the world soul can also be seen in his metaphysical poetry and dialogues, where he often depicted the universe as a divine, living organism animated by an internal spirit. This perspective was revolutionary, challenging the Aristotelian view of a finite, hierarchical cosmos and aligning more closely with the Hermetic and Neoplatonic traditions. Bruno’s radical ideas, including his support for

4930-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,

5075-481: Is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as " Classical Pantheism " (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza ). Diodorus Cronus , who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic , which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, differing greatly from Aristotle's term logic . Later, Chrysippus developed

5220-897: Is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to

5365-503: Is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism : God is never fully transcendent but always immanent , and identified with Nature . Abrahamic religions personalize God as a world-creating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe; according to Stoic cosmology , which is very similar to the Hindu conception of existence , there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, space and

5510-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In

5655-552: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from

5800-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and

5945-413: Is not ex nihilo but rather a process of organizing the cosmos according to the eternal Forms, which are perfect, immutable archetypes of all things. Plato explains that the world soul is a mixture of the same and the different, woven together to form a unified, harmonious entity. This soul permeates the entire cosmos, animating it and endowing it with life and intelligence. The world soul is responsible for

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6090-472: Is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction ( katalepsis ). Certain and true knowledge ( episteme ), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind. According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material reasoning substance ( logos ), which was divided into two classes:

6235-417: Is our own doing." These suggest a space that is up to us or within our power. A simple example of the Stoic categories in use is provided by Jacques Brunschwig: I am a certain lump of matter, and thereby a substance, an existent something (and thus far that is all); I am a man, and this individual man that I am, and thereby qualified by a common quality and a peculiar one; I am sitting or standing, disposed in

6380-508: Is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object. They held that there were four categories : The Stoics outlined that our own actions, thoughts, and reactions are within our control. The opening paragraph of the Enchiridion states the categories as: "Some things in the world are up to us, while others are not. Up to us are our faculties of judgment, motivation, desire, and aversion. In short, whatever

6525-471: Is regarded by many as the father of early versions of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Stoic philosophy was the original philosophical inspiration for modern cognitive psychotherapy , particularly as mediated by Albert Ellis' Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), the major precursor of CBT. The original cognitive therapy treatment manual for depression by Aaron T. Beck et al. states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to

6670-415: Is sufficient for happiness ", a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis ) that is "in accordance with nature ". Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how

6815-1011: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it

6960-503: Is the belief that the logos operates as the rational structure underlying all existence. This rational principle is equated with God, nature, and the soul of the universe, making the cosmos a living, rational organism. The Stoics identified the world soul with the concept of pneuma , a life-giving force that pervades and sustains all things. Pneuma is a mixture of air and fire, elements considered active and capable of bestowing life and motion. The Stoic philosopher Cleanthes described

7105-459: Is the only evil; no cause for anger—for others cannot harm you. The Stoics arranged the passions under four headings: distress, pleasure, fear and lust. One report of the Stoic definitions of these passions appears in the treatise On Passions by Chrysippus (trans. Long & Sedley, pg. 411, modified): Two of these passions (distress and delight) refer to emotions currently present, and two of these (fear and lust) refer to emotions directed at

7250-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In

7395-583: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are

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7540-569: The Meditations , "Each maxim develops either one of these very characteristic topoi [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them." Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta is a collection by Hans von Arnim of fragments and testimonia of the earlier Stoics, published in 1903–1905 as part of the Bibliotheca Teubneriana . It includes the fragments and testimonia of Zeno of Citium , Chrysippus and their immediate followers. At first

7685-574: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by

7830-402: The Renaissance ( Neostoicism ) and in the contemporary era ( modern Stoicism ). Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life. The Stoics provided

7975-576: The Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to

8120-569: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it

8265-469: The Universe have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed (" ekpyrōsis ", conflagration ) and re-created again , and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and self-destroying (see also Eternal return ). Stoicism does not posit

