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188-474: Within the context of rising Arab nationalism in the 19th century, the movement was inspired by the successful precedent of the Arabization of Syria and Lebanon's Antioch Patriarchate in 1899 . The movement seeks the appointment of an Arab patriarch, Arab laity control over Jerusalem patriarchate's properties for social and educational purposes, and the use of Arabic as a liturgical language . Initially

376-418: A "gendered discourse". The community that was imagined by nationalist groups was largely dependent on the status they assigned to women: modernist nationalists considered their inclusion in the public space as a necessary measure to achieve modernity, while conservative nationalists would vindicate their traditional roles as symbols of Islamic culture. To modernists between the end of the nineteenth century and

564-627: A British military response to the coup, al-Gaylani enlisted the support of Germany, but the German military did not arrive to aid the Arab nationalist government. With pro-German Vichy France having taken control of neighboring Syria, Britain reoccupied Iraq in May to prevent it from joining the Axis powers . By 1 June, al-Gaylani and al-Husayni fled to the country for Germany, while the army officers who carried out

752-461: A Christian, viewed Islam as a testament to the "Arab genius", and once said "Muhammed was the epitome of all the Arabs. So let all the Arabs today be Muhammed." Since the Arabs had reached their greatest glories through the expansion of Islam, Islam was seen as a universal message as well as an expression of secular genius on the part of the Arab peoples. Islam had given the Arabs a "glorious past", which

940-779: A barrier to communism . Gamal Abdel Nasser was a major supporter of the Algerian independence movement, whose mixture of Arab nationalism and revolution appealed to the Arabs in North Africa. He provided financial, diplomatic and military support to the National Liberation Front , and based the Algerian provisional government in Cairo. This played a major role in France's decision to wage war against him during

1128-646: A car accident in 1939, prompting a number of his army officers to allege the king was assassinated by British forces. That same year, al-Husayni arrived in Baghdad after escaping from Lebanon, giving a morale boost to the pan-Arab dimension in Iraqi politics. The prime minister at the time, Nuri al-Said and the regent king Abd al-Ilah , did not harbor the pan-Arabist sympathies Ghazi espoused. Rashid Ali al-Gaylani succeeded al-Said as Prime Minister in March 1940 and took

1316-464: A church movement among Palestine and Transjordan 's Orthodox Arab Christians in the late 19th century, it was later supported as a Palestinian and Arab nationalist cause and championed by some Arab Muslims, owing to the Greek-dominated patriarchate's early support to Zionism . The Orthodox laity, which is mostly Arab, maintains that the patriarchate was forcibly Hellenized in 1543, while

1504-485: A cohesive force against the Western Colonialism, and argued that new interpretations of Islam were needed to confront questions posed by modernity. Their followers would create their own magazines and political parties to develop these ideas. Abduh influenced modern Arab nationalism in particular, because the revival of true Islam's ancestors (who were Arabs) would also become the revival of Arab culture and

1692-502: A column dedicated to Orthodox affairs. And after being republished in 1921, Falastin's editorials featured three main messages: Arab Orthodox dedication to their church; Greek clerical greed, immorality and foreignness; and inadequate British response to the issue. By the 1920s, the newspaper's editor Issa El-Issa began to view the Arab Orthodox movement, the Arab opposition to Zionist colonization of Palestine, and Arab opposition to

1880-571: A common identity : ethnicity , language, culture, history, geography , and politics . One of the primary goals of modern Arab nationalism is ridding the Arab world of influence from the Western world , and the removal of those Arab governments that are considered to be dependent upon Western hegemony . This form of the ideology is rooted in the undesirable outcome of the Arab Revolt ; in successfully achieving their primary goal of dissolving

2068-504: A demonstration in opposition to the heavy flow of Zionist immigrants in 1921, or with their gradual participation in Algeria's War of Independence as nurses, cooks, and even carrying bombs. In July 1957, Djamila Bouhired was tried for allegedly bombing a cafe, which killed 11 civilians inside. Moreover, female political involvement has been considered by several authors as a necessary dimension of Arab nationalism, because it is, in essence,

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2256-421: A disagreement has delayed the renovation of the edicule , where the need is now dire, but also where any change in the structure might result in a change to the status quo disagreeable to one or more of the communities. A less grave sign of this state of affairs is located on a window ledge over the church's entrance. Someone placed a wooden ladder there sometime before 1852, when the status quo defined both

2444-750: A donation from Jerusalem's Orthodox Monastery. The association also acquired two more lands, for cultural and social activities. It helped shape intellectual life in Transjordan and organized Arab nationalist debates against Zionism and later communism. After unsuccessful attempts to register Orthodox schools in the 1950s, the Orthodox Educational Society was established in 1958, presided by Fu'ad Yaghnam, and later businessman and politician Fouad Farraj. The Society then quickly established its first school that year in Amman's Jabal Ashrafiah,

2632-514: A favorable firman , or decree, from the Ottoman government ; this was sometimes achieved through outright bribery, with violent clashes not uncommon. In 1757, weary of the squabbling, the Porte issued a firman that divided the church among the claimants. This was confirmed in 1852 with another firman that made the arrangement permanent, establishing a status quo of territorial division among

2820-690: A foreign oppressor, akin to the imperial British authorities, and the Zionist immigrants. The Arab Orthodox movement then started using nationalist and anti-imperialist language in its struggle against the patriarchate. During the sixth conference of the Palestine Arab Congress that was held in Jaffa , Mandatory Palestine , in June 1923, Arab Orthodox leaders, including activists Yacoub Bordqosh and Ibrahim Shammas, and editors Issa El-Issa of

3008-815: A general strike held in January–February 1936 led to major negotiations for an independence deal with the French government. The British took a firm stance against the nationalist revolt in Palestine, dissolving the AHC forcing al-Husayni into exile in Lebanon in 1937. In Algeria, hostility towards the Jewish community saw an attack in Constantine in the summer of 1934 in which a number of Jews were killed, in response to

3196-462: A genuine embrace of Arab identity by Iraq's leaders. The Egyptian government of Nahas Pasha launched a rival initiative for establishing closer inter-Arab relations, and sent delegations to several Arab states. Influential Arab nationalist figures in the country sought to emphasize Egypt's Arab character, the most prominent of them, Abdul Rahman al-Azzam , even writing "Egypt was an Arab country before Christ." The apparent Egyptian embrace of Arabism

3384-626: A law such that no indigenous Orthodox could be accepted not only to the bishopric, but to any clerical or monastic order, or even as a reader or attendant in a monastery. Upon the death of Paisios, the monks of the Brotherhood dwelling in the Jerusalemite Metochion in Constantinople with the help of Prince Vasile were able to elect Nectarios as Patriarch of Jerusalem. However, he soon resigned after seven years due to

3572-545: A law that a non-Greek cannot be elevated to the bishopric. Also seeking to have a Greek successor, he brought a priest from Constantinople and performed a suspicious and potentially rigged election ceremony which ended in this same priest, Sophronius IV, as his successor. The Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre from its beginning with Germanus was meant as an ethno-nationalist project to slowly remove indigenous control of Jerusalem and it's Holy Places and consolidate it under

3760-507: A level of popularity throughout the 1930s, but did not survive into the 1940s. Following the killing of the Syrian Arab guerrilla leader Izz ad-Din al-Qassam by British forces in Ya'bad , Arab-Jewish tensions in Palestine reached a climax. Anti-Zionist sentiments reached a boiling point on 15 April 1936, when an armed group of Arabs killed a Jewish civilian after intercepting his car near

3948-510: A main element in political identity, and promoted the unity of Arabs regardless of sectarian identity. However, the fact that most Arabs were Muslims was used by some as an important building block in creating a new Arab national identity. An example of this was Michel Aflaq , founder along with Salah al-Din al-Bitar and Zaki al-Arsuzi of the Ba'ath Party in Syria in the 1940s. Aflaq, thought himself

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4136-551: A neutral position regarding World War II , opening dialogue with the German government which was at war with Britain. Under great pressure from the latter, al-Gaylani resigned on 31 January 1941 and al-Said took his place. The perceived British interjection in Iraq's internal affairs angered Arab nationalist officers in the army, leading a group of them to overthrow the government in April and install al-Gaylani as Prime Minister. To counter

4324-417: A new law that met most of the congregation's demands in 1956. However, after his government's forced resignation in April 1957, and due to objections by Patriarch Benedictus , a compromise was reached in 1958 that responded to the Arab Orthodox laity's demands, without giving the right to manage the patriarchate's properties. It demanded the adoption of Jordanian citizenship by all members of the brotherhood and

4512-433: A peculiar historical development, subject to a monastery whose greatest pride is that it is composed of members of a race alien (or which they themselves consider alien) to their own. In 1931, Patriarch Damianos died, and the laity quickly moved to renew their claims, by highlighting how the 1926 British commission sympathized with their stance; how Antioch Patriarchate had been inclusive of its Arab clergy and laity; and how

4700-560: A potent political force today, the death of Nasser and the Arab defeat in the Six-Day War has weakened faith in this ideal. The current dominant ideology among Arab policy makers has shifted to wataniyya . Throughout the late 19th century, beginning in the 1860s, a sense of loyalty to the "Fatherland" developed in intellectual circles based in the Levant and Egypt, but not necessarily an "Arab Fatherland". It developed from observance of

4888-471: A proper study of each case. Because of this, the expansion of women's political and economic rights was achieved under nationalist regimes, but it was deficient when it came to questioning their domestic limitations, such as polygamy, divorce, and the minimum age for marriage. In Egypt, the 1956 Constitution granted women the right to vote for the first time in history, as well as their right to education and employment. Nasser also guaranteed economic rights to

5076-460: A rallying point for Arab nationalism from both a religious perspective and a military perspective. The fact that the Zionists were Jewish promoted a religious flavor to the xenophobic rhetoric and strengthened Islam as a defining feature of Arab nationalism. The humiliating defeat in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War strengthened the Arabs' resolve to unite in favor of a pan-Arab nationalist ideal. With

5264-478: A relative of Patriarch Theophanes, traveled to Jerusalem with a royal official of Constantinople to try to force the people to recognize him. The Bishops recognized him, but the vast majority of clergy and monastics who were indigenous, opposed him and made a pile of stones to resist him. Paisios bribed the local authorities to make it illegal to disrespect him and filed a lawsuit against the people, at which they backed down. Paisios went further than Germanus by enacting

5452-434: A revisionist history where the people and clergy of Jerusalem have been Greek since the very beginning, denying the reality of any Arab or Palestinian Orthodox of Jerusalem. The Brotherhood elected Metropolitan Cyril , who moved the headquarters of the Brotherhood from Constantinople to Jerusalem, fearing the disintegration of the Brotherhood due to the large Roman Catholic influence and the immoral and luxurious lifestyle of

5640-518: A temporary reconciliation between the Arab laity and the patriarchate. Tensions arose again when the brotherhood attempted to solve the church's financial problems by taking a loan from Greece, subjecting the church to Greek government influence, and affirming the Hellenic identity of the church. These demands were opposed by Damianos and the British authorities. The Haycraft Commission established by

5828-838: A weapon to use against the power of the Ottoman Empire. Although the Arab forces were promised a state that included much of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent , the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement between Britain and France provided for the territorial division of much of that region between the two imperial powers. During the interwar years and the British Mandate period, when Arab lands were under French and British control, Arab nationalism became an important anti-imperial opposition movement against European rule. A number of Arab revolts against

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6016-668: Is a political ideology asserting that Arabs constitute a single nation . As a traditional nationalist ideology, it promotes Arab culture and civilization , celebrates Arab history , the Arabic language and Arabic literature . It often also calls for unification of Arab society . It bases itself on the premise that the people of the Arab world —from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea —constitute one nation bound together by

6204-498: Is impossible not to view with feelings of sympathy the position in which these members of the Church find themselves." The British report continued: Like all young men of their time, they are full of the idea of nationalism, and cherish the language which united them with their fellow countrymen. They do not wish to abandon their Church; on the contrary, they are attached to its traditions and its rites. But they find themselves, owing to

6392-615: Is said to have suffered an "irreversible" slide towards "political marginality". From the mid-1960s onward, the movement was further weakened by factional splits and ideological infighting. The formerly pro-Nasser Arab Nationalist Movement , publicly abandoned Nasserism in favor of Marxism–Leninism and fell apart soon after. In 1966, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party split into rival factions based in Baghdad and Damascus , respectively. The historian Adeed Dawisha observes

6580-738: Is seated in the Central Monastery of Saints Constantine and Helen, Jerusalem, northeast of Megali Panagia Nunnery . The Holy Sepulchre refers to the burial chamber, or sepulchre , of Jesus , which is believed to be inside the eponymous Church . The organization is also known as the Hagiotaphite Brotherhood, and its members referred to as Hagiotaphites or Agiotaphites, from the Greek hagios ("holy") and taphos ("sepulchre"). The Brotherhood believes itself to trace its foundation back to monastic guardians of

6768-604: Is today the Palestinian territories , Israel , Jordan and Egypt 's Sinai Peninsula , places within its jurisdiction, and some even outside of it, including in Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, the United States, and Eastern Europe. These properties included hundreds of buildings, churches, and educational and welfare organizations. They are exclusively controlled by the Greek patriarch, including those registered in his name, in

6956-526: The locum tenens and thus implicitly Damianos' deposition. In response, the protesters occupied the Patriarchate, and even local Muslims joined in. Citing fears of public anarchy and the safety of the Brotherhood and its property, the deposition of Damianos was rescinded. Meletios and Chrysostomos lobbied Constantinople, but ended up being exiled from Jerusalem. The British military governor Ronald Storrs wrote: “The attempt to preserve it as less

7144-641: The Algerian War . Plans for a near-future conference were made, but never came into play due to Faysal's death in 1933 (delegates chose Faysal of Iraq to be their patron and he agreed to provide moral and material support for the movement) and fierce British opposition. However, the Arab Independence Party was formed by Palestinian and Iraqi activists from al-Fatat as a direct result of the Jerusalem conference on 13 August 1932. Most of

7332-399: The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party . Arab nationalists believe that the Arab nation existed as a historical entity prior to the rise of nationalism in the 19th–20th century. The Arab nation was formed through the gradual establishment of Arabic as the language of communication and with the advent of Islam as a religion and culture in the region. Both Arabic and Islam served as the pillars of

7520-652: The Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre , whose membership was exclusively Greek. Germanus and the Greek patriarchs who succeeded him handled the patriarchate from their residence in Constantinople until 1834. Election of successive Jerusalem patriarchs was approved by the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople , who benefitted from his proximity to and influence on the Ottoman government. Arab Christians in

7708-543: The Council of Constantinople (1872) and deposed, Procopios being elected to take his place. Procopios pledged to promote education among the people, but as soon as he took office, in order to appease the Brotherhood Procopios closed down the elementary schools and seminary opened by Cyril, and threw out all the indigenous people from poor homes belonging to the Church. He also launched persecution against

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7896-541: The Falastin newspaper that was established by Issa El-Issa and Yousef El-Issa in 1911. The central motive behind the founding of the Falastin newspaper was to serve as an outlet for the Arab Orthodox community in their struggle against the Greek clerical hegemony of the Patriarchate, but soon after picked up the Arab fight against the Zionist colonization of Palestine. When it first appeared in 1911, Falastin featured

8084-604: The Falastin newspaper , and Issa Bandak of the Sawt Sha'ab magazine, petitioned the Congress to support the Arab Orthodox movement and recognize it as part of a broader nationalist struggle. Encouraged by the Congress' support, they went on to establish an Arab Orthodox Conference in Haifa on 15 July 1923. The first Arab Orthodox Conference was led by Iskandar Kassab as president, Yaqoub Farraj as deputy president (who would in

8272-635: The Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem , the brotherhood also administers the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem , such as metropolitans , archbishops , bishops , archimandrites , hieromonks , hierodeacons , and monks . The brotherhood's symbol is the taphos , a monogram of the Greek letters tau ( Τ ) and phi ( Φ ), for the word taphos ( τάφος , meaning "sepulchre, grave"). It can be seen on most Greek Orthodox buildings in Jerusalem. The brotherhood

8460-542: The Levantine state and Iraq would form an "Arab League," to which other Arab states could join, that would oversee matters of defense, foreign policy, customs, currency and the safeguarding of minorities. The proposal reflected a combination of factors, namely the expansionist ambitions of the Hashemites, the attempt by Iraq's political establishment to secure the mantle of Arab leadership in their rivalry with Egypt and

8648-819: The National Orthodox School , which later opened a second branch in Shmesani in 1965, hosting thousands of students. The Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem represents one of the largest landowners in the region known as the Holy Land . It is the second largest landowner in Israel after the Israel Land Department. Starting from the 19th century onwards, the patriarchate engaged in extensive land purchases, planned for church buildings, institutions, and businesses. It bought lands in what

8836-476: The Near East in ancient times or by associating the other pre-Islamic cultures, such as those of Egypt and North Africa and Horn of Africa , into an evolving Arab identity . The modern Arabic language actually has two distinct words which can be translated into English as "nationalism": qawmiyya قومية, derived from the word qawm (meaning "tribe, ethnic nationality"), and wataniyya وطنية, derived from

9024-515: The Young Turk revolution , Palestinian Orthodox began a series of meetings with Patriarch Damianos demanding indigenous representation, which was repeatedly denied. In November 1908 there were demonstrations in Jerusalem and protests in Jaffa and Bethlehem. Chief Secretary Meletios Metaxakis began rumors in the Brotherhood that Damianos was secretly supportive of the indigenous Orthodox, and with

9212-491: The "sister Arab nations" and explore the "question of Arab unity." Rivalry for the leadership of the Arab world developed mostly between the political establishments of Iraq and Egypt in the period following the failure of Rashid Ali coup. Eden's stated support for increased Arab ties encouraged Nuri al-Said of Iraq to propose his own plan for Arab unity in January 1943, dubbed the " Fertile Crescent Union ." The plan recognized

9400-421: The 1956 Suez Crisis . Albert Camus argued that Algerian nationalism was closely tied to Nasserism and Pan-Arabism in an essay titled 'Algeria 1958'. Algerian president Houari Boumédiène , who pursued Arab socialist and Pan-Arabist policies, drafted a new Algerian constitution in 1976 which declared "the unity of the Arab people is written in the community of the destinies of these people. When there will be

9588-541: The 1980s and 1990s, the struggle between the Arab Orthodox laity and their patriarchate focused on lawsuits in Israeli courts, where both sides engaged in attempts to change ownership of some properties in their favor. Israel has maintained good relations with the patriarchate, in an effort to solidify its hold on occupied East Jerusalem, and in exchange for unfreezing some of the patriarchate's properties. In early 2005, almost four years into his term as patriarch, Irenaios

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9776-633: The 1990s, it continued to exercise an intellectual hegemony throughout the Arab world. Notable personalities and groups that are associated with Arab nationalism include Hussein bin Ali , Faisal I of Iraq , Gamal Abdel Nasser , Yasser Arafat , George Habash , Michel Aflaq , Ahmed Ben Bella , Muammar Gaddafi , Saddam Hussein , the Arab Nationalist Movement , the Palestine Liberation Organization , and

9964-412: The AIP's activities were centered in the Palestinian political field, but the party also worked towards achieving Arab unity and solidarity as a means to strengthen Arab resistance against the British Mandate in Palestine and increased Jewish settlement occurring there. In August 1933, the League of Nationalist Action (LNA) was founded in Lebanon by Western-educated professional civil service groups with

10152-445: The Arab Orthodox Renaissance Association on 14 November 1928, presided by Auda Qusus and his deputy Amin Kawar. Qusus' first preoccupations was the establishment of an Orthodox school in Amman , which was constructed in 1930s hosting 50 students. In 1932, the Association decided to build a church in Amman, funded by philanthropists from the laity across Transjordan and Palestine. The construction work only started in 1947, mainly thanks to

10340-432: The Arab Orthodox community failed to stop his election. A year after the Arab revolt in Palestine against British mandate authorities in 1937, Yacoub Farraj wrote to the British Peel Commission presenting the Arab Orthodox community's position. The Arab Orthodox Movement however faced internal criticism from George Antonius and Khalil Sakakini , with the former viewing incorporation of Palestinian Arab nationalism into

10528-483: The Arab countries form an integral and indivisible whole. Hence the Arab nation does not accept or recognize the divisions of whatever nature to which it has been subjected, all efforts in every Arab country are to be directed towards the achievement of total independence within one single unity. Every endeavor which confines political activities to local or regional issues is to be fought against, and since colonialism is, in all its forms and manifestations, incompatible with

10716-485: The Arab laity greater say in the election of their patriarch. These minor concessions were never implemented, and the Mixed Council, which the patriarch deemed having an advisory role, was soon after dissolved in 1913. The 1914 World War I wrecked havoc on the patriarchate's finances. By the end of 1918, it was estimated that the patriarchate was 600,000 pounds in debt. The Ottomans were driven out of Palestine by British forces commanded by General Edmund Allenby , who drew

10904-406: The Arab nationalist discourse replicated the most conservative conceptions of womanhood. Following this logic, the laws that regulated the private sphere became stricter, or tightened. Conversely, this assertion has been nuanced by Deniz Kandiyoti, under the argument that the relationship between Islam and women's rights is "politically convergent" and should not be generalized nor simplified without

11092-558: The Arab world”. Other factors given for the decline include: regional attachments such as Iraqi president Abdul-Karim Qasim 's "Iraq first" policy, suspicion of Arab unity by minority groups such as Kurds in Iraq who were non-Arab, or Shia Arabs in Iraq who feared Arab nationalism was actually "a Sunni project" to establish "Sunni hegemony", the Islamic revival , which grew as Arab nationalism declined, and whose Islamist adherents were very hostile towards nationalism in general, believing it had no place in Islam, and lack of interest by

11280-404: The Arabs' Muslim ancestors bestowed "rationality on mankind and created the essentials of modernity," borrowed by the West. Thus, while Europe advanced from adopting the modernist ideals of true Islam, the Muslims failed, corrupting and abandoning true Islam. Al-Afghani blamed a division between Muslims on European influence. He thus advocated for pan-Muslim unity as a project to revitalize Islam as

11468-560: The British Mandate authorities, as intertwined struggles in the national liberation movement against European imperial domination of Palestine. During the first Arab Orthodox Conference in July 1923, the attendees demanded "the establishment of new societies and clubs throughout Palestine and Transjordan" to solidify Arab leadership in the Orthodox community. In 1924, the first Orthodox Club was founded in Jaffa, followed by clubs in Jerusalem (1926), Acre (1929), Beit Sahour (1930), Lydda (1932) and Haifa (1937). Transjordanian notables established

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11656-460: The British authorities, denouncing the Greek clergy and accusing them of continued Hellenization, greed and theft. In 1926, a British commission to "report on certain controversies", also known as the Bertram -Young commission, expressed sympathy with Arab Orthodox demands. It noted that a large part of the Arab Orthodox hostility was due to scandals by the Greek monks involving money and women. However, despite supporting greater Arab participation in

11844-431: The British in 1921, included recommendations to put control of the church's finances under a British-appointed committee, and greater British involvement in the patriarch's appointment; two policies that were consistent with "maintenance of religious institutions in colonial contexts". The commission also stressed that the laity's problem was bound to reappear and expressed sympathy for Arab demands of greater participation in

12032-426: The British regarding their demands. Becoming disillusioned with the Mandate authorities, the Arab Orthodox community turned their attention to the newly formed Arab League in 1946, and presented their cause in Arab nationalist terms: We as Arabs and our case being both nationally and politically an Arab affair present this humble petition requesting from your honourable League and from the Arab States participating in

12220-438: The Church of the Palestine Orthodox than as an outpost of Hellenism… was the source not only of constant intrigue and wire-pulling… but also of increasing discouragement and bitterness to the Orthodox Arabs of the country.” ... “The Adelfotis – the Orthodox Brotherhood – is an absolutely closed corporation: there were not Arab Metropolitans, Bishops or even Archimandrites, and a modern Arab Patriarch (though there have been such in

12408-404: The Churches are lacking icons and priests are lacking proper vestments and resources, and he defends the practice of monks marrying nuns and of refusing to allow Arab translators, monks, clergy and schools. Porphyry accuses the Patriarch and states that "the kingdom of God will undoubtedly be taken away from you and given to others" and "the Orthodox Church has been corrupted because of you and is on

12596-511: The Community shall have to enjoy what the two cats enjoyed of the piece of cheese on which they disputed one another. The conference sent a letter to Emir Abdullah of Transjordan asking for his support, to which he responded positively, especially with regards to the election of an Arab patriarch. At George Antonius ' suggestion, Wachoupe met with the patriarch-elect Timotheus and his chief secretary, and found both of them to be fully opposed to any laity rights. Commissioner Wachoupe wrote: At

12784-414: The Document of Guardianship, he saw that Christians were divided into many groups, so asked Patriarch Sophronius what he should call the Christians of Jerusalem. After praying fervently for an answer, he heard the fifth Psalm, "Oh my King and my Lord", and decided upon the name Melkite , meaning "Royal People". Members of the Brotherhood would later claim that this tradition was meant specifically to refer to

12972-401: The Egyptian revolution espoused Egyptian nationalism , rather than an Arab nationalist alternative. The relative independence of Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and North Yemen encouraged Arab nationalists to put forward programs of action against colonial powers in the region. According to historian Youssef Choueiri, the "first public glimmerings" of a pan-Arab approach occurred in 1931, during

