Misplaced Pages

#637362

116-547: Ana Lucía Armijos Hidalgo (born October 13, 1949) is an Ecuadorian politician and economist. She was the first female Ecuadorian Minister of the Interior. Ana Lucía Armijos was born on October 13, 1949, to former Colonel and conservative politician Rafael Armijos in Quito . She completed her high school studies at Spellman High School, where she achieved one of the best academic careers in that school's history. She graduated from

232-652: A bank holiday that would freeze the deposits of everyone in Ecuador in response to the financial crisis then facing the country . This provoked the incineration of the alliance between the Social Christian Party and the ruling Democracia Popular party and calls were made to impeach Armijos, with Víctor Hugo Sicouret raising a lawsuit over the holiday and Jaime Nebot requesting the Constitutional Congress place sanctions on Armijos. By

348-572: A blind eye to his son's lack of capability. Following a revolt during which Amaru almost led the Inca forces to defeat, the Sapa Inca decided to replace the co-ruler with another one of his sons, Topa Inca Yupanqui . Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Inca ruler after Pachacuti's death in 1471. Túpac Inca's most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor ,

464-451: A child, Sinchi Roca . The people who were already living in Cusco fought hard to keep their land, but Mama Huaca was a good fighter. When the enemy attacked, she threw her bolas (several stones tied together that spun through the air when thrown) at a soldier (gualla) and killed him instantly. The other people became afraid and ran away. After that, Ayar Manco became known as Manco Capac ,

580-482: A decrease from 6.1% in 2010. Ecuador's mainstream culture is defined by its Hispanic Mestizo majority, and like their ancestry, it is traditionally of Spanish heritage, influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions, and in some cases by African elements. The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonists, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to

696-485: A dietary staple is the yuca , elsewhere called cassava . Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms. Early literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age . One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo , an indigenous chief of a northern village in today's Ibarra, born in the late 1600s. Despite

812-484: A difficult environment, and the organization and management fostered or imposed on its people and their labor. The Inca Empire functioned largely without money and without markets. Instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. "Taxes" consisted of a labour obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers (who theoretically owned all

928-649: A high profile, while Ecuador's specialties include Ecuavolley , a three-person variation of volleyball. Bullfighting is practiced at a professional level in Quito, during the annual festivities that commemorate the Spanish founding of the city, and it also features in festivals in many smaller towns. Rugby union is found to some extent in Ecuador, with teams in Guayaquil, Quito and Cuenca. Ecuador has won three medals in

1044-514: A large portion of modern-day Chile into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia . Its official language was Quechua . The Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many of the features associated with civilization in the Old World . Anthropologist Gordon McEwan wrote that the Incas were able to construct "one of the greatest imperial states in human history" without the use of

1160-415: A method of taxation: For as is well known to all, not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it by those who were in charge of these matters. There were even provinces where, when the natives alleged that they were unable to pay their tribute, the Inca ordered that each inhabitant should be obliged to turn in every four months a large quill full of live lice, which

1276-532: A mixture of rites and icons. There is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians , indigenous religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador ), Buddhists and Baháʼís . There are about 185,000 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and over 80,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country. The "Jewish Community of Ecuador" (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito and has approximately 300 members. Nevertheless, this number

SECTION 10

#1732786654638

1392-502: A prominent essayist and novelist; Juan Leon Mera , famous for his work "Cumanda" or "Tragedy among Savages" and the Ecuadorian National Anthem; Luis A. Martínez with A la Costa , Dolores Veintimilla , and others. Contemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum ; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade ; the essayist Benjamín Carrión ; the poets Medardo Angel Silva , Jorge Carrera Andrade ;

1508-573: A second language with varying degrees of facility. By the late 1980s, some younger Indigenous Ecuadorians no longer learned Quichua. Although the Indigenous people of the Oriente first came into contact with Europeans in the 16th century, the encounters were more sporadic than those of most of the country's indigenous population. Until the 19th century, most non-Indigenous Americans entering the region were either traders or missionaries. Beginning in

1624-538: A third point Troll pointed out irrigation technology as advantageous to Inca state-building. While Troll theorized concerning environmental influences on the Inca Empire, he opposed environmental determinism , arguing that culture lay at the core of the Inca civilization. The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Indigenous Andean oral history tells two main origin stories:

1740-485: A traditional hierarchy of European Ecuadorian, Mestizo , Afro-Ecuadorians, and then others. Her review depicts this hierarchy as a consequence of colonial attitudes and of the terminology of colonial legal distinctions. Spanish-born persons residing in the New World (peninsulares) were at the top of the social hierarchy, followed by criollos , born of two Spanish parents in the colonies. The 19th century usage of Mestizo

1856-528: A union of provinces. The Spanish normally transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo . While the term Inka nowadays is translated as "ruler" or "lord" in Quechua, this term does not simply refer to the "king" of the Tawantinsuyu or Sapa Inca but also to the Inca nobles, and some theorize its meaning could be broader. In that sense, the Inca nobles were a small percentage of the total population of

1972-426: A variety of grains (especially rice and corn) or potatoes. In the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with fish, shrimp and ceviche being key parts of the diet. Generally, ceviches are served with fried plantain ( chifles y patacones), popcorn or tostado . Plantain - and peanut-based dishes are the basis of most coastal meals. Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very popular. Churrasco

2088-486: A written form of language; however, they visually recorded narratives through paintings on vases and cups ( qirus ). These paintings are usually accompanied by geometric patterns known as toqapu, which are also found in textiles. Researchers have speculated that toqapu patterns could have served as a form of written communication (e.g. heraldry, or glyphs), however this remains unclear. The Incas also kept records by using quipus . The high infant mortality rates that plagued

2204-720: Is Sanjuanito. It is originally from the North of Ecuador ( Otavalo -Imbabura). Sanjuanito is a danceable music used in the festivities of the Mestizo and Indigenous culture. According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, Sanjuanito was danced by Indigenous people during San Juan Bautista's birthday. This important date was established by the Spaniards on 24 June, coincidentally the same date when Indigenous people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi . Ecuadorian cuisine

2320-455: Is a staple food of the coastal region, especially Guayaquil . Arroz con menestra y carne asada (rice with beans and grilled beef) is one of the traditional dishes of Guayaquil, as is fried plantain which is often served with it. This region is a leading producer of bananas, cacao beans (to make chocolate), shrimp, tilapia, mangos and passion fruit, among other products. In the Amazon region,

2436-607: Is actually a family of languages rather than one single language, parallel to the Romance or Slavic languages in Europe. Most communities within the empire, even those resistant to Inca rule, learned to speak a variety of Quechua (forming new regional varieties with distinct phonetics) in order to communicate with the Inca lords and mitma colonists, as well as the wider integrating society, but largely retained their native languages as well. The Incas also had their own ethnic language, which

SECTION 20

#1732786654638

2552-623: Is declining because young people leave the country towards the United States of America or Israel. The Community has a Jewish Center with a synagogue, a country club and a cemetery. It supports the "Albert Einstein School", where Jewish history, religion and Hebrew classes are offered. Since 2004, there has also been a Chabad house in Quito. There are very small communities in Cuenca and Ambato . The "Comunidad de Culto Israelita" reunites

2668-455: Is diverse, varying with the altitude and associated agricultural conditions. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three course meal of soup, a second course which includes rice and a protein such as meat or fish, and then dessert and coffee to finish. Supper is usually lighter, and sometimes consists only of coffee or herbal tea with bread. In the highland region, pork, chicken, beef, and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are served with

2784-539: Is football (soccer). Its best known professional teams include Barcelona and Emelec from Guayaquil ; LDU Quito , Deportivo Quito , and El Nacional from Quito; Olmedo from Riobamba ; and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca. Currently the most successful football club in Ecuador is LDU Quito , and it is the only Ecuadorian club that have won the Copa Libertadores , the Copa Sudamericana and

2900-522: Is found primarily in the country's northwest coastal region. Afro-Ecuadorians form a majority (70%) in the province of Esmeraldas and also have an important concentration in the Valle del Chota in the Imbabura Province . They can be also found in important numbers in Quito and Guayaquil . Sierra Indigenous people had an estimated population of 1.5 to 2 million in the early 1980s and live in

3016-409: Is four and - ntin is a suffix naming a group, so that a tawantin is a quartet, a group of four things taken together, in this case the four suyu ("regions" or "provinces") whose corners met at the capital. The four suyu were: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east; the Amazon jungle), Qullasuyu (south) and Kuntisuyu (west). The name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating

3132-416: Is mostly found in the coastal northern province of Esmeraldas. According to local fables, this is largely owing to the 17th century shipwreck of a slave-trading galleon off the northern coast of Ecuador. Ecuador's indigenous communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practice their own indigenous cultures, particularly the more remote indigenous communities of

3248-646: Is now Ecuadorian territory for several millennia before the expansion of the Inca Empire in the fifteenth century. The Las Vegas culture of coastal Ecuador is one of the oldest cultures in the Americas. The Valdivia culture is another well-known early Ecuadorian culture. Spaniards arrived in the sixteenth century, as did sub-Saharan Africans who were enslaved and transported across the Atlantic by Spaniards and other Europeans. The modern Ecuadorian population

3364-518: Is one of at least five civilizations in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine." The concept of a "pristine" civilization refers to a civilization that has developed independently of external influences and is not a derivative of other civilizations. The Inca Empire was preceded by two large-scale empires in the Andes: the Tiwanaku ( c.  300 –1100 AD), based around Lake Titicaca , and

3480-487: Is physical appearance; others include dress, language, community membership, and self-identification. A geography of ethnicity remained well-defined until the surge in migration that began in the 1950s. European Ecuadorians resided primarily in larger cities. Mestizos lived in small towns scattered throughout the countryside. Indigenous peoples formed the bulk of the Sierra rural populace, although Mestizos filled this role in

3596-411: Is principally descended from these three ancestral groups. As of the 2022 census, 77.5% of the population identified as Mestizo , a mix of Spanish and Indigenous American ancestry, up from 71.9% in 2000. The percentage of the population which identifies as European Ecuadorian was 2.2%, which fell from 6.1% in 2010 and 10.5% in 2000. Indigenous Ecuadorians account for 7.7% of the population and 4.8% of

Ana Lucía Armijos - Misplaced Pages Continue

3712-443: Is the "national genre of music." Through the years, many cultures have influenced to establish new types of music. There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca, Bomba highly established in afro-Ecuadorian society like Esmeraldas , and so on. Tecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of foreign cultures' influence. One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador

3828-401: Is thought to have been closely related to or a dialect of Puquina . There are several common misconceptions about the history of Quechua, as it is frequently identified as the "Inca language". Quechua did not originate with the Incas, had been a lingua franca in multiple areas before the Inca expansions, was diverse before the rise of the Incas, and it was not the native or original language of

3944-490: The Recopa Sudamericana ; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup . The matches of the Ecuador national team are the most-watched sporting events in the country. Ecuador qualified for the final rounds of the 2002 , 2006 , and 2014 FIFA World Cups . The 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign was considered a huge success for the country and its inhabitants. Ecuador finished in 2nd place on

4060-610: The Amazon basin . Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population, and as a first or second language by more than 98%. Part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages, in some cases as a second language. Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages. Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish, though many speak Amerindian languages such as Kichwa . People that identify as Mestizo, in general, speak Spanish as their native language. Other Amerindian languages spoken in Ecuador include Awapit (spoken by

4176-715: The Catholic University of Ecuador as an economist and completed a Master's degree in economics at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and then her graduate studies in economic theory and development at the University of Mississippi . Armijos worked for some years as a professor at the Catholic University of Ecuador and held positions in the Central Bank of Ecuador such as analyst and numerous directorial and managerial positions. She

4292-669: The Mapuche , who later would strategically defeat the Spanish as they expanded further south . The first engagement between the Inca and the Spanish was the Battle of Puná , near present-day Guayaquil , Ecuador, on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in

4408-579: The Realm of the Four Parts ( Quechua : Tawantinsuyu , lit.  "land of four parts" ), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America . The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco . The Inca civilization rose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century . The Spanish began the conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 and by 1572,

4524-573: The Sapa Inca , to be the "son of the Sun". The Inca economy, especially in the past, was often the subject of scholarly debate. Darrell E. La Lone, in his work The Inca as a Nonmarket Economy , noted that scholars have previously described it as "feudal, slave, [or] socialist," as well as "a system based on reciprocity and redistribution; a system with markets and commerce; or an Asiatic mode of production ." The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu , "the suyu of four [parts]". In Quechua , tawa