8410-636: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which

8555-467: The logos governs the cosmos rationally, living in accordance with nature means aligning one's life with this rational order. The Stoics believed that by understanding and accepting the world's rational structure, individuals could achieve a state of tranquility and virtue. Gnosticism , a diverse and syncretic religious movement that emerged in the early centuries of the Common Era, also incorporated

8700-476: The macrocosm and microcosm , where the human body (microcosm) is a reflection of the larger universe (macrocosm). By studying the world soul's manifestations in nature, Paracelsus believed that alchemists and physicians could uncover the secrets of health and transformation. Giordano Bruno , a 16th-century Italian philosopher, theologian, and occultist, significantly contributed to the Renaissance revival of

8845-637: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto

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8990-455: The Church regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy"; nonetheless, early Christian writers employed some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples include the terms "logos", " virtue ", "Spirit", and " conscience ". But the parallels go well beyond the sharing and borrowing of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the external world,

9135-548: The Copernican model and his concept of an infinite universe with a pervasive world soul, led to his persecution by the Roman Catholic Church . He was tried for heresy and ultimately burned at the stake in 1600. Despite his tragic end, Bruno's ideas significantly influenced later thinkers and contributed to the development of modern cosmology and metaphysics. Another key figure in Hermeticism, Robert Fludd , elaborated on

9280-613: The English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As

9425-451: The Forms) and the sensible world (the material universe). Plotinus describes the World Soul as the vital force that animates and organizes the cosmos, imbuing it with life and intelligence. It is both one and many, maintaining unity while simultaneously generating individual souls and entities within the cosmos. Proclus, a prominent later Neoplatonist, further developed these ideas. He posited

9570-599: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,

9715-638: The Hermetic belief in the interconnection of all things, with the world soul as the binding principle that ensures the unity of the cosmos. His work reflects the Hermetic conviction that by attuning oneself to the world soul, one can achieve deeper knowledge and spiritual enlightenment. Although the concept of a world soul originated in classical antiquity , similar ideas can be found in the thoughts of later European philosophers such as those of Baruch Spinoza , Gottfried Leibniz , Immanuel Kant , Friedrich Schelling , and Georg W.F. Hegel (particularly in his concept of Weltgeist ). The concept of Anima Mundi, or

9860-469: The Hermetic tradition. His work is known for its bold integration of Hermeticism, Copernican heliocentrism, and an infinite universe theory, which brought the concept of the world soul into a new, expansive context. Bruno’s cosmology was groundbreaking in that it proposed an infinite universe populated by innumerable worlds. Central to this vision was the idea of the world soul, or anima mundi , which Bruno described as an immanent and animating force pervading

10005-431: The Late Stoa survived. Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life. Of all the schools of ancient philosophy, Stoicism made the greatest claim to being utterly systematic. In

10150-451: The Stoic philosophers". A well-known quotation from Enchiridion of Epictetus was taught to most clients during the initial session of traditional REBT by Ellis and his followers: "It's not the events that upset us, but our judgments about the events." This subsequently became a common element in the socialization phase of many other approaches to CBT. The question of Stoicism's influence on modern psychotherapy, particularly REBT and CBT,

10295-421: The Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches to virtue ethics . The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings, and that external things, such as health, wealth, and pleasure, are not good or bad in themselves ( adiaphora ) but have value as "material for virtue to act upon". Many Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus —emphasized that because "virtue

10440-410: The Stoics emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. Stoicism teaches the development of self-control as a means of overcoming destructive emotions ; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason ( logos ). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving

10585-531: The Stoics, all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. In the Discourses , Epictetus comments on man's relationship with the world: "Each human being is primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men, whereof the city political is only a copy." This sentiment echoes that of Diogenes of Sinope , who said, "I am not an Athenian or

10730-467: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from

10875-463: The Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate: Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are

11020-563: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as

11165-471: The World Soul, continues to resonate in contemporary philosophical, ecological, and spiritual discourse. Modern interpretations often explore the interconnectedness of life and the universe, reflecting ancient notions through new lenses. In contemporary environmental philosophy, the idea of Anima Mundi is often invoked to emphasize the intrinsic value of nature and the interconnectedness of all living things. Ecologists and environmentalists draw parallels between

11310-508: The World Soul, individuals could attain a higher state of being and participate in the divine order of the cosmos. This process involves philosophical contemplation, ethical living, and the cultivation of virtues that reflect the harmonious nature of the World Soul. The influence of Neoplatonism extended beyond the classical period, significantly impacting early Christian, Islamic, and Renaissance thought. The integration of Platonic and Neoplatonic ideas into Christian theology, particularly through

11455-894: The Younger and Epictetus. In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves . Seneca exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies." Plotinus criticized both Aristotle's Categories and those of the Stoics. His student Porphyry , however, defended Aristotle's scheme. He justified this by arguing that they be interpreted strictly as expressions, rather than as metaphysical realities. The approach can be justified, at least in part, by Aristotle's own words in The Categories. Boethius ' acceptance of Porphyry's interpretation led to their being accepted by Scholastic philosophy. The Fathers of

11600-437: The active and the passive. The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion". The active substance is an intelligent aether or primordial fire , which acts on the passive matter: The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with

11745-489: The ancient concept and modern holistic approaches to ecology. James Lovelock 's Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth functions as a self-regulating system, echoing the idea of the World Soul animating and organizing the cosmos. This holistic view suggests that recognizing the Earth as a living entity can foster a deeper environmental ethic and a sense of stewardship for the planet. Philosophers like David Abram have explored

11890-448: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Stoicism Alongside Aristotle's ethics ,

12035-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin

12180-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name

12325-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as

12470-493: The cohesion and harmony of the cosmos, reflecting the Hermetic principle of the interconnectedness of all things. Bruno was deeply influenced by the Hermetic texts, particularly the Corpus Hermeticum , which he saw as containing profound truths about the nature of the universe and the divine. His philosophy integrated the Hermetic concept of the world soul with the revolutionary scientific ideas of his time, leading to

12615-417: The common nature of things and the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained. Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for

12760-403: The concept of the World Soul, highlighting the interconnection and interdependence of various components within ecological and social systems. The Anima Mundi also finds relevance in modern spiritual and New Age movements, where it is often associated with the idea of a living, conscious Earth. Practices such as Earth-centered spirituality, animism , and certain strands of neopaganism embrace

12905-425: The concept of the world soul in his extensive writings on cosmology and metaphysics. Fludd's works depict the world soul as the divine anima mundi that connects all levels of existence, from the highest spiritual realms to the material world. He emphasized the idea of cosmic harmony, where the world soul orchestrates the symphony of creation, maintaining balance and order. Fludd's illustrations and writings highlight

13050-417: The concept of the world soul into its cosmological and theological framework. Gnostic systems generally posited a dualistic worldview, contrasting the material world with a higher, spiritual reality. In this context, the world soul often played a crucial role in bridging the divine and material realms. In Gnostic thought, the world soul is often associated with the figure of Sophia (Wisdom) , who embodies both

13195-521: The concept of the world soul into its cosmological framework. The Hermetic tradition, which flourished in the Hellenistic period and saw a revival during the Renaissance , views the world soul as a vital, animating force that permeates and unites the cosmos. Hermetic writings, particularly the Corpus Hermeticum and the Asclepius , emphasize the unity and interconnection of all things in

13340-409: The cooperating causes of all things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web. Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the seminal reason (" logos spermatikos ") of the Universe". Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe. Stoic theology

13485-446: The correct rational emotions. The Stoics listed the good-feelings under the headings of joy ( chara ), wish ( boulesis ), and caution ( eulabeia ). Thus if something is present which is a genuine good, then the wise person experiences an uplift in the soul—joy ( chara ). The Stoics also subdivided the good-feelings: The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living

13630-423: The cosmos with life and intelligence. This notion has been influential across various systems of thought, including Stoicism , Gnosticism , Neoplatonism , and Hermeticism , shaping metaphysical and cosmological frameworks throughout history. In ancient philosophy, Plato 's dialogue Timaeus introduces the universe as a living creature endowed with a soul and reason, constructed by the demiurge according to

13775-411: The cosmos. Hermeticism, based on writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus , views the world soul as a vital force uniting the cosmos. Hermetic texts describe the cosmos as a living being imbued with a divine spirit, emphasizing the unity and interconnection of all things. Aligning oneself with the world soul is seen as a path to spiritual enlightenment and union with the divine, a belief that experienced

13920-465: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for

14065-469: The covering ( integumentum ) of another name. As or immediately after Peter Abelard was condemned by Bernard of Clairvaux and the 1141 Council of Sens for doctrines similarly close to pantheism , William condemned his own writings on the subject and revised his De Philosophia Mundi to avoid its discussion. Hermeticism , a spiritual, philosophical, and esoteric tradition based primarily on writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus , integrates

14210-503: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains

14355-449: The development of Neoplatonism . Neoplatonists such as Plotinus and Proclus expanded on Plato's ideas, emphasizing the unity and divinity of the cosmos and its connection to the One , the ultimate source of all existence. Neoplatonism, which flourished in the 3rd century CE, is a philosophical system that builds upon the teachings of Plato and incorporates metaphysical elements. Plotinus,

14500-654: The divine wisdom and the tragic descent into the material world. Sophia's fall and subsequent redemption are central themes in many Gnostic texts. According to the Apocryphon of John , a key Gnostic scripture, Sophia's emanation resulted in the creation of the material world, which is seen as flawed and distant from the divine pleroma (fullness). In Gnostic systems, the concept of the world soul often carries significant ethical and soteriological implications. Gnostics believed that by acquiring esoteric knowledge and understanding their divine origin, individuals could transcend

14645-444: The early 3rd century BCE, posited that the universe is a single, living entity permeated by the divine rational principle known as the logos, which organizes and animates the cosmos, functioning as its soul. Gnosticism, emerging in the early centuries of the Common Era, often associates the world soul with Sophia , who embodies divine wisdom and the descent into the material world. Gnostics believed that esoteric knowledge could transcend

14790-528: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin

14935-593: The end of the 4th century BC. Unlike the Epicureans , Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space. Stoicism was originally known as Zenonism. However, this name was soon dropped, likely because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a cult of personality . Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics (brought to him by Crates of Thebes ), whose founding father, Antisthenes , had been

15080-619: The endorsement of the truthfulness of the Stoic worldview and the tenets for one's behavior that follow from it, are central to what it means to be a Stoic. The name Stoicism derives from the Stoa Poikile ( Ancient Greek : ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes on the north side of the Agora in Athens where Zeno of Citium and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas, near

15225-412: The entire cosmos. He argued that the world soul is the source of all motion, life, and intelligence in the universe, linking all parts of the cosmos into a single, living entity. In his work De la causa, principio et uno ( On Cause, Principle, and Unity ), Bruno articulated his belief in the unity of the universe and the presence of a single, universal spirit. This spirit, akin to the world soul, ensures

15370-431: The existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable. They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals. Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras 's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents . Thus, if an object

15515-596: The founder of Neoplatonism, articulated a vision of reality that centers on a hierarchical structure of existence. At the pinnacle of this hierarchy is the One, an ineffable and transcendent principle from which all reality emanates. The One generates the Nous (Divine Mind), which in turn produces the World Soul . The World Soul in Neoplatonism functions as an intermediary between the intelligible realm (the realm of

15660-510: The future. Thus there are just two states directed at the prospect of good and evil, but subdivided as to whether they are present or future: Numerous subdivisions of the same class were brought under the head of the separate passions: The wise person ( sophos ) is someone who is free from the passions ( apatheia ). Instead the sage experiences good-feelings ( eupatheia ) which are clear-headed. These emotional impulses are not excessive, but nor are they diminished emotions. Instead they are

15805-424: The harmony and order of the universe. Plato's identification of the cosmos as a god, titled Ouranos and Kosmos, reveals his synthesis of different philosophical traditions. The name Ouranos connects the world soul to the ancient Greek personification of the sky, while Kosmos signifies order and beauty. By mediating between poetic and presocratic traditions, Plato integrates mythological and philosophical elements into

15950-460: The individual's ethical and moral well-being: " Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature". This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy", and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature". The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that

16095-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How

16240-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of

16385-440: The large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as

16530-467: The late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and

16675-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became

16820-421: The less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in

16965-405: The life, order, and movement within the universe, acting in accordance with the divine will. The Hermetic worldview is deeply rooted in the idea that understanding and aligning oneself with the world soul can lead to spiritual enlightenment and union with the divine. The Renaissance alchemist and physician Paracelsus significantly contributed to the Hermetic tradition by integrating the concept of

17110-428: The material world and reunite with the divine. Neoplatonism and Hermeticism also incorporated the concept of the world soul into their cosmologies. Neoplatonism, flourishing in the 3rd century CE through philosophers like Plotinus and Proclus , proposed a hierarchical structure of existence with the World Soul acting as an intermediary between the intelligible realm and the material world, animating and organizing

17255-531: The material world and reunite with the divine. This process of gnosis involved recognizing the world soul's entrapment in the material realm and working towards its liberation. In Manichaeism , a major Gnostic religion founded by the prophet Mani in the 3rd century CE, the world soul was also called the Light Soul and the Living Soul ( Middle Persian : grīw zīndag ), contrasting it with matter, which

17400-400: The materiality of the pneuma . For the Stoics, the soul of the universe is not an abstract, separate entity but a physical presence that interpenetrates the cosmos, providing it with structure and purpose. This physicalist interpretation reflects the Stoic commitment to the idea that only bodies can act and be acted upon. The Stoic concept of the world soul also has ethical implications. Since

17545-445: The motions of the seven classical planets . The living universe is also a god titled Ouranos and Kosmos , which shows, as scholars have argued, that Plato mediates between the poetic and presocratic traditions. In Timaeus , Plato presents the cosmos as a single, living organism that possesses a soul and intelligence. The demiurge, a divine craftsman, creates the universe by imposing order on pre-existing chaotic matter. This creation

17690-504: The mystery of existence. Authors and artists draw on the symbolism of the World Soul to convey a sense of wonder and reverence for the natural world. This is evident in the works of poets like Mary Oliver , who often evoke the living essence of nature in their writings, and in the visual arts, where the interplay of life and the cosmos is a recurring theme. Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] )

17835-461: The notion of the World Soul as a guiding principle for living in harmony with nature. These movements emphasize rituals, meditations, and practices aimed at connecting with the spirit of the Earth and recognizing the sacredness of all life. The influence of the Anima Mundi extends into contemporary literature and the arts, serving as a metaphor for exploring themes of unity, interconnection, and

17980-466: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there

18125-451: The phenomenological aspects of Anima Mundi in the context of sensory experience and perception. Abram's work emphasizes the animate qualities of the natural world, suggesting that recognizing the Earth's sentience can foster a deeper ecological awareness and a sense of kinship with all forms of life. Additionally, systems thinking and complexity theory in science reflect a renewed interest in holistic and integrative approaches that resonate with

18270-454: The present day, also incorporates a concept akin to the world soul. In Mandaean cosmology, the soul's journey through the material world and its eventual return to the World of Light is a central narrative. The soul's purification and ascent are facilitated by esoteric knowledge and ritual practices. The concept of the world soul continued to influence later philosophical thought, particularly in

18415-512: The publication of Problems in Stoicism by A. A. Long in 1971, and also as part of the late 20th-century surge of interest in virtue ethics . Contemporary Stoicism draws from the late 20th- and early 21st-century spike in publications of scholarly works on ancient Stoicism. Beyond that, the current Stoicist movement traces its roots to the work of Albert Ellis , who developed rational emotive behavior therapy , as well as Aaron T. Beck , who

18560-560: The rational structure of the universe, ensuring that everything functions according to a divine plan. The rational pattern of the cosmos is expressed through mathematical principles and Pythagorean ratios, reflecting the deep connection between mathematics and the structure of reality in Platonic thought. The motions of the seven classical planets (the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) are particularly significant, as they embody

18705-456: The root of each passion. Incorrect judgement as to a present good gives rise to delight, while lust is a wrong estimate about the future. Unreal imaginings of evil cause distress about the present, or fear for the future. The ideal Stoic would instead measure things at their real value, and see that the passions are not natural. To be free of the passions is to have a happiness which is self-contained. There would be nothing to fear—for unreason

18850-511: The senses to the mind , where they leave an impression in the imagination ( phantasiai ) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma). The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis )—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion ( doxa ). It

18995-484: The tenets of ancient Stoicism to the human origin story, environmental education, vegetarianism and the modern challenges of sustainable development, material consumption and consumerism. Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of reflective practice . Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive behavioral therapy have been identified. According to philosopher Pierre Hadot , philosophy for

19140-408: The universe. These texts describe the cosmos as a living being imbued with a divine spirit or soul. The world soul is seen as the intermediary between the divine intellect ( Nous ) and the material world, ensuring the harmonious functioning of the cosmos. In the Corpus Hermeticum , the world soul is often depicted as an emanation of the divine that sustains all creation. This soul is responsible for

19285-445: The view of the Stoics, philosophy is the practice of virtue, and virtue, the highest form of which is utility, is generally speaking, constructed from ideals of logic , monistic physics, and naturalistic ethics. These three ideals constitute virtue which is necessary for 'living a well reasoned life', seeing as they are all parts of a logos, or philosophical discourse, which includes the mind's rational dialogue with itself. Of them,

19430-401: The wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes". A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus , "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy", thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will and at the same time a universe that

19575-411: The works of Ambrose of Milan , Marcus Minucius Felix , and Tertullian . The modern usage is a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ' s entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical' is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins". The revival of Stoicism in the 20th century can be traced to

19720-608: The works of Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius , demonstrates the enduring legacy of the concept of the World Soul. During the 12th-Century Renaissance of the High Middle Ages , the analysis of Plato's Timaeus by members of the School of Chartres like William of Conches and Bernardus Silvestris led them to interpret the world soul as possibly or certainly the same as the Christian Holy Spirit under

19865-414: The world soul in his "Hymn to Zeus", where he praises Zeus (a personification of the logos ) for harmonizing the cosmos and ensuring its rational order. Chrysippus , another prominent Stoic, further developed the idea of the world soul, arguing that it is the animating principle that ensures the coherence and unity of the cosmos. The Stoic view of the world soul differs from Plato's in that it emphasizes

20010-462: The world soul into his medical and alchemical theories. Paracelsus believed that the world soul, which he referred to as the Archeus , was the vital force that governed the processes of nature and the human body. He posited that health and disease were influenced by the balance and interaction of this vital force within individuals. Paracelsus' view of the world soul extended to his understanding of

20155-561: Was a wide-ranging term indicating an infliction one suffers. The Stoics used the word to discuss many common emotions such as anger, fear and excessive joy. A passion is a disturbing and misleading force in the mind which occurs because of a failure to reason correctly. For the Stoic Chrysippus , the passions are evaluative judgements. A person experiencing such an emotion has incorrectly valued an indifferent thing. A fault of judgement, some false notion of good or evil, lies at

20300-597: Was associated with lifelessness and death and within which the world soul was imprisoned. The world soul was personified as the Suffering Jesus ( Jesus patibilis ) who, like the historical Jesus , was depicted as being crucified in the world. This mystica cruxificio was present in all parts of the world, including the skies, soil, and trees, as expressed in the Coptic Manichaean psalms . Mandaeism , another Gnostic tradition that has survived to

20445-754: Was described in detail in The Philosophy of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy by Donald Robertson. Several early 20th-century psychotherapists were influenced by Stoicism, most notably the "rational persuasion" school founded by the Swiss neurologist and psychotherapist Paul Dubois , who drew heavily on Stoicism in his clinical work and encouraged his clients to study passages from Seneca the Younger as homework assignments. Similarities of modern Stoicism and third-wave CBT have been suggested as well, and individual reports of its potency in treating depression have been published. There has also been interest in applying

20590-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at

20735-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and

20880-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in

21025-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include

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