13160-408: The European powers took place following the establishment of the British and French mandates. Resentment of British rule culminated in the Iraqi Revolt of 1920. The uprising which was carried out by the urban population as well as the rural tribes of Iraq ended in 1921. The British drastically changed their policy in Iraq afterwards. Although the mandate was still in place officially, the British role

13348-534: The Greek clergy says that the patriarchate was historically Greek. Opposition to the Greek clergy turned violent in the late 19th century, when they came under physical attack by the Arab laity in the streets. The movement held Arab Orthodox conferences, the first of which was in Jaffa in 1923, and most recently in Amman in 2014. One outcome of the 1923 conference was the laity's establishment of tens of Orthodox churches, clubs and schools in Palestine and Jordan. There were historically also several interventions to solve

13536-610: The Greek monks and clergy to live in luxury as a higher class than the indigenous. Many of the Greek Patriarchs of the Brotherhood would only ordain their relatives. After twenty nine years, Patriarch Sophronius relinquished his position, in part due to enormous debts accumulated from disputing with Roman Catholics over the Sepulchre and other holy sites, with Patriarch Theophanes succeeding him. The Brotherhood from its founding began to immediately redirect proceeds from

13724-561: The Greek nation, because they claim Patriarch Sophronius was Greek, thus using this as a justification for discrimination of non-Greeks. Monastic groups existed in Jerusalem prior to the Brotherhood which always had all indigenous clergy, but in 1534 Germanus "the Peloponnesian" became Patriarch of Jerusalem and founded the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. Germanus was a fervent Greek Nationalist who began replacing Arab bishops on their death with Greek bishops, eventually passing

13912-488: The Greek-dominated brotherhood for appearing too accommodative towards Arab laity demands, but was later reinstated. In 1910, in an attempt to settle the problem, the Ottoman government set up a mixed council, consisting of six Arab and six Greek representatives; the patriarchate would also have to provide a third of its revenues towards financing schools, hospitals and charities. However, the Ottomans stopped short of allowing

14100-488: The Greeks. Immediately after being elected, Germanus traveled to Constantinople and other places to gather finances. Except for Sophronius, every Patriarch from Germanus to Cyril would never once see their flock as a Bishop is meant to, but would live in Constantinople or a Metochion in affluent areas of Jerusalem apart from the indigenous people, leaving administration to a bishop called the "Patriarchal Commissioner", allowing

14288-631: The Holy Places, and using Greek princes in Moldavia and Serbia were able to change the ownership of many monasteries together with their properties, as well as those of affluent Orthodox, to come under the Brotherhood, as well as seeking properties in Georgia and the Caucasus. Many Metochia were built in Jerusalem, Constantinople, Russia, Crete, Macedonia, and elsewhere in order to collect alms under

14476-508: The Holy Sepulchre under the "Indigenous Orthodox Arab people" rather than the Catholics. In 1250 Sultan Baybars again confirmed the right of the indigenous Orthodox over the Holy Sepulchre. When Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, Patriarch Athanasius IV of Jerusalem came to him and reconfirmed the document, and this happened again under Salim I and Patriarch Atallah. A local Orthodox tradition states that when Caliph Umar wanted to write

14664-507: The Holy sites existing prior to the fourth century. Under Umar , a Document of Guardianship was given to the Church of Jerusalem to have ownership over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. When the Crusaders occupied Jerusalem in 1099, they appropriated the Holy Sepulchre and other Holy places until Saladin threw them out of Egypt and reconfirmed he Document of Guardianship of Umar as placing

14852-650: The Jerusalem Orthodox patriarchate failed in Palestine and Transjordan. Other patriarchates in the Holy Land underwent successful Arabization, including Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches. In the late 19th century, the Arab laity protested against the Jerusalem Patriarchate. The Ottomans responded to these protests by promulgating a Fundamental Law in 1875, that gave minor rights to the Arab laity but ensured Greek hegemony, partly influenced by Russian support to laity's demands. Following

15040-525: The Jerusalem Patriarchate should be Palestinian and not Greek. They regarded the Greek claim of ownership of holy sites as "groundless and arrogant". They added: "The Patriarchate is an Orthodox institution in Palestine. The Patriarch and the Fraternity are Palestinians. The Community is Palestinian and the Shrines are in Palestine". A meeting was held in Jerusalem attended by 400 notables, Arab priests and

15228-587: The League sympathy for our case by embracing it as an indivisible part of the general Palestinian case. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War , known to Palestinians as the Nakba (catastrophe), the Arab Orthodox community focused its efforts on refugee relief. The patriarchate lent lands for the construction of churches, in an effort to ease tensions with the congregation. However, it was reported that tenants faced harassment and high rents by rent collectors affiliated with

15416-531: The Nazi government, seeking to take advantage of widespread anti-imperialist feelings in the Middle East, had broadcast antisemitic messages tailored to Arabic-speaking Muslims in the Middle East via radio. The conflict in Iraq provoked anger and frustration throughout the Arab world and the British acknowledged the rapid growth of Arab nationalist feeling among the Arab population, large segments of which saw

15604-588: The Orthodox community has the right to say that it has fallen under three mandatories, a British one, a Zionist one, and yet a third Greek one. These three mandatories have combined to aid one another in depriving Palestinian Arabs of their rights. The Young Turk Revolution that restored the Ottoman Constitution in 1908, led to the abolishment of press censorship. Several newspapers, magazines and periodical appeared across Ottoman Palestine . Out of

15792-558: The Orthodox community, that refused to recognize any patriarch elected without community's consent. On 28 November 1931, the second Arab Orthodox Conference was held in Jaffa, led by Issa El-Issa . The concurrent World Islamic Congress held in Jerusalem passed a resolution supporting the Arab Orthodox Movement and recognized it as part of a wider Arab nationalist struggle. The Patriarchate brotherhood moved quickly to preempt these moves, and nominated three candidates for

15980-399: The Ottoman Empire , the Arab rebels simultaneously enabled the partitioning of their would-be unified Arab state by Western powers. Anti-Western sentiment grew as Arab nationalists centralized themselves around the newfound Palestine cause , promoting the view that Zionism posed an existential threat to the territorial integrity and political status quo of the entire region, and that

16168-455: The Ottoman Empire earlier that century. Movements demanding the Arabization of the Orthodox patriarchates started in Syria and Lebanon in 1872, and was successful when Meletius II , Michael Doumani in Arabic, was appointed patriarch of Antioch in 1899, becoming its first Arab patriarch since 1720. Sati' al-Husri termed this as "the first real victory of Arab nationalism". However, Arabization of

16356-432: The Ottoman army not be required to serve in non-Arab regions except in time of war. However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces. Nationalist individuals became more prominent during the waning years of Ottoman authority, but the idea of Arab nationalism had virtually no impact on

16544-488: The Palestine region amounted to around 10% of the population prior to World War I in 1914, the majority, around half, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate. The patriarchate, dominated by Greek clergy, saw itself as the guardian of the holy places, and not the spiritual guide of its mostly Arab laity, who were barred from becoming monks and had no role in administrative or financial workings of

16732-535: The Patriarch of Jerusalem. The monks of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre who lived in Moldavia "in need of a sincere and amiable Patriarch and a leader, not a despot," propitiated Prince Vasile of Moldavia to nominate Abbot Paisios of Galta Monastery. Vasile wrote to the Patriarch of Constantinople, who then approved Paisios rather than confront the Prince. Since the people of Jerusalem did not elect him, Paisios,

16920-420: The Patriarch's election, Timotheus, was confirmed in 1939; and it was overshadowed by growing Arab-Jewish hostilities. The Arab Orthodox community was suffering from difficulties as many of the laity began to leave the church On 23 and 24 September 1944, the third Arab Orthodox Conference was held, attended by Palestinian and Transjordanian Orthodox members. Issa Bandak headed the executive committee, who wrote to

17108-584: The Suez Canal Zone and concerned at Egypt becoming a Cold War battleground Nasser pushed for a collective Arab security pact within the framework of the Arab League . A key aspect of this was the need for economic aid that was not dependent on peace with Israel and the establishment of U.S. or British military bases within Arab countries. Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal and directly challenged

17296-540: The aims of creating a common Arab market and industrial base as well as the abolishment of customs barriers between the Arab countries. By proposing agrarian reforms to limit the power of landowners, abolishing what they considered " feudalism " and promoting the growth of an industry, the LNA sought to undermine the absentee landlords in the Levant who tended to encourage local nationalism and were open to working with European authorities or Jewish land purchasers. The LNA enjoyed

17484-546: The backbone of the newly created Arab state that consisted of much of the Levant and the Hejaz . Damascus became the coordinating center of the Arab nationalist movement as it was seen as the birthplace of the ideology, the seat of Faysal—the first Arab "sovereign" after nearly 400 years of Turkish suzerainty—and because the nationalists of the entire Mashreq region were familiar with it. Nonetheless, Jerusalem , Beirut , and Baghdad remained significant bases of support. Following

17672-527: The basis of the Arab nationalist ideology of the 20th century. This new version of Arab patriotism was directly influenced by the Islamic modernism and revivalism of Muhammad Abduh , the Egyptian Muslim scholar, and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani , Iranian political activist. They both shared their thoughts on reform for Islamic societies by publishing in the journal al-Urwah al-Wuthqa . Abduh believed

17860-545: The beginning of the twentieth, the status of women in Arab society was seen as a symptom of backwardness. Consequently, the reinterpretation of Islamic texts proposed with the revival of Arab culture also included the question of women. This was possible before nationalism became directly opposed to the European model. In this sense, the connection of the "ideal Arab woman" to the conceptions of modernity made women "markers of cultural borders". Consistent with this logic would be

18048-411: The building. Times and places of worship for each community are strictly regulated in common areas. Under the status quo , no part of what is designated as common territory may be so much as rearranged without consent from all communities. This often leads to the neglect of badly needed repairs when the communities cannot come to an agreement among themselves about the final shape of a project. Just such

18236-587: The candidates for the offices of the patriarchate be citizens of Jordan, but the changes were discontinued after negotiation between the Patriarchate and the Jordanians. Jordanian Law No. 227, dated 16 January 1958, regulates the Brotherhood's government. After the renovation of 1555, control of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre oscillated between the Roman Catholic Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain

18424-560: The church to the Jerusalem Orthodox Patriarchate; allowing Arab members into brotherhood and hierarchy; enabling Arab administrative participation in financial affairs; Arab control of church institutions; formation of a Mixed Council of an Arab majority with widespread authorities; and insistence on Arabic as liturgical language. The conference also castigated the patriarchate for its land sales to Zionists individuals and companies. Patriarch Damianos responded to

18612-631: The church. In the early 1920s, tensions between the Arab laity and the Greek church worsened significantly after it had issued statements supporting Zionism , and after the British-Greek commission handling the church's finances sold large tracts of land in Jerusalem and its surroundings in 1923, to the Palestine Land Development Company owned by Zionists, aiming to increase Jewish colonization. The Arab Orthodox laity began afterwards of portraying their Greek church

18800-607: The church. Within the context of rising Arab nationalism , Arab revolts against the Greek clergy in the Orthodox patriarchates of Antioch and Jerusalem — covering modern-day regions of Syria and Lebanon, and Palestine and Transjordan respectively — intensified in the late 19th century. These movements in Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire gained inspiration from nationalists in fellow Balkan provinces (Serbian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, and Greek Orthodox), who merged demands for religious reforms and national emancipation within

18988-1039: The communities. The primary custodians are the Greek Orthodox Church, which has the lion's share; the Custodian of the Holy Land , an official of the Franciscans affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox , Armenian Apostolic Churches . In the 19th century, the Coptic Orthodox , the Ethiopian Orthodox and the Syriac Orthodox acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures within and around

19176-586: The conditions for a unity based on the liberation of the popular masses, Algeria will engage itself in the promotion of the formulas of union, integration or fusion that may fully respond to the legitimate and deep aspirations of the Arab people". Like his predecessor Ahmed Ben Bella , he imposed Arab socialism as the state ideology and declared Islam the state religion, however he was more assertive than Ben Bella in carrying out Arabization to reverse French colonization, especially between 1970 and 1977. The question of Palestine and opposition to Zionism became

19364-462: The conflict by the Ottoman , British (1920–1948), and Jordanian (1948–1967) authorities, owing to the patriarchate's headquarters being located in East Jerusalem . Despite the city coming under Israeli occupation since 1967 , the patriarchate has continued to function according to a 1958 Jordanian law, which mandates the clergy hold Jordanian citizenship and speak Arabic. To this day,

19552-465: The constant harassment of the Greek monks of the Brotherhood when he refused to persecute indigenous Orthodox. Members of the Brotherhood took up the practice of only commemorating Greek patriarchs, dating back to either Germanus with the Jerusalem Patriarchate, or to Sylvester with Patriarchs of Antioch. French author Eugene Bori in "The Holy Land" accuses the Greek monks of being foreign embezzlers, which Patriarch Constantios argued against using

19740-468: The control of the Sepulchre became based on a tenuous ethnic claim rather than local Church or state authority, this led to the many disputes over the Holy Places, and that "these disputes ... will never cease so long as the Greek monks of Jerusalem continue to control the Jerusalemite church and are domineering the Holy Sepulchre and all the Holy Places contrary to every canon and law." Inspired by

19928-531: The convention of World Islamic Congress in Jerusalem which highlighted Muslim fears of the increasing growth of Zionism in Palestine. Arab delegates held a separate conference and for the first time delegates from North Africa, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent convened together to discuss Arab matters. A pan-Arabist covenant was proclaimed centering on three main articles :

20116-506: The coup were captured and executed. Al-Husayni became increasingly acquainted with Adolf Hitler , the Nazi leader of Germany, and other Nazi officials and attempted to coordinate Nazi and Arab policies to solve what he believed was the " Jewish problem " in Palestine. In one of the mufti's speeches he asked Arabs to unite and "kill the Jews wherever you find them." Throughout World War II,

20304-435: The creation of Faysal's state, a serious tension within the Arab nationalist movement became visible; the conflict between the ideology's highest ideal of forming a single independent unit comprising all countries that shared the Arabic language and heritage, and the tendency to give precedence to local ambitions. To further tensions, a rift formed between the older nationalist members of various Syrian urban-class families and

20492-436: The creation of revolutionary Arab unity." Groups who subscribed to this point of view advocated opposition, violent and non-violent, against Israel and against Arabs who did not subscribe to this point of view. The person most identified with qawmiyya was Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, who used both military and political power to spread his version of pan-Arab ideology throughout the Arab world. While qawmiyya still remains

20680-429: The decline in popularity was, in part, due to the elimination of many of the political factors that stoked nationalist passion in the Arab world during the 1950s and early 1960s, while Fred Halliday cites the “failure of the secular state, in its economic, social, and state-building roles, as well as in foreign policies, that led to the rejection of nationalism, and associated ideas of socialism and revolution, in much of

20868-547: The demands of the laity, and approved a draft bill of a new law to replace the 1875 Ottoman Fundamental Law concerning Patriarchate. The bill was criticized by the laity. Palestinian journalist Yousef El-Issa and Transjordanian civil servant Auda Qusus wrote in the Executive Committee's memo: We must in conclusion admit that the problem shall surely be trusted to the Government and that the Patriarchate and

21056-555: The dignity and paramount aims of the Arab nation, the Arab nation rejects it and will resist it with all the means at its disposal. The Association of Algerian Muslim Ulama founded in 1931 was a major Islamist and Arab nationalist movement in French Algeria . Its motto was "Islam is our religion, Algeria is our homeland, Arabic is our language", and it emphasized on the Arab-Islamic national identity of Algeria, becoming

21244-410: The discussion on the unveiling of women, which came to be used as a symbol of progress in the early twentieth century by Egypt. Additionally, Tunisian women protested its usage for the first time during the 1920s and the 1930s. However, this image "...was not much different from that of a tractor, an industrial complex, or a new railroad in symbolizing the modern, the development, the progress"; its value

21432-557: The dominance of the Western powers in the region. At the same time he opened Egypt up as a Cold War zone by receiving aid and arms shipments from the Soviet bloc countries that were not dependent on treaties, bases and peace accords. However, because of the connotations for Cold War dominance of the region, Egypt also received aid from the US, who sought to promote the emerging Arab nationalism as

21620-406: The doors and the window ledges as common ground. The ladder remains there to this day, in almost exactly the same position. It can be seen to occupy the ledge in century-old photographs and engravings. None of the communities controls the main entrance. In 1192, Saladin assigned responsibility for it to a Muslim family. The Joudeh Al-Goudia a noble family with a long history were entrusted with

21808-575: The end of 2 hours, I rose in my chair and in my wrath said I was profoundly disappointed and dismayed at the regrettable lack he had shown of any approach to a spirit of good will or conciliation. I said I should not forget his statement that the Convent had the power and would part with none of it to the laity. Despite Commissioner Wachoupe's attempts, no further action was taken by the Mandate authorities to prevent Timotheus' election. A further lawsuit by

21996-702: The events in Iraq as a valiant struggle against imperialism. British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden , officially stated Britain's support of strong pan-Arab ties in a bid to ease anti-British sentiments in the region. The events of the region influenced the creation of the Arab Union Club in Egypt in 1942 which called for developing stronger ties between Egypt and the Arab world. Branches were subsequently opened in Baghdad, Beirut, Jaffa and Damascus, and Egyptian Prime Minister Mostafa el-Nahas adopted its platform, pledging to help protect "the interests and rights" of

22184-401: The events in Palestine. Al-Husayni, who leaned more towards Palestinian nationalism , was instrumental in organizing the pan-Arab Bloudan Conference on 9 September 1937 in Syria which gathered 524 delegates from across the Arab world, although al-Husayni himself was not in attendance. According to author Adeeb Dawisha, although the uprising had been quelled by 1939, it greatly "contributed to

22372-461: The expansion of journalism using a unifying language, with the creation of newspapers in Arabic, as well as the publication of an Arabic dictionary and an encyclopedia during the late 1860s and the early 1870s. This allowed the questioning (albeit limited), of Ottoman power. Accordingly, in the 1860s, literature produced in the Mashriq (the Levant and Mesopotamia ) which was under Ottoman control at

22560-459: The first Arab Orthodox Conference by organizing his own opposing party, which met several time in October 1923, and proposed less radical reforms to the British. Despite recognizing that the first Arab Orthodox Congress was representative of the community, the British did not respond to its demands. In 1929, a series of letters from Orthodox clubs and association across Mandatory Palestine wrote to

22748-546: The first four ' Rightfully Guided ' caliphs as the true reason for the decline of Islam." Meanwhile, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia sought to counter the influences of Arab nationalism and communism in the region by promoting pan-Islamism as an alternative. He called for the establishment of the Muslim World League, visiting several Muslim countries to advocate the idea. He also engaged in a propaganda and media war with Nasser. Women were active participants in

22936-405: The following decade become the movement's most committed leader), Michael Khoury as secretary. It was attended by 54 delegates representing all the dioceses in Palestine and Transjordan, demanded Arabization and denounced the Greek hegemony, who were "foreign of language and country... and have four centuries ago usurped the spiritual authority from the Arab Orthodox." The conference demanded renaming

23124-427: The foundation of the Arab nationalist Ba'ath Party , which asserts that the Arab nation is the group of people who speak Arabic, inhabit the Arab world , and who feel they belong to the same nation, ideologies which originated from Sati' al-Husri 's works. Arab nationalism is the "sum total" of the characteristics and qualities exclusive to the Arab nation, whereas pan-Arab unity is the modern idea that stipulates that

23312-496: The generally younger nationalists who became close to Faysal—his Hejazi troops, Iraqi and Syrian military officers, and Palestinian and Syrian intellectuals. The older guard was mainly represented by Rida Pasha al-Rikabi , who served as Faysal's prime minister, while the younger guard did not have one particular leader. However, the youth within al-Fatat founded the Arab Independence Party ("al-Istiqlal") in February 1919. Its goal

23500-401: The growth of Arab nationalist sentiment" and began the development of "solidarity" between Arab governments. Meanwhile, a clandestine Arab nationalist society was formed in Iraq in 1938 which came to be known as Arab Nationalist Party (ANP). The ANP typically confined itself to influencing events and leaders in Iraq rather than taking the lead of a mass nationalist movement. King Ghazi of Iraq

23688-443: The help of Chrysostomos Papadopoulos and the support of Patriarch Photios and Patriarch Joachim , he called a midnight meeting of the whole Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre who unanimously decided to dethrone Damianos, formally enacting this the next morning on December 13. Damianos refused to step down and was threatened with defrocking, but the Ottoman government stalled any final decision until January 20, formally recognizing

23876-564: The indigenous Orthodox by reporting them to the government as being Russian partisans. In 1864 the immorality of the Brotherhood in Moldavia was seen as so atrocious that the government of Moldavia deported them and took possession of all their Monasteries and properties, changing them into charity homes and military places. The Brotherhood in Jerusalem had begun imitating the abuses in the Catholic Church by selling indulgences to pilgrims, although ceasing for fear of bad press once it

24064-408: The keys as custodians. This arrangement has persisted into modern times. The establishment of the status quo did not halt the violence, which continues to break out every so often even in modern times. For example, on a hot summer day in 2002, a Coptic monk, who was stationed on the roof to express Coptic claims over Ethiopian territory there, moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade; this

24252-666: The leaders of Iraq, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Transjordan, Yemen and the Palestinian Arab community convened in Alexandria , Egypt in a meeting hosted by the Egyptian government which ended with an agreement known as the " Alexandria Protocol ." After the Second World War, Gamal Abdel Nasser , the leader of Egypt, was a significant player in the rise of Arab nationalism. Opposed to the British control of

24440-462: The linguistic, cultural and economic ties between the states of the Fertile Crescent region as well as the differences between their inhabitants. It sought to unify those states in a stage-based process whereby the initial stage would see Syria, Transjordan, Palestine and Lebanon unite with limited autonomy given to the Jews in Palestine and special rights for the Christians in Lebanon. Afterward

24628-610: The majority of Arabs as they considered themselves loyal subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The British, for their part, incited the Sharif of Mecca to launch the Arab Revolt during the First World War. The Ottomans were defeated and the rebel forces, loyal to the Sharif's son Faysal ibn al-Husayn entered Damascus in 1918. By now, Faysal along with many Iraqi intellectuals and military officers had joined al-Fatat which would form

24816-601: The mandate authorities for its treatment of the laity, the ignoring of the 1926 British commission's recommendations, and accused the high commissioner of misconceiving his powers by allowing the patriarch's election to proceed. The Falastin newspaper celebrated the ruling, and the Executive Orthodox Committee met with the high commissioner to present its stances. Wachoupe was irritated by the court's ruling, but in 1934, issued as statement saying that no patriarch election would be confirmed without heeding to

25004-527: The monks. He established a seminary in the Monastery of El-Musalanah, which allowed indigenous Orthodox although with heavy discrimination. He also founded elementary schools in Palestine and an Arabic printing house and hospital. These concessions to the indigenous Orthodox were seen by the Brotherhood as a betrayal of their ethnic policy, and so he was eventually accused of partiality towards the Russians at

25192-489: The movement in pluralism , separation of powers , freedom of political expression and other democratic concepts which might have "resuscitated" the ideology in its moment of weakness. However, Halliday notes how many ideas and goals of the emerging Islamist movements resembled, and even derived from, the programmes of the earlier, secular nationalists. He says, “the Islamist movements were beneficiaries and inheritors of

25380-403: The movement was counterproductive, while the latter emphasized that communal political identifications were counterproductive to the integration of Christians into Palestinian political life. While the Arab Orthodox Movement leaders, Yacoub Farraj, Issa El-Issa and Issa Bandak, continued to view the communal and national identities as intertwined. The movement was frustrated and lost momentum when

25568-489: The name of the Holy Sepulchre. The annual income rose to over forty million piasters , and many of the monks of the Brotherhood lived in what resembled mansions. Patriarch Cyril would later be nicknamed the "Father of Gold". Patriarch Dositheus II reports that upon the death of Patriarch Theophanes, the Ecumenical Patriarch Parthenios sought to extend Greek influence by personally ordaining

25756-451: The nation. According to writer Youssef M. Choueiri, Arab nationalism represents the "Arabs' consciousness of their specific characteristics as well as their endeavor to build a modern state capable of representing the common will of the nation and all its constituent parts." Within the Arab nationalist movement are three main ideas: that of the Arab nation; Arab nationalism; and pan-Arab unity . The 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine led to

25944-686: The nationalist mobilizations. Arab nationalism became an opportunity for women to appear in public spaces –which were traditionally reserved for men, not only as protesters but also as founders of their own unions and organizations. One example is Hoda Sha'rawi , who marched with other women during the 1919 revolution against the British and would then create the Egyptian Feminist Union . (Male) Islamic modernists Muhammad Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, along with Egyptian judge and intellectual Qasim Amine , are considered precursors of women's ideological discussion due to their reflections on

26132-424: The notion of fatherland from that of nation; when applying the latter to Greater Syria , he pointed to the role played by language, besides customs and belief in common interests, in defining national identity. This distinction between fatherland and nation was also made by Hasan al-Marsafi in 1881. By the beginning of the 20th century, groups of Muslim Arabs embraced an Arab nationalist "self-view" that would provide

26320-492: The occasional mingled of Arab nationalism and Islamic revivalist sentiment was from Hassan al-Banna , the founder of the earliest and largest revivalist organization, the Muslim Brotherhood . While in theory Islamic revivalists (for example Sayyid Qutb ) were implacably opposed to nationalism as a European pollution intended to weaken Islamic unity, al-Banna "had regarded the transfer of power to non-Arabs after

26508-538: The other hand, had deviated from true Islam and thus suffered decline. The reforming Ottoman and Egyptian governments were blamed for the situation because they attempted to borrow Western practices from the Europeans that were seen as unnatural and corrupt. The Arab patriots' view was that the Islamic governments should revive true Islam that would in turn, pave way for the establishment of constitutional representative government and freedom which, though Islamic in origin,

26696-482: The overwhelmingly dominant ideological force in the Arab world. Its influence steadily expanded over subsequent years. By the 1950s and 1960s, the charismatic Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser championed Arab nationalism, and political parties like the Ba'ath Party and the Arab Nationalist Movement demonstrated remarkable capabilities for mobilization, organization, and clandestine activities. This ideology seemed to be on

26884-559: The patriarch's position. The election was allowed to proceed by British High Commissioner Sir Arthur Wauchope , despite Arab laity protests, who demanded their right to elect the patriarch according to constitutional terms and in accordance with the situation in the Antioch patriarchate. The Arab community sought the opinion of the Palestine Mandate's High Court , and succeeded in getting a supportive ruling, which criticized

27072-488: The patriarchate and its vast properties has led to it being described as resembling a "small absolute kingdom". The Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem is regarded as Jerusalem 's most prominent patriarchate , and Palestine 's largest and oldest church. It was established by a decree issued from the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, which elevated the Bishop of Jerusalem to the rank of Patriarch , ranking fifth after

27260-468: The patriarchate continues to be dominated by Greek clergy and owns vast properties that make it the second largest landowner in Israel. In recent decades, lawsuits have ensued in Israeli courts between the Arab laity and the patriarchate over ownership of properties. Land sales by the patriarchate to Israeli investors has led to several controversies, the most recent of which led to the dismissal of patriarch Irenaios in 2005. The patriarch's total control over

27448-419: The patriarchate's affairs, it stopped short of demanding its Arabization. Significantly, the report's proposed reforms were delayed until a new patriarch was to be elected, which hindered the movement. The British were keen on avoiding the empowerment of Palestinian Orthodox Christians, as they were, along with their Palestinian Muslim counterparts, hostile to Zionism and the British mandate. The report stated: "It

27636-569: The patriarchate's name, and in the congregation's name. Thus, the patriarchate has come to be described as resembling a "small absolute kingdom". Palestinian sociologist Salim Tamari wrote about the Arab Orthodox Movement: The Orthodox Renaissance movement, it should be remembered, became a cause célèbre within wide circles of the Muslim intelligentsia in Syria and Palestine. Many believed that it

27824-523: The patriarchate. The patriarchate had become in the wake of the war in East Jerusalem , under the control of Jordan, along with the West Bank . When Patriarch Timotheus passed away in 1955, the congregation renewed its demands, which led to the intervention of the Jordanian government. The Arab nationalist government of Suleiman Nabulsi was supportive of the patriarchate's Arabization, and drafted

28012-484: The remote past) was about as probable a prelate as an English Pope.” On the election of Patriarch Benedict I in 1957 the Jordanian government approved a law establishing new regulations concerning relations between the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre and the indigenous Arab community of the Orthodox Church. The rules gave the Arab laity a role in the financial affairs of the Patriarchate, and required that

28200-408: The restoration of the Ottoman Constitution by the 1908 Young Turk Revolution , a committee of 40 Orthodox Arabs met in Jerusalem and made a set of 18 demands; it was the first time that the right to participate in management of patriarchate's properties was raised. The demands were rejected by the patriarch Damianos , which was followed by violent riots by the Arab laity. Damianos was then deposed by

28388-637: The restoration of the Arab position as the leaders of the Islamic world. One of Abduh's followers, Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi , openly declared that the Ottoman Empire should be both Turkish and Arab, with the latter exercising religious and cultural leadership. due to their historical role in the early Muslim community. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("the Young Arab Society"), an Arab nationalist secret society and club, in Paris. Its stated aim

28576-492: The resulting Arab–Israeli conflict was directly linked to Western imperialism due to the Balfour Declaration . Arab unity was considered a necessary instrument to "restoring this lost part" of the nation, which in turn meant eliminating the "relics" of foreign colonialism. Arab nationalism emerged in the early 20th century as an opposition movement in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, later evolving into

28764-418: The revival of the Palestinian nationalist movement , a debate circled between those who believed that pan-Arab unity would bring about destruction of Israel (the view advocated by the Arab Nationalist Movement ) or whether the destruction of Israel would bring about pan-Arab unity (the view advocated by Fatah ). Pan-Arabism was initially a secular movement. Arab nationalists generally rejected religion as

28952-428: The rise across the independent Arab states. Its influence began to wane in the following decades, with the rise of nation-state nationalism mostly promoted by each Arab state and the emergence of Islamic radicalism filling the perceived void. However, the ideology as a whole began to decline across the Arab world following the decisive Israeli victory in the Six-Day War . Although pan-Arab nationalism lost appeal by

29140-528: The role of women in Islamic reforms. However, women themselves also contributed to the intellectual foundations of the ideology by publishing articles where they made demands, such as the expansion of education, in journals dedicated to Arab history and culture. Hind Nawfal established the first Arab women's magazine, Al-Fatat , in Egypt. This title became the foremother of a subsequent group of publications that came to be known as women's journals. In this context, it has been argued that women's participation

29328-414: The secular nationalist agenda”. Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre The Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre, or Holy Community of the All-Holy Sepulchre, is an Eastern Orthodox monastic fraternity guarding the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian holy places in the Holy Land . It was founded in its present form during the British Mandate in Palestine (1920-1948). Headed by

29516-403: The sees of Rome , Constantinople , Alexandria , and Antioch (known as the Pentarchy ). The patriarchate's jurisdiction extends to the regions of Palestine , Transjordan and the Sinai Peninsula . Succession to the position of patriarch has been dominated by Greeks since the resignation in 1543 of the last Arab Palestinian Patriarch, Dorotheus II , who was known as Atallah in Arabic. He

29704-449: The separate Arab countries must unify to form a single state under one political system. Local patriotism centered on individual Arab countries was incorporated into the framework of Arab nationalism starting in the 1920s. This was done by positioning the Arabian Peninsula as the homeland of the Semitic peoples (the Canaanites and Arameans of the Levant and the Assyrians and Babylonians of Mesopotamia ) who migrated throughout

29892-484: The strongest defender of Arab and Muslim culture and a major provider of education in Arabic. Its founder Abdelhamid ibn Badis identified Islam, Arabism, and nationalism as the three main components of the Algerian national character distinct from France, while his fellow 'alim Ahmad Tawfiq al-Madani (1889–1983) wrote extensive historical writings in Arabic celebrating the Muslim and Arab ancestors of Algeria. The association also attracted Algerian public attention to what

30080-436: The technological successes of Western Europe which they attributed to the prevailing of patriotism in those countries. During this period, a heavy influx of Christian missionaries and educators from Western countries provided what was termed the "Arab political revival", resulting in the establishment of secret societies within the empire. The former was also possible with the influence of the intellectual movement produced by

30268-500: The term "domestication of female public bravery" to refer to how women's participation has been reduced in the imaginary of the struggle to constrain their questioning of hierarchies. Women were important to the movement in relation to the family unit. But women's presence in the nationalist pursuit was crucial considering that "building a nation-state required the mobilization of the entire population, both male and female". The former can also be seen in Palestine, where women partaken in

30456-404: The time, contained emotional intensity and strongly condemned the Ottoman Turks for "betraying Islam" and the Fatherland to the Christian West. In the view of Arab patriots, Islam had not always been in a "sorry state" and attributed the military triumphs and cultural glories of the Arabs to the advent of the religion, insisting that European modernism itself was of Islamic origin. The Ottomans, on

30644-400: The twenty-five Palestinian newspapers that were launched in 1908, nineteen were Christian-owned. Palestinian Christian journalists dedicated a significant amount of space for the Orthodox cause. For example, Najib Nassar 's Al-Karmil newspaper in 1908, Khalil Sakakini 's Al-Dustour in 1910, and Bulus Shihadeh's Mir'at al-Sharq in 1919. The lead organ of the Orthodox movement, however, was

30832-423: The uprising. To protest increased Jewish immigration , a general strike was declared and a political, economic, and social boycott of Jews soon ensued. The events in Palestine followed similar anti-colonial activities in Egypt, Syria and Algeria which helped inspire the uprising. In Egypt, week-long anti-British demonstrations had eventually resulted in the restoration of the Egyptian constitution while in Syria,

31020-498: The use of Arabic language among the Greek clergy. This law is in force today, regulating the patriarchate's functions. In the wake of the 1967 Six Day War , the West Bank was occupied by Israel. A series of demonstrations erupted by the Arab Orthodox laity against the patriarchate in Bethlehem , Jaffa and Nazareth in the 1990s, demanding control over the patriarchate's properties. Four conferences were held in Jerusalem in 1992, Amman in 1994, Nazareth in 1999, and Amman in 2002. In

31208-403: The use of the veil was reintroduced as a nationalist symbol during the Algerian War of Independence , in response to the strong French campaign against its use during the 1930s. Some authors argue there is a link between opposition to Westernization and the strengthening of domestic roles to protect Arab identity. Nadje Al-Ali and Beth Baron call this a process of gendering of nationalism , where

31396-430: The verge of death." The Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society was founded in 1882, in part to help fight against the abuses of the Brotherhood. In 1893 Saint Raphael Hawaweeny wrote "An Historical Glance at the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulcher" , attacking its abuses and ethnic discrimination under a Pseudonym. When this was discovered he was expelled and escaped to Russia. Saint Raphael Hawaweeny believed that once

31584-401: The village of Bal'a . After Jews retaliated by killing two Arab farmers near Jaffa , this sparked an Arab revolt in Palestine. The AIP along with Palestinian notables selected popular leader and Grand Mufti of Jerusalem , Amin al-Husseini to lead the uprising. The Arab Higher Committee (AHC), a national committee bringing together Arab factions in Palestine, was established to coordinate

31772-421: The word watan (meaning "homeland, native country"). The term qawmiyya means attachment to the Arab nation, while wataniyya means loyalty to a single Arab state. Wataniyya is sometimes disparaged as "regionalism" by those who consider pan-Arabism the only legitimate variant of Arab nationalism. In the post-World War years, the concept of qawmiyya "gradually assumed a leftist connotation, calling for ...

31960-482: The working class and the peasantry regardless of gender. The Algerian constitution also acknowledged equal rights to all citizens, but until 1984 no changes were made in personal status codes, and social attitudes toward women receiving education beyond the primary level or going to work were restrictive. Associated is the phenomenon of state-feminism , which refers to the state's co-option of women's agenda to gain political legitimacy and constrict female mobilization. This

32148-419: The year, but it is credited with forcing the French to take more steps to ensure Syrian independence. In Egypt , resentment of British hegemony led to wide-scale revolts across the country in 1919. As a result of three-year negotiations following the uprising, the British agreed to allow Egypt's official independence in 1922, but their military still held great influence in the country. The political leaders of

32336-436: Was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world. They also requested that Arab conscripts to

32524-415: Was a strategy used by Nasser, who banned the creation of autonomous organizations and formulated women's demands as social welfare issues, leading to a recession of Egyptian feminist activism. After the defeat of the Arab coalition by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War —which the reigning Arab nationalist leader Nasser had dubbed al-Ma‘raka al-Masiriya (the battle of destiny)—the Arab nationalist movement

32712-678: Was an essential component for the development of Arab nationalist currents in the late nineteenth century. Sati' al-Husri , the early ideologue of Arab nationalism , believed that the Arabization of the Orthodox Church of Antioch was a critical landmark and historical turning point for the triumph of Arabism in Syria. Within the various currents of Arab cultural movements in Greater Syria, Orthodox Christian intellectuals often maintained stronger affinities with their Muslim compatriots than did their Catholic and Protestant compatriots. Arab nationalism Arab nationalism ( Arabic : القومية العربية , romanized :  al-qawmīya al-ʿarabīya )

32900-413: Was dismissed from his position after being accused of selling three properties of the Greek Church in the Old City of Jerusalem to Ateret Cohanim , a Jewish organization whose declared aim is that of establishing a Jewish majority in Jerusalem's Old City and in East Jerusalem 's Arab neighborhoods. If Palestine has a right to say that it has fallen under two mandatories, a British one and a Zionist one,

33088-542: Was formed in the late 1870s, with al-Yazigi as a member. The group placed placards in Beirut calling for a rebellion against the Ottomans. Meanwhile, other Lebanese and Damascus -based notables, mostly Muslims, formed similar secret movements, although they differed as Christian groups who disfavoured Arabism called for a completely independent Lebanon while the Muslim Arab societies generally promoted an autonomous Greater Syria still under Ottoman rule. As early as 1870, Syrian Christian writer Francis Marrash distinguished

33276-441: Was happening in Mandatory Palestine , describing the events in Palestine in 1936 as an "insult to all Muslim countries and a degradation of Arabism" and events in 1947 as "test set up by God in order to examine the Muslims and the Arabs' faith". It also stressed the view that Palestine belongs to all Arabs and not only to Palestinians . In 1955, it joined the Arab nationalist National Liberation Front 's insurgency against France in

33464-447: Was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians, leading to an altercation that left eleven people hospitalized. In another incident in 2004 during Orthodox celebrations of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross , a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open. This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out. Some participants were arrested, but no one was seriously injured. On Palm Sunday , in April 2008,

33652-425: Was made known. Many also resorted to baptizing dead infants. It became a custom for monks to have two or even three nuns as wives, and even pedophilia spread among the monks. The Brotherhood would often spread rumors of those who disagreed with its agenda or actions that they were mentally deranged, and would exile them. During a conversation between Patriarch Cyril and Archimandrite Porphyry, Patriarch Cyril admits that

33840-400: Was manifested in the West at the time. Arabism and regional patriotism (such as in Egypt or in the Levant) mixed and gained predominance over Ottomanism among some Arabs in Syria and Lebanon . Ibrahim al-Yaziji , a Lebanese Christian philosopher, called for the Arabs to "recover their lost ancient vitality and throw off the yoke of the Turks" in 1868. A secret society promoting this goal

34028-506: Was met with general Arab excitement at the popular level and Pasha's efforts gained more traction among the various Arab governments than al-Said's Fertile Crescent proposal. Reasons for this ranged from the antipathy of the Saudi royal family and the Damascus political establishment to the leadership ambitions of the rival Hashemite family to the belief by Lebanon's Maronite Christian community that Egypt's plan would not require conceding future independence. Between 25 September-8 October 1944,

34216-431: Was not related to any notion of emancipation. The question of women became more complex to deal with once the requirement of women's political involvement needed to coexist with the continuity of tradition. When Arab nationalism directly challenged Western cultural influence, women's compliance with Arab values was key to distinguish themselves from Europe, or not to become Western-like. The former can be exemplified by how

34404-413: Was one such leader. Ghazi intended to build a strong Iraqi army and actively sought to annex Kuwait . Many Arab nationalist politicians from Kuwait, who favored independence particularly after the discovery of oil there in 1938, were provided safe haven in Iraq after being repressed by the quasi-rulers of the sheikhdom , the Al Sabah family (Kuwait was still a British territory at the time). Ghazi died in

34592-414: Was replaced by Germanus , a Greek from Morea who pretended to be an Arab through his thorough knowledge of Arabic. Germanus initiated a process of Hellenization, for example by removing the names of Arab patriarchs who had served prior, appointing Greeks to the higher ranks of church, and using Greek as a liturgical language . He also took steps to ensure that his successors would be Greeks by establishing

34780-424: Was to achieve unity and complete Arab independence. Prominent members included Izzat Darwaza and Shukri al-Quwatli . Centered in Damascus with branches in various cities throughout the Levant, al-Istiqlal received political and financial support from Faysal, but relied on the inner circle of al-Fatat to survive. During the war, Britain had been a major sponsor of Arab nationalist thought and ideology, primarily as

34968-459: Was used as an ideological instrument by Arab nationalism. They were considered "bearers of the nation", because they not only had the biological capability to give birth to future generations, but their own preparation signified a better education for their children. The former was a consequence of the creation of a "maternalist frame" for national and historical symbols, which women themselves adopted to construct their activism. Nermin Allam proposes

35156-454: Was very different from the "shameful present". In effect, the troubles of the Arab presence were because the Arabs had diverged from their "eternal and perfect symbol", Islam. The Arabs needed to have a "resurrection" ( ba'ath in Arabic). After the Ba'athist military coups in Iraq and Syria in the 1960s, the Ba'athists "contributed very little to the development of all-Arab nationalism, which was its original raison d'etre ." Another example of

35344-406: Was virtually reduced to an advisory one. In 1925, the Druze of southern Syria under the leadership of Sultan al-Atrash revolted against French rule. The revolt subsequently spread throughout Syria, particularly in Damascus where an uprising by the citizens took place. The French responded by systematically bombarding the city, resulting in thousands of deaths. The revolt was put down by the end of

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