4640-631: The Supreme Court of Justice of Ecuador , issued an arrest warrant for Armijos in the case of Banco Continental on accusations that she as president of the Monetary Board approved a 200 million dollar bailout of Continental. Armijos went into hiding for exactly a year, as the new Chief Justice, Héctor Romero Parducci, declared her innocent of the charges leveled against her in May 1998. In August 1998, Jamil Mahuad appointed Armijos Minister of

4756-690: The Wari or Huari ( c.  600 –1100 AD), centered near the city of Ayacucho . The Wari occupied the Cuzco area for about 400 years. Thus, many of the characteristics of the Inca Empire derived from earlier multi-ethnic and expansive Andean cultures. To those earlier civilizations may be owed some of the accomplishments cited for the Inca Empire: "thousands of kilometres/miles of roads and dozens of large administrative centers with elaborate stone construction...terraced mountainsides and filled in valleys", and

Ana Lucía Armijos - Misplaced Pages Continue

4872-401: The " Requerimiento " that demanded that he and his empire accept the rule of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity. Atahualpa dismissed the message and asked them to leave. After this, the Spanish began their attack against the mostly unarmed Inca, captured Atahualpa as hostage, and forced the Inca to collaborate. Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he

4988-736: The "Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa", a poem written by Collahuazo, which describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people of having lost their king Atahualpa. Other early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits Juan Bautista Aguirre , born in Daule in 1725, and Father Juan de Velasco , born in Riobamba in 1727. De Velasco wrote about the nations and chiefdoms that had existed in the Kingdom of Quito (today Ecuador) before

5104-654: The 1950s, however, the government built roads and encouraged settlers from the Sierra to colonize the Amazon River Basin. Virtually all remaining Indigenous Ecuadorians were brought into increasing contact with national society. The interaction between Indigenous Americans and foreigners had a profound impact on the indigenous way of life. In the late 1970s, roughly 30,000 Quichua speakers and 15,000 Shuar and Achuar peoples lived in Oriente Indigenous communities. Quichua speakers (sometimes referred to as

5220-484: The 1980s group conflicts between rival shamans still erupted into full-scale feuds with loss of life. The Oriente Indigenous population dropped precipitously during the initial period of intensive contact with outsiders. The destruction of their crops by Mestizos laying claim to indigenous lands, the rapid exposure to diseases to which Indians lacked immunity, and the extreme social disorganization all contributed to increased mortality and decreased birth rates. One study of

5336-523: The Acamama Valley; therefore, the couple decided to remain there and informed the inhabitants of the area that they were sent by the Sun God . They then proceeded to teach them agriculture and weaving. Thus, the Inca civilization began. Under the leadership of Manco Capac, the Inca formed the small city-state Kingdom of Cuzco (Quechua Qusqu ). In 1438, they began a far-reaching expansion under

5452-461: The Achuar peoples were concentrated in southeastern Ecuador. Some also lived in northeastern Peru. Traditionally, both groups relied on migration to resolve intracommunity conflict and to limit the ecological damage to the tropical forest caused by slash-and-burn agriculture. The Yumbo, Shuar and Achuar peoples depended on agriculture as their primary means of subsistence. Manioc , the main staple,

5568-994: The Awá), A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken by the Shuar), Achuar Chicham (spoken by the Achuar), Shiwiar (spoken by the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi), Tsa'fiki (spoken by the Tsáchila), Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the Waorani). Though most features of Ecuadorian Spanish are those universal to the Spanish-speaking world, there are several idiosyncrasies. According to

5684-501: The Christian Quichua speakers, lived in more remote areas. Their mode of horticulture was similar to that of the non-Christian Yumbo people, although they supplemented crop production with hunting and some livestock raising. Shamans ( curanderos ) played a pivotal role in social relations in both groups. As the main leaders and the focus of local conflicts, shamans were believed to both cure and kill through magical means. In

5800-580: The Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics. Among those with a religion, 80.44% are Roman Catholic , 11.30% are Protestants , and 8.26% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints). In the rural parts of Ecuador, indigenous beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized . Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating

5916-434: The Inca ). It narrates the adventure of a couple, Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo , who were sent by the Sun God and emerged from the depths of Lake Titicaca ( pacarina ~ paqarina "sacred place of origin") and marched north. They carried a golden staff, given by the Sun God ; the message was clear: in the place where the golden staff sank, they would establish a city and settle there. The staff sank at Mount Guanacaure in

SECTION 50

#1732786654638

6032-419: The Inca Empire caused all newborn infants to be given the term wawa when they were born. Most families did not invest very much into their child until they reached the age of two or three years old. Once the child reached the age of three, a "coming of age" ceremony occurred, called the rutuchikuy . For the Incas, this ceremony indicated that the child had entered the stage of "ignorance". During this ceremony,

6148-483: The Inca state and chuño has been questioned, as other crops such as maize can also be dried with only sunlight. Troll also argued that llamas , the Incas' pack animal, can be found in their largest numbers in this very same region. The maximum extent of the Inca Empire roughly coincided with the distribution of llamas and alpacas , the only large domesticated animals in Pre-Hispanic America . As

6264-455: The Inca to indoctrinate them into the Inca nobility and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Pachacuti had named his favorite son, Amaru Yupanqui, as his co-ruler and successor. However, as co-ruler Amaru showed little interest in military affairs. Due to this lack of military talent, he faced much opposition from the Inca nobility, who began to plot against him. Despite this, Pachacuti decided to take

6380-459: The Inca used weapons made out of wood, stone, copper and bronze, while using an Alpaca fiber based armor, putting them at significant technological disadvantage—none of their weapons could pierce the Spanish steel armor. In addition, due to the absence of horses in Peru, the Inca did not develop tactics to fight cavalry. However, the Inca were still effective warriors, being able to successfully fight

6496-423: The Inca's only serious rival for the coast. Túpac Inca's empire then stretched north into what are today Ecuador and Colombia . Topa Inca's son Huayna Capac added a small portion of land to the north in what is today Ecuador. At its height, the Inca Empire included modern-day Peru, what are today western and south central Bolivia , southwest Ecuador and Colombia and a large portion of modern-day Chile , at

6612-408: The Incas. However, the Incas left a linguistic legacy, in that they introduced Quechua to many areas where it is still widely spoken today, including Ecuador, southern Bolivia, southern Colombia, and parts of the Amazon basin. The Spanish conquerors continued the official usage of Quechua during the early colonial period, and transformed it into a literary language. The Incas were not known to develop

6728-558: The Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendón , Jaime Zapata , Enrique Tábara , Aníbal Villacís , Theo Constante , León Ricaurte and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement; and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, Futuristic style. The indigenous people of Tigua, Ecuador are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings . The most popular sport in Ecuador , as in most South American countries,

6844-479: The Interior , making her the first woman to hold this position. During her term, she proposed the creation of a national council of governors. On February 15, 1999, Armijos was appointed Minister of Economy and Finance to replace Fidel Jaramillo, who had resigned in protest to the Capital Movement Tax, also known as the "1% Tax." On March 11, Armijos and President Mahuad made the decision to declare

6960-522: The Jews of Guayaquil . This community works independently from the "Jewish Community of Ecuador". Jewish visitors to Ecuador can also take advantage of Jewish resources as they travel and keep kosher there, even in the Amazon Rainforest . The city has also synagogue of Messianic Judaism . The music of Ecuador has a long history. Pasillo is a genre of Indigenous Latin music. In Ecuador it

7076-489: The Olympic Games. 20 km racewalker Jefferson Pérez took gold in the 1996 games, and silver 12 years later . Pérez also set a world best in the 2003 World Championships of 1:17:21 for the 20 km distance. Cyclist Richard Carapaz , the winner of 2019 Giro d'Italia , won a gold medal at the road cycling race of the 2020 Summer Olympics . Inca Empire The Inca Empire , officially known as

SECTION 60

#1732786654638

7192-510: The Shuar people in the 1950s found that the group between ten and nineteen years of age was smaller than expected. This was the group that had been youngest and most vulnerable during the initial contact with national society. Normal population growth rates began to reestablish themselves after approximately the first decade of such contact. According to the most-recent 2022 national census, 2.2% of Ecuadorians self-identified as European Ecuadorian,

7308-435: The Spanish colonists and re-create the Inca Empire until the late 18th century. See Juan Santos Atahualpa and Túpac Amaru II . The number of people inhabiting Tawantinsuyu at its peak is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 4–37 million. Most population estimates are in the range of 6 to 14 million. In spite of the fact that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus , knowledge of how to read them

7424-405: The Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state. After the fall of the Inca Empire many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system, known as the vertical archipelago model of agriculture. Spanish colonial officials used the Inca mita corvée labor system for colonial aims, sometimes brutally. One member of each family

7540-426: The Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Other diseases, including a probable typhus outbreak in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, and measles in 1618, all ravaged the Inca people. There would be periodic attempts by indigenous leaders to expel

7656-409: The Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State , where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered and the last ruler, Topa Amaru , Manco's son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to

7772-572: The Supreme Court of Justice of Ecuador. Armijos fled to the United States and was granted political asylum there. In June 2006, Armijos and Mahuad had their charges lifted by the second chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice, who asserted that they did not have enough evidence to actually arrest them, but they would disregard this decision and reopen the case in December 2012. Ecuadorians Numerous indigenous cultures inhabited what

7888-453: The Yumbo people) grew out of the detribalization of members of many different groups after the Spanish conquest. Subject to the influence of Quichua-speaking missionaries and traders, various elements of the Yumbo people adopted the language as a lingua franca and gradually lost their previous languages and tribal origins. Yumbo people were scattered throughout the Oriente, whereas the Shuar and

8004-409: The areas with few Indigenous peoples. Most Afro-Ecuadorians lived in Esmeraldas Province , with small enclaves found in the Carchi and Imbabura provinces. Pressure on Sierra land resources and the dissolution of the traditional hacienda, however, increased the numbers of Indigenous peoples migrating to the Costa, the Oriente, and the cities. By the 1980s, Sierra Indigenous people—or Indigenous peoples in

8120-432: The arrival of the Spanish. His historical accounts are nationalistic, featuring a romantic perspective of precolonial history. Famous authors from the late colonial and early republic period include: Eugenio Espejo a printer and main author of the first newspaper in Ecuadorian colonial times; Jose Joaquin de Olmedo (born in Guayaquil), famous for his ode to Simón Bolívar titled La Victoria de Junin ; Juan Montalvo ,

8236-419: The battle of the Maule was a stalemate, but argues the Incas lacked incentives for conquest they had had when fighting more complex societies such as the Chimú Empire . Silva also disputes the date given by traditional historiography for the battle: the late 15th century during the reign of Topa Inca Yupanqui (1471–93). Instead, he places it in 1532 during the Inca Civil War . Nevertheless, Silva agrees on

8352-509: The benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles and promising that they would be materially richer as his subjects. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. Refusal to accept Inca rule resulted in military conquest. Following conquest the local rulers were executed. The ruler's children were brought to Cuzco to learn about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed

8468-442: The civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops, that were at the moment armed only with hunting tools (knives and lassos for hunting llamas). Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar named Vincente de Valverde , met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. The Inca offered them ceremonial chicha in a golden cup, which the Spanish rejected. The Spanish interpreter, Friar Vincente, read

8584-695: The claim that the bulk of the Inca conquests were made during the late 15th century. At the time of the Inca Civil War an Inca army was, according to Diego de Rosales , subduing a revolt among the Diaguitas of Copiapó and Coquimbo . The empire's push into the Amazon Basin near the Chinchipe River was stopped by the Shuar in 1527. The empire extended into corners of what are today

8700-571: The command of Sapa Inca ("paramount leader") Pachacuti Cusi Yupanqui (Pachakutiy Kusi Yupanki), whose epithet Pachacuti means "the turn of the world". The name of Pachacuti was given to him after he conquered the tribe of the Chancas during the Chanka–Inca War (in modern-day Apurímac ). During his reign, he and his son Topa Yupanqui (Tupa Yupanki) brought much of the modern-day territory of Peru under Inca control. Pachacuti reorganized

8816-537: The country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, and Croats during and after the Second World War. Since African slavery was not the workforce of the Spanish colonies in the Andes Mountains of South America, given the subjugation of the indigenous people through evangelism and encomiendas , the minority population of African descent

8932-439: The diverse ethnic groups ruled by the Inca "welcomed the Spanish invaders as liberators and willingly settled down with them to share rule of Andean farmers and miners". Many regional leaders, known as kurakas , continued to serve the Spanish overlords, called encomenderos , as they had served the Inca overlords. Other than efforts to spread the religion of Christianity , the Spanish benefited from and made little effort to change

9048-621: The early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian , but his work was written in Quechua . The use of the Quipu was banned by the Spanish, and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language. The history behind the Inca drama "Ollantay",

9164-483: The empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000, but ruling a population of around 10 million people. When the Spanish arrived in the Empire of the Incas, they gave the name Peru to what the natives knew as Tawantinsuyu. The name "Inca Empire" originated from the Chronicles of the 16th century. The Inca Empire was the last chapter of thousands of years of Andean civilizations . The Andean civilization

9280-505: The empire. Perhaps more importantly, smallpox , influenza , typhus and measles had spread from Central America. The first epidemic of European disease in the Inca Empire was probably in the 1520s, killing Huayna Capac, his designated heir, and an unknown, probably large, number of other Inca subjects. The forces led by Pizarro consisted of 168 men, along with one cannon and 27 horses . The conquistadors were armed with lances , arquebuses , steel armor and long swords . In contrast,

9396-613: The end of August, she resigned after securing the support of the International Monetary Fund for Ecuador's foreign debts. She was soon sent out of the country, being appointed the Ecuadorian Ambassador to Spain, and her former position passed to Alfredo Arízaga. In July 2000, she and former president Jamil Mahuad were accused by Víctor Granda and Napoleón Gómez Real of violating the constitution and, days later, had arrest warrants issued on them by

9512-432: The family would invite all relatives to their house for food and dance, and then each member of the family would receive a lock of hair from the child. After each family member had received a lock, the father would shave the child's head. This stage of life was categorized by a stage of "ignorance, inexperience, and lack of reason, a condition that the child would overcome with time". For Inca society, in order to advance from

9628-442: The founder of the Inca. It is said that he and his sisters built the first Inca homes in the valley with their own hands. When the time came, Manco Capac turned to stone like his brothers before him. His son, Sinchi Roca, became the second emperor of the Inca. Legend collected by the mestizo chronicler Inca Garcilaso de la Vega in his work Los Comentarios Reales de los Incas ( transl.  The Royal Commentaries of

9744-435: The frontier regions. The exact linguistic topography of the pre-Columbian and early colonial Andes remains incompletely understood, owing to the extinction of several languages and the loss of historical records. In order to manage this diversity, the Inca lords promoted the usage of Quechua , especially the variety of what is now Lima , as the official language or lingua franca . Defined by mutual intelligibility, Quechua

9860-604: The general population. They enjoy limited participation in national institutions and are often excluded from social and economic opportunities available to more privileged groups. However, some groups of Indigenous people, such as the Otavalo people , have increased their socioeconomic status to extent that they enjoy a higher standard of living than many other Indigenous groups in Ecuador and many Mestizos of their area. Visible markers of ethnic affiliation, especially hairstyle, dress, and language, separate Indigenous Ecuadorians from

9976-420: The impeachment of Alberto Dahik over trials of embezzlement , Armijos became a vocal defender of Dahik and caused some controversy when she said "a loss for the country, where there are not many smart men" after his flight from Ecuador to Costa Rica . Later, it would be indicated that she was one of many possible aspirants to the office of Vice President . On May 30, 1997, Carlos Solórzano, Chief Justice of

10092-547: The intermontane valleys of the Andes. Prolonged contact with Hispanic culture, which dates back to the conquest, has had a homogenizing effect, reducing the variation among the indigenous Sierra tribes. The Indigenous people of the Sierra are separated from European Ecuadorians and Mestizos by a caste-like gulf. They are marked as a disadvantaged group; to be an Indigenous person in Ecuador is to be stigmatized. Poverty rates are higher and literacy rates are lower among Indigenous than

10208-638: The kingdom of Cusco into the Tahuantinsuyu, which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchaysuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE). Pachacuti is thought to have built Machu Picchu , either as a family home or summer retreat, although it may have been an agricultural station. Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire and they brought to him reports on political organization, military strength and wealth. He then sent messages to their leaders extolling

10324-482: The last Inca state was fully conquered. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America , centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. At its largest, the empire joined modern-day Peru , what are now western Ecuador , western and south central Bolivia , northwest Argentina , the southwesternmost tip of Colombia and

10440-597: The legends of Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, and that of the Ayar brothers. The center cave at Tambo Tocco (Tampu T’uqu) was named Capac Tocco (Qhapaq T’uqu, "principal niche"). The other caves were Maras Tocco (Maras T’uqu) and Sutic Tocco (Sutiq T’uqu). Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave. They were: Ayar Manco (Ayar Manqu), Ayar Cachi (Ayar Kachi), Ayar Auca (Ayar Awka) and Ayar Uchu (Ayar Uchi); and Mama Ