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124-648: The territory of the municipality of Aleksinac has been inhabited since the neolithic age. Most of the settlements in the area belong to the Vinča cultural group, and are located on the western side of the South Morava river. After the fall to the Romans this territory was included in the province Upper Moesia and after 293 AD it was in the Mediterranean province Dacia . A Roman military road ( Via Militaris )

248-572: A "thorough cleansing of the Turks". After the Serbs finally stormed the fortress of Belgrade, Archbishop Leontii reported that the commander was killed "as well as all other Muslim inhabitants"; Turkish women and children were baptized. The slaughter was accompanied by widespread destruction of Turkish and Muslim property and mosques. A significant portion of those killed were not of actual Turkish descent, but were local Slavs who had converted to Islam over

372-581: A Circum Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex developed in the period from the climatic crisis of 6200 BC, partly as a result of an increasing emphasis in PPNB cultures upon domesticated animals, and a fusion with Harifian hunter gatherers in the Southern Levant, with affiliate connections with the cultures of Fayyum and the Eastern Desert of Egypt . Cultures practicing this lifestyle spread down

496-536: A culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 6000–5000 BC, Neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains , filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards (1,000 m ; 0.10 ha), and the collection of Neolithic findings at the site encompasses two phases. Between 3000 and 1900 BC,

620-515: A division into five periods. They also advanced the idea of a transitional stage between the PPNA and PPNB between 8800 and 8600 BC at sites like Jerf el Ahmar and Tell Aswad . Alluvial plains ( Sumer / Elam ). Low rainfall makes irrigation systems necessary. Ubaid culture originated from 6200 BC. The earliest evidence of Neolithic culture in northeast Africa was found in the archaeological sites of Bir Kiseiba and Nabta Playa in what

744-412: A dramatic increase in social inequality in most of the areas where it occurred; New Guinea being a notable exception. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced. However, evidence of social inequality

868-523: A government and parliament that returned land to the people, abolished forced labour , and reduced taxes. Serbia's military successes continued over the years, spurred on by the Russian Empire 's involvement in the parallel Russo–Turkish War . However, disagreements arose between Karađorđe, who sought an absolute monarchy , and other leaders who wanted to limit his power because some of his colleagues abused their privileges for personal gain. After

992-612: A large Ottoman force attacked 3,000 rebels led by commander Stevan Sinđelić on the hill of Čegar , near the town of Niš . Due to the lack of coordination between the commanders, the reinforcement of other detachments failed. Despite their numerical superiority, the Ottoman forces lost thousands of men in numerous attacks on the Serbian positions. Eventually, the rebels were overwhelmed, and their positions were overrun. To prevent his men from being captured and impaled , Sinđelić fired into

1116-551: A living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of West Papua . Polished stone adze and axes are used in the present day (as of 2008 ) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail. In 2012, news was released about a new farming site discovered in Munam-ri , Goseong , Gangwon Province , South Korea , which may be

1240-552: A major social break with the past. The poll tax on non-Muslims ( jizya ) was also abolished. The Battle of Deligrad in December 1806 was a decisive victory for the Serbs, which boosted the morale of the outnumbered rebels. To avoid total defeat, Ibrahim Pasha negotiated a six-week armistice with Karađorđe. By 1807, the demands for self-government within the Ottoman Empire had evolved into a war of independence, supported by

1364-608: A non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable, and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age . Possible exceptions to this include Iraq during the Ubaid period and England beginning in the Early Neolithic (4100–3000 BC). Theories to explain

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1488-601: A population of around 368,000 prior to 1804. Belgrade , which was the seat of the eponymous pashalik became the second largest Ottoman city in Europe, with over 100,000 inhabitants, surpassed only by Constantinople . During the Austro-Turkish War of 1788, the eastern Šumadija region was occupied by the Austrian-Serbian Free Corps and Hajduks , which led to the occupation of most of

1612-460: A preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018): Lake Bovan, situated 15 km from Aleksinac centre, is a place popular for tourists. The medieval monastery from the 15th century built by Despot Stefan Lazarević , St. Stefan in Lipovac, is 25 km from the city. The monastery is built beneath the slopes of Mt. Ozren (1175 m). There

1736-637: A rarely used and not very useful concept in discussing Australian prehistory . During most of the Neolithic age of Eurasia , people lived in small tribes composed of multiple bands or lineages. There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age . Although some late Eurasian Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms or even states , generally states evolved in Eurasia only with

1860-520: A significant portion of their ancestry from the Anatolian hunter-gatherers (AHG), suggesting that agriculture was adopted in site by these hunter-gatherers and not spread by demic diffusion into the region. The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period began around 10,000 BC in the Levant . A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe , dated to around 9500 BC, may be regarded as the beginning of

1984-550: A successful offensive at Novi Pazar , Serbian forces were later defeated at the Battle of Čegar . In March 1809, Hurşid Paşa was sent to the Sanjak of Smederevo to suppress the rebellion. The Ottoman force was composed of soldiers from various nearby pashaliks, mostly from Bosnia and Albania ( Scutari , Yanina ), including soldiers such as Samson Cerfberr of Medelsheim , Osman Gradaščević , and Reshiti Bushati . On 19 May 1809,

2108-758: A term coined in the 1920s by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe . One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was the possibility of producing surplus crop yields, in other words, food supplies in excess of the immediate needs of the community. Surpluses could be stored for later use, or possibly traded for other necessities or luxuries. Agricultural life afforded securities that nomadic life could not, and sedentary farming populations grew faster than nomadic. However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine , such as may be caused by drought or pests . In instances where agriculture had become

2232-550: Is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine , as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch. Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones, such as those found at the Talheim Death Pit , have been discovered and demonstrate that "...systematic violence between groups" and warfare was probably much more common during

2356-557: Is also remnants of two medieval towns in the mountains surrounding Aleksinac: Bovan and Lipovac, however they are not well preserved. Aleksinac is twinned with: Neolithic The Neolithic or New Stone Age (from Greek νέος néos 'new' and λίθος líthos 'stone') is an archaeological period , the final division of the Stone Age in Europe , Asia , Mesopotamia and Africa (c. 10,000 BC to c. 2,000 BC). It saw

2480-563: Is better explained by lineal fission and polygyny. The shelter of early people changed dramatically from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic era. In the Paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the Neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster. The growth of agriculture made permanent houses far more common. At Çatalhöyük 9,000 years ago, doorways were made on

2604-423: Is first mentioned in 1516 in "Kruševački Tefter", a list of towns and its residents were made by Turks to keep an eye on taxes, as the village belonging to Bovan province and Kruševac sanjak . It remained village up to the end of the 16th century when it was developed into town settlement. In the middle of the 17th century, Aleksinac was town with more than 100 shops in it, and because of its strategic location on

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2728-540: Is now southwest Egypt. Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6000 BC. Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium BC in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and

2852-1024: Is still disputed, as settlements such as Çatalhöyük reveal a lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others. Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures (" Linearbandkeramik ") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later counterparts such as causewayed enclosures , burial mounds , and henge ) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour – though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain possibilities. There

2976-710: Is taken to overlap with the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) of 10,200–8800 BC. As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas (about 10,000 BC) are thought to have forced people to develop farming. The founder crops of the Fertile Crescent were wheat , lentil , pea , chickpeas , bitter vetch, and flax. Among

3100-554: The Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures. Around 10,000 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the Fertile Crescent. Around 10,700–9400 BC a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel , 10 miles (16 km) north of Aleppo . The settlement included two temples dating to 9650 BC. Around 9000 BC during

3224-705: The Devshirme system, which required Christian families to provide sons for the Ottoman military. The Serbs lived in wide areas in the western Balkans; a high percentage of them, experienced fighters, had fought under their own officers in the Serbian Freicorps of the Austrian army. They came from the Sanjak of Smederevo (also known in historiography as the Pashalik of Belgrade), a border district containing

3348-634: The Epipalaeolithic Near East and Mesopotamia , and later in other parts of the world. It lasted in the Near East until the transitional period of the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) from about 6,500 years ago (4500 BC), marked by the development of metallurgy , leading up to the Bronze Age and Iron Age . In other places, the Neolithic followed the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and then lasted until later. In Ancient Egypt ,

3472-631: The Jordan Valley ; Israel (notably Ain Mallaha , Nahal Oren , and Kfar HaHoresh ); and in Byblos , Lebanon . The start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming. In the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain

3596-559: The Longshan culture existed in the middle and lower Yellow River valley areas of northern China. Towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC, the population decreased sharply in most of the region and many of the larger centres were abandoned, possibly due to environmental change linked to the end of the Holocene Climatic Optimum . The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains

3720-463: The Middle East , cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC. Early development occurred in the Levant (e.g. Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B ) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived

3844-545: The Neolithic Revolution , a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts of the world. This "Neolithic package" included the introduction of farming , domestication of animals , and change from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of settlement . The term 'Neolithic' was coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system . The Neolithic began about 12,000 years ago, when farming appeared in

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3968-655: The Red Sea shoreline and moved east from Syria into southern Iraq . The Late Neolithic began around 6,400 BC in the Fertile Crescent . By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia). This period has been further divided into PNA (Pottery Neolithic A) and PNB (Pottery Neolithic B) at some sites. The Chalcolithic (Stone-Bronze) period began about 4500 BC, then

4092-539: The Rift Valley of East Africa and surrounding areas during a time period known as the Pastoral Neolithic . They were South Cushitic speaking pastoralists, who tended to bury their dead in cairns whilst their toolkit was characterized by stone bowls, pestles, grindstones and earthenware pots. Through archaeology, historical linguistics and archaeogenetics, they conventionally have been identified with

4216-553: The Second Serbian Uprising in 1815. Serbia had been under Ottoman rule since the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Over the centuries, the Serbs experienced oppression, heavy taxation, and cultural assimilation under the Ottoman Empire . By the 18th century, the conditions for Serbs living under Ottoman rule had become increasingly harsh. In addition to high taxes, they faced discrimination and the imposition of

4340-709: The beglerbeg of Rumelia Eyalet . He left Serbia for Plovdiv to fight against the Vidin rebels of Pazvantoğlu. During Mustafa Pasha's absence, Pazvantoğlu's troops captured Požarevac and besieged the Belgrade Fortress . In November 1797, the Obor knez Aleksa Nenadović , Ilija Birčanin and Nikola Grbović arrived in Belgrade with their troops. They successfully forced the besieging Janissary troops to retreat to Smederevo . On 30 January 1799, Selim III allowed

4464-466: The gunpowder magazine of his entrenchment, causing an explosion that killed all the rebels and Ottoman troops in the vicinity. Afterwards, Hurshid Pasha ordered the construction of a tower made from the skulls of Serbian revolutionaries. The resulting Skull Tower stands ten feet tall and contains 952 Serbian skulls embedded in 14 rows on all four sides. In July 1810, Russian troops arrived in Serbia for

4588-730: The Balkans from 6000 BC, and in Central Europe by around 5800 BC ( La Hoguette ). Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are the Sesklo culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving rise to Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramik , and Vinča . Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples , the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created

4712-531: The Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to permanently settled farming towns , and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands. The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution ,

4836-474: The Castell Milareca on Gradiste hill (228 m). From the year 476 this territory was under Byzantine rule. There are evidences of settlements from this time, however their names still remain unknown. During the reigns of emperors Phocas (602-610) and Heraclius (610-641) Slavic peoples inhabit Balkan peninsula . In 614 they razed Niš . The Via Militaris was renamed Medieval Military Road and it

4960-744: The Dahije with only Belgrade under their control. The Istanbul government ordered the pashas of the neighbouring Pashaliks not to help the Dahije. At first the Serbs fought on the side of the Sultan against the Janissaries, but later they were supported by an Ottoman official and the Sipahi cavalry corps. Despite their small numbers, the Serbs achieved significant military victories, capturing Požarevac and Šabac and launching successful attacks on Smederevo and Belgrade in quick succession. In July 1804,

5084-588: The Dahije, who had revoked the privileges granted to the Serbs by Selim III. Among those present were Stanoje Glavaš , Atanasije Antonijević , and Tanasko Rajić . They elected Đorđe Petrović , a cattle trader known as Karađorđe, as their leader. Karađorđe, a former member of the Freikorps during the Austro-Turkish War and an officer in the national militia, had considerable military experience. Serbian forces quickly took control of Šumadija , leaving

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5208-473: The Danube. Bekir demanded the surrender of the Dahije. Meanwhile, Karađorđe sent his commander, Milenko Stojković , to the island. The Dahije refused to surrender, so Stojković attacked and captured them. He had them beheaded on the night of 5–6 August 1804. After destroying the power of the Dahije, Bekir Pasha wanted the Serbs disbanded. However, since the Janissaries still held important towns such as Užice ,

5332-512: The First Serbian Uprising, Aleksinac remained under Turkish rule up to December 1832 when it became integral part of Prince Miloš's Serbia. During his first reign Aleksinac became the economic centre of the south-east Serbia with numerous trade and handicrafts shops and it developed into important government centre. It became a centre of county and county court. The third post office in Serbia (after Belgrade and Kragujevac )

5456-488: The Janissaries to return, calling them local Muslims from the Sanjak of Smederevo. At first, the Janissaries accepted the authority of Hadži Mustafa Pasha. However, in Šabac , a Janissary named Bego Novljanin demanded a surcharge from a Serb and murdered him when he refused to pay. Fearing the worst, Hadži Mustafa Pasha marched to Šabac with a force of 600 men to ensure that the Janissary was brought to justice and that order

5580-455: The Janissaries were employed by or took refuge with Osman Pazvantoğlu , a renegade opponent of Selim in the Sanjak of Vidin . Pazvantoğlu launched a series of raids against the Serbs without the Sultan's permission, causing much instability and fear in the region. In 1793, the Serbs defeated Pazvantoğlu at the Battle of Kolari. In the summer of 1797, Mustafa Pasha was appointed by the Sultan as

5704-467: The Janissaries. In 1805, negotiations between the Porte and the Serbs broke down over the Porte's inability to accept an agreement guaranteed by a foreign power and the Serbs' refusal to lay down their arms. Fearing a Christian uprising, the Porte issued a decree on 7 May 1805, ordering the rebels to disarm and rely on regular Ottoman troops to protect them from the Dahije. The Serbs, however, summarily ignored

5828-486: The Janissary command did not subside. In 1793 and 1796, Selim issued firmans that gave the Serbs more rights. These included the collection of taxes by the obor-knez (dukes), freedom of trade and religion, and the establishment of peace. Selim also ordered the removal of some unpopular Janissaries from the Belgrade Pashalik, as he saw them as a threat to the central authority of Hadži Mustafa Pasha. Many of

5952-496: The Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to around 3600 BC. The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni , Paola , Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated around 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis , the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and shows a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to

6076-443: The Maltese islands. After 2500 BC, these islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population different from that which built

6200-651: The Middle East. The neolithization of Northwestern Africa was initiated by Iberian , Levantine (and perhaps Sicilian ) migrants around 5500-5300 BC. During the Early Neolithic period, farming was introduced by Europeans and was subsequently adopted by the locals. During the Middle Neolithic period, an influx of ancestry from the Levant appeared in Northwestern Africa, coinciding with

6324-490: The Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. In other parts of the world, such as Africa , South Asia and Southeast Asia , independent domestication events led to their own regionally distinctive Neolithic cultures, which arose completely independently of those in Europe and Southwest Asia . Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture. In

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6448-708: The Neolithic lasted until the Protodynastic period , c. 3150 BC. In China , it lasted until circa 2000 BC with the rise of the pre-Shang Erlitou culture , as it did in Scandinavia . Following the ASPRO chronology , the Neolithic started in around 10,200 BC in the Levant , arising from the Natufian culture , when pioneering use of wild cereals evolved into early farming . The Natufian period or "proto-Neolithic" lasted from 12,500 to 9,500 BC, and

6572-400: The Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period. This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle". Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of tribal groups with social rank that are headed by a charismatic individual – either a ' big man ' or a proto- chief – functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether

6696-412: The Ottoman Pasha and took control of the Pashalik of Belgrade , ruling it independently of the Ottoman Sultan . This led to a period of tyranny, during which the Janissaries suspended the rights previously granted to the Serbs by the Sultan. They also raised taxes, imposed forced labour , and made other changes that negatively affected the Serbs. In 1804, the Janissaries feared that the Sultan would use

6820-480: The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the Russian retreat to reconquer Serbia in 1813. As part of this effort, Wallachia was also recaptured and secured by the Ottomans under the loyalist Phanariote John Caradja , along with its Great Banship ( Oltenia ). In July 1813, an Ottoman–Wallachian force, including "several hundreds of Caradja's Romanians" arriving in through Oltenia, moved up the Timok River and killed Veljko at Negotin . The Ottoman forces burned villages along

6944-405: The Ottoman Empire, the Serbs expected reprisals from the Turks for their support of the Austrians. Sultan Selim III had entrusted the sanjaks of Smederevo and Belgrade to battle-hardened Janissaries who had fought against Christian forces during the Austro-Turkish War and other conflicts. Although Selim granted authority to the peaceful Hadži Mustafa Pasha in 1793, tensions between the Serbs and

7068-401: The Ottoman Turks were suppressed with great violence and repression. In February 1804, the Janissaries executed seventy-two Serbs and displayed their heads on the citadel of Belgrade. These actions led to equally brutal reprisals when the situation was reversed. The liberation of Belgrade was followed by a massacre of Turks. The event was described by the Serbian historian Stojan Novakovic as

7192-432: The Ottomans were consistently defeated. In December 1806, the rebels, led by Petar Dobrnjac , captured Belgrade and gained control of the entire Pashalik. The rebels sent the Belgrade merchant Petar Ičko as their envoy to the Ottoman government in Constantinople . He succeeded in obtaining a favourable treaty named after him, the Ičko's Peace, which granted a measure of Serbian autonomy. However, Serbian leaders rejected

7316-626: The PPNA, one of the world's first towns, Jericho , appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone wall, may have contained a population of up to 2,000–3,000 people, and contained a massive stone tower. Around 6400 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Syria and Northern Mesopotamia. In 1981, a team of researchers from the Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée , including Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche, divided Near East Neolithic chronology into ten periods (0 to 9) based on social, economic and cultural characteristics. In 2002, Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès advanced this system with

7440-581: The Porte promised a general amnesty and certain autonomous rights. The Serbs were granted control over the administration of their own affairs and the collection and payment of a fixed tribute. The reaction in Serbia was strong, with particular concern over the reoccupation of fortresses and towns and the expectation of feared reprisals. During the rebellion, some of the leaders abused their privileges for personal gain. Disagreements arose between Karađorđe and other leaders as Karađorđe sought absolute power while his dukes sought to limit it. After retaking Belgrade,

7564-406: The Porte, which were considered discriminatory on the basis of religious affiliation. Karađorđe declared himself the hereditary supreme leader of Serbia but agreed to cooperate with the Governing Council, which also served as the supreme court. During the Ottoman-Russian War of 1809, Karađorđe was initially willing to support Russia, but their cooperation proved ineffective. Although Karađorđe launched

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7688-439: The Russian Empire. Combining patriarchal peasant democracy with modern national aspirations, the Serbian Revolution attracted thousands of volunteers among Serbs from across the Balkans and Central Europe. It eventually became a symbol of the nation-building process in the Balkans and provoked unrest among Christians in both Greece and Bulgaria . After a successful siege with 25,000 men in late 1806, Karađorđe proclaimed Belgrade

7812-495: The Russo-Ottoman War ended in 1812, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of these circumstances and reconquered Serbia in 1813. Although the uprising was unsuccessful, the Serbs were the first Christian population in Ottoman history to rise up against the Sultan and succeed in creating a short-lived independent state. Their uprising eventually became a symbol of the nation-building process in the Balkans and inspired unrest among neighbouring Balkan peoples. The uprising soon resumed with

7936-413: The Sanjak into pashaliks, immediately suspending Serbian autonomy and significantly increasing taxes. Land confiscation and the introduction of forced labour, known as chiflik , prompted many Serbs to flee to the mountains. The Serbs petitioned the Sultan to inform him of the tyranny they were suffering, upon learning of this and in an attempt to prevent a rebellion, the Dahije decided to act first. At

8060-407: The Sanjak of Smederevo by the Habsburg Monarchy (1788–1791). From 15 September to 8 October 1789, an Austrian force besieged the fortress of Belgrade . The Austrians held the city until 1791, when they returned it to the Ottomans under the terms of the Treaty of Sistova . The withdrawal was a disappointment for the Serbs, according to historian Theodor N. Trâpcea. After the return of the sanjak to

8184-436: The Serbs against them, which led to the assassination of many Serbian chiefs . An assembly chose Karađorđe to lead the uprising, and the rebel army quickly defeated and took over towns throughout the sanjak, technically fighting for the Sultan. Sultan Selim III , fearing their power, ordered all the Pashaliks in the region to crush them. The Serbs marched against the Ottomans and, after major victories in 1805–06, established

8308-404: The Serbs were unwilling to stop without guarantees. In May 1804, Serbian leaders under Dorđe Petrović met in Ostružnica to continue the uprising. Their goals were to seek protection from Austria , to petition Sultan Selim for greater autonomy, and to request Russian protection from the Russian ambassador in Istanbul. The Russian government maintained a neutral policy toward the Serbian revolt until

8432-423: The Serbs, leading some to flee with their families into the woods while others organised themselves into self-defence units, as uncoordinated resistance erupted throughout the region. The events in Serbia were being closely monitored by neighbouring Christian states such as Wallachia , an Ottoman client-state bordering Serbia to the northeast, and ruled by the Phanariote Prince Constantine Ypsilantis (who

8556-424: The Sultan, fearing that the Serbian movement might get out of control, sent Bekir Pasha , former Pasha of Belgrade and now Pasha of Bosnia Eyalet , to officially help the Serbs, but in reality to keep them under control. Alija Gušanac , the Janissary commander of Belgrade, faced with both Serbs and imperial authority, allowed Bekir Pasha into the city. The Dahije had previously fled east to Ada Kale , an island in

8680-414: The apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism . Genetic evidence indicates that a drop in Y-chromosomal diversity occurred during the Neolithic. Initially believed to be a result of high incidence of violence and high rates of male mortality, more recent analysis suggests that the reduced Y-chromosomal diversity

8804-558: The area". The research team will perform accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating to retrieve a more precise date for the site. In Mesoamerica , a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC in South America, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in North America, different terms are used such as Formative stage instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era instead of Early Neolithic, and Paleo-Indian for

8928-554: The area's first Afroasiatic -speaking settlers. Archaeological dating of livestock bones and burial cairns has also established the cultural complex as the earliest center of pastoralism and stone construction in the region. In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared in the 7th millennium BC , attested by one of the earliest farming sites of Europe, discovered in Vashtëmi , southeastern Albania and dating back to 6500 BC. In most of Western Europe in followed over

9052-608: The arrival of pastoralism in the region. The earliest evidence for pottery, domestic cereals and animal husbandry is found in Morocco, specifically at Kaf el-Ghar . The Pastoral Neolithic was a period in Africa's prehistory marking the beginning of food production on the continent following the Later Stone Age . In contrast to the Neolithic in other parts of the world, which saw the development of farming societies,

9176-423: The bow and arrow and ceramic pottery were also introduced. In later periods cities of considerable size developed, and some metallurgy by 700 BC. Australia, in contrast to New Guinea , has generally been held not to have had a Neolithic period, with a hunter-gatherer lifestyle continuing until the arrival of Europeans. This view can be challenged in terms of the definition of agriculture, but "Neolithic" remains

9300-654: The capital of Serbia on 8 January 1807, after the surrender of the remaining fortifications on St. Stephen's Day. The Serbian efforts were supported by the Imperial Russian Army , which had established itself in Wallachia during the parallel Russo-Turkish War. This allowed the Serbian rebels to concentrate on the Timok Valley , deep in the Sanjak of Vidin. A local rebel named Hajduk Veljko pledged his allegiance to Karađorđe. Earlier rebellions against

9424-445: The capital of the rebellion. The second major clash was the Battle of Mišar in 1806, where the rebels defeated an Ottoman army from Bosnia led by the Sipahi commander Suleiman-Pasa. The rebels also defeated Osman Pazvantoğlu and another Ottoman army sent from the southeast at Deligrad. Despite repeated efforts and the support of Ottoman commanders, including Ibrahim Bushati and Ali Pasha 's two sons, Muktar Pasha and Veli Pasha ,

9548-460: The centuries. The massacre sparked a debate within the rebel faction. The older generation of rebels viewed the massacre as a sin, but the prevailing principle was the removal of all Muslims. In 1808, Sultan Selim was executed by Mustafa IV , who was subsequently deposed by Mahmud II . During this political crisis , the Ottomans were willing to offer significant autonomy to the Serbs. However,

9672-504: The dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse could have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses. Work at the site of 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan has indicated a later Pre-Pottery Neolithic C period. Juris Zarins has proposed that

9796-480: The decree. Selim responded by ordering Hafiz Pasham, the Pasha of Niš, to march against the Serbs and take Belgrade. In 1805, the first major battle took place at Ivankovac , where the Serbs defeated the Sultan's army and forced it to retreat towards Niš. It was the first time that the Serbs defeated the Sultan's army and not a Muslim rebel force. In November of the same year, the fortress of Smederevo fell and became

9920-608: The earliest farmland known to date in east Asia. "No remains of an agricultural field from the Neolithic period have been found in any East Asian country before, the institute said, adding that the discovery reveals that the history of agricultural cultivation at least began during the period on the Korean Peninsula ". The farm was dated between 3600 and 3000 BC. Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses were also found. "In 2002, researchers discovered prehistoric earthenware , jade earrings, among other items in

10044-463: The earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs , though archaeologist Shan Winn believes they most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in

10168-446: The enclosures also suggest grain and meat storage. The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8800 BC according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant ( Jericho , West Bank). As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. A settlement of 3,000 inhabitants called 'Ain Ghazal

10292-559: The end of January 1804, throughout the Sanjak, between 70 and 150 knezes (village leaders), livestock merchants and Orthodox priests were executed by the Dahije in an event known as the Slaughter of the Knezes . According to contemporary sources from Valjevo , the severed heads of the leaders were displayed on the central square as a warning to those who might plot against the Dahije's rule. Janissary atrocities fueled fear and anger among

10416-575: The first cultivated crop and mark the invention of the technology of farming. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains. Settlements became more permanent, with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbrick . The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. Some of

10540-557: The first form of African food production was mobile pastoralism , or ways of life centered on the herding and management of livestock. The term "Pastoral Neolithic" is used most often by archaeologists to describe early pastoralist periods in the Sahara , as well as in eastern Africa . The Savanna Pastoral Neolithic or SPN (formerly known as the Stone Bowl Culture ) is a collection of ancient societies that appeared in

10664-421: The four Janissaries referred to themselves as Dahije . As a result, Belgrade was captured and the Sanjak of Smederevo was divided among them independently of the Ottoman government, and in defiance of the Sultan, despite the dispatch of a new Pasha from Constantinople. The Janissaries enforced a system of arbitrary abuse unparalleled in the entire history of Ottoman misrule in the Balkans. The leaders divided

10788-512: The gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange. Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from

10912-558: The guarantor of peace in the region. Negotiations between the Serbs and the Ottomans began in May 1804, mediated by the Austrian governor of Slavonia . As Trâpcea notes, the Serbs made only modest demands, seeking autonomy within the borders of the Pashalik. This autonomy was to be under the control of a Serbian knez with the power to collect taxes for the Sublime Porte . In addition, the Serbian leaders demanded further restrictions on

11036-480: The impending disaster, Karađorđe sought help from the Habsburgs and Napoleon , but to no avail. At this point, the Serbian rebels shifted to a defensive strategy, focusing on holding their territories rather than making further gains. Meanwhile, Russia, preoccupied with a French invasion , prioritized signing a final peace treaty and acted against Serbia's interests. In particular, the Serbs were not informed of

11160-745: The increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes and their overall impact on early societal development are still debated. First Serbian Uprising From 1805 : [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire [REDACTED] Ayans [REDACTED] Pashalik of Scutari Pashalik of Yanina From 1813 : Second Serbian Uprising : The First Serbian Uprising ( Serbian : Prvi srpski ustanak ; Serbian Cyrillic : Први српски устанак ; Turkish : Birinci Sırp Ayaklanması )

11284-517: The main invasion routes, massacred or displaced their inhabitants, and enslaved many women and children. Karađorđe and other rebel leaders fled the country, and the exiles scattered throughout the Austrian Empire , Wallachia, and Russia. As a clause of the Treaty of Bucharest, the Ottomans agreed to grant a general amnesty to the participants of the uprising. However, as soon as Turkish rule

11408-490: The negotiations and only learned of the final terms from the Ottomans. This second Russian retreat occurred at the height of Karađorđe's power and the rise of Serbian expectations. The Treaty of Bucharest , signed in May 1812, contained Article 8, which dealt with the Serbs. According to the treaty, Serbian fortifications were to be destroyed unless they were of value to the Ottomans. Pre-1804, Ottoman installations were to be reoccupied and garrisoned by Ottoman troops. In return,

11532-551: The next 1,500 years. Populations began to rise after 3500 BC, with further dips and rises occurring between 3000 and 2500 BC but varying in date between regions. Around this time is the Neolithic decline , when populations collapsed across most of Europe, possibly caused by climatic conditions, plague, or mass migration. Settled life, encompassing the transition from foraging to farming and pastoralism, began in South Asia in

11656-440: The next two thousand years, but in some parts of Northwest Europe it is much later, lasting just under 3,000 years from c. 4500 BC–1700 BC. Recent advances in archaeogenetics have confirmed that the spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe was strongly correlated with the migration of early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago, and was not just a cultural exchange. Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in

11780-502: The other major crop domesticated were rice, millet, maize (corn), and potatoes. Crops were usually domesticated in a single location and ancestral wild species are still found. [1] Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat , millet and spelt , and the keeping of dogs . By about 8000 BC, it included domesticated sheep and goats , cattle and pigs . Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of

11904-700: The period. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, as evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity, and may be the oldest known human-made place of worship. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres (10 ha), contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Palestine , notably in Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho ) and Gilgal in

12028-483: The preceding period. The Formative stage is equivalent to the Neolithic Revolution period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the southwestern United States it occurred from 500 to 1200 AD when there was a dramatic increase in population and development of large villages supported by agriculture based on dryland farming of corn (maize), and later, beans, squash, and domesticated turkeys. During this period

12152-454: The predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities. Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued. Another significant change undergone by many of these newly agrarian communities

12276-417: The previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found there. With some exceptions, population levels rose rapidly at the beginning of the Neolithic until they reached the carrying capacity . This was followed by a population crash of "enormous magnitude" after 5000 BC, with levels remaining low during

12400-496: The previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into

12524-422: The region of Balochistan , Pakistan, around 7,000 BC. At the site of Mehrgarh , Balochistan, presence can be documented of the domestication of wheat and barley, rapidly followed by that of goats, sheep, and cattle. In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first Early Neolithic ) evidence for the drilling of teeth in vivo (using bow drills and flint tips)

12648-447: The right bank of the South Morava river which were liberated by the army of Petar Dobrnjac . The settlements on the left bank were liberated by Mladen Milovanović and Stanoje Glavaš . As soon as the town was liberated, Captain Vuča Žikić built the famous Deligrad trenches on the north side of Aleksinac which earned fame in battles with the Turks, especially in 1806. After the fall on

12772-692: The rise of metallurgy, and most Neolithic societies on the whole were relatively simple and egalitarian. Beyond Eurasia, however, states were formed during the local Neolithic in three areas, namely in the Preceramic Andes with the Caral-Supe Civilization , Formative Mesoamerica and Ancient Hawaiʻi . However, most Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Upper Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and hunter-gatherer cultures in general. The domestication of large animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in

12896-617: The road to Istanbul it became important travel and caravan station. Its importance can be supported by the fact that Turks built fortress to protect it from outlaws in 1616. The development of Aleksinac was stopped during the so-called Great Turkish War (1683–1699). Aleksinac was conquered by Austrian army (general Ludwig of Baden liberated it), and later burned to the ground by the soldiers of Jegen-Osman Pasha. Serbian inhabitants of Aleksinac joined Great Serb Migrations to Habsburg monarchy and some of them settled down in Budim . Aleksinac

13020-771: The roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses. Stilt-house settlements were common in the Alpine and Pianura Padana ( Terramare ) region. Remains have been found in the Ljubljana Marsh in Slovenia and at the Mondsee and Attersee lakes in Upper Austria , for example. A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed:

13144-673: The same time it became center of Aleksinac county which in 1784 consisted of 17 villages. There were 160 houses in Aleksinac at that time, 120 of them Christian and 40 Turkish . After the fourth Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791) Aleksinac was burned down again by the Turkish outlaws led by Osman Pazvantoğlu . Aleksinac and its surrounding area joined the First Serbian Uprising in January 1806. This included villages on

13268-454: The second time. This time they provided military cooperation by sending weapons, ammunition and medical supplies. Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov also participated in planning joint actions. Russian support raised hopes of a Serbian victory. In August 1809, an Ottoman army marched on Belgrade, causing a mass exodus of people across the Danube. Among them was the Russian agent Radofinikin. Faced with

13392-711: The suggestion of some dukes, including Jakov and Matija Nenadović, Milan Obrenović, and Sima Marković. Their purpose was to check Karađorđe's powers. Boža Grujović, the first secretary, and Matija Nenadović, the first president, envisioned the Council as the government of the new Serbian state. The revolutionary government was responsible for organizing and supervising various aspects of government, including administration, economy, army supply, law and order, justice, and foreign policy. In addition to abolishing forced labour and reducing taxes, they also abolished all feudal obligations in 1806, emancipating peasants and serfs and marking

13516-547: The summer of 1804 due to the recent Russo-Turkish friendship, which was a response to the growing influence of France. At the beginning of the uprising, the Russian envoy in Montenegro refused to deliver the message when the Serbs asked for help and instructed the Serbs to petition the Sultan. However, in the summer of 1804, after the meeting in Ostružnica, the Russian government changed its policy to be recognized by Istanbul as

13640-425: The talks did not lead to an agreement between the two parties, as they could not agree on the exact borders of Serbia. Karađorđe's 1809 proclamation in the capital, Belgrade , is considered the culmination of the first phase. The proclamation called for national unity and invoked Serbian history to call for the establishment of religious freedom and a written rule of law . It also urged Serbs to stop paying taxes to

13764-569: The treaty and may have poisoned Ičko for his dealings with the Ottomans. In 1805, the Serbian rebels established a rudimentary government to administer the lands under Serbian control. The government was divided into the Narodna Skupština (People's Assembly), the Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet (Ruling Council), and Karađorđe himself. The Ruling Council was established on the recommendation of Russian Foreign Minister Chartorisky and at

13888-656: Was an uprising of Serbs in Orašac against the Ottoman Empire from 14 February 1804, to 7 October 1813. The uprising began as a local revolt against the Dahije , who had seized power in a coup d'état . It later evolved into a war for independence , known as the Serbian Revolution , after more than three centuries of Ottoman Empire rule and brief Austrian occupations. In 1801, the Janissary commanders assassinated

14012-406: Was built in 1st century AD across the territory. There were also two stations for rest ( mansio ) and change of horses ( mutatio ) along the road on the territory of Aleksinac: Praesidium Pompei and Rappiana. Their location is still unknown, although there are few candidates for this position. Also few fortresses (Castell) are known to existed in this period, but their names are not known, except for

14136-442: Was destroyed again by fire during the second Austro-Turkish war (1716–1718) when grand vizier Hallil Pasha was defeated beneath the walls of Belgrade . In retreat he burned down all settlements all the way to Niš . After the third Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739) Aleksinac developed into significant trade and handcraft center. Many caravans passed through it exchanging wares from entire Ottoman Empire and central Europe . At

14260-869: Was found in Mehrgarh. In South India, the Neolithic began by 6500 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ash mounds from 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu . In East Asia, the earliest sites include the Nanzhuangtou culture around 9500–9000 BC, Pengtoushan culture around 7500–6100 BC, and Peiligang culture around 7000–5000 BC. The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of

14384-409: Was found in the outskirts of Amman , Jordan . Considered to be one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East , it was continuously inhabited from approximately 7250 BC to approximately 5000 BC. Settlements have rectangular mud-brick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls of

14508-455: Was ground into flour. Emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated ( animal husbandry and selective breeding ). In 2006, remains of figs were discovered in a house in Jericho dated to 9400 BC. The figs are of a mutant variety that cannot be pollinated by insects, and therefore the trees can only reproduce from cuttings. This evidence suggests that figs were

14632-402: Was one of diet . Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by

14756-496: Was opened in Aleksinac for both Serbian and Austrian post as well as the place where English courier sent and received the post from Turkey . At that time Customs office and quarantine station were built in Aleksinac. Aleksinac was also the site of major battles with Turks in First Serbo-Turkish war in 1876, with only true victory won on Šumatovac , 3 kilometers from Aleksinac. From 1929 to 1941, Aleksinac

14880-587: Was part of the Morava Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Aleksinac was seriously damaged during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 . Aside from the town of Aleksinac, the municipality includes the following settlements: According to the last official census done in 2011, the municipality of Aleksinac has 51,863 inhabitants. The ethnic composition of the municipality: The following table gives

15004-520: Was re-established in Serbia, villages were burned and thousands were sent into slavery. Belgrade became the scene of brutal vengeance. On 17 October 1813 alone, 1,800 women and children were sold into slavery. Various acts of violence and confiscation of property also took place. Islamized Serbs and Albanians in particular participated in such actions. Under direct Ottoman rule, all Serbian institutions were abolished. In 1814, tensions continued and Hadži Prodan, one of Karađorđe's former commanders, launched

15128-432: Was restored. The Janissaries not only decided to support Bego Novljanin, but Pazvantoğlu also attacked the Belgrade Pashalik in support of the Janissaries. On 15 December 1801, Belgrade Vizier Hadži Mustafa Pasha was executed by Kučuk-Alija , one of four Janissaries originally from the Sanjak of Vidin (modern north-western Bulgaria ). Alongside Haji Mustafa Pasha. Mehmed Foça-oğlu, Aganli-Bayraktar and Mülla Yusuf ,

15252-412: Was secretly hostile to Ottoman rule). During the early stages of the rebellion, the Belgrade Pashalik was visited by Ypisilantis' agents, including Dositei Filitti . On 14 February 1804, a group of leading Serbs gathered at Marićević Gully , in the small village of Orašac (near Aranđelovac ) to support a call for a general uprising. The meeting was held after the massacre and the resentment against

15376-569: Was used by the crusaders of first four Crusades to reach Constantinople thus passing through the territory of Aleksinac municipality. During the reign of the Nemanjić dynasty this territory was under direct control of the state. After the death of Uroš V this territory was included in the territory of Moravian Serbia under the Prince Lazar and his successors. Two medieval towns, Bolvan and Lipovac , date from this period. Aleksinac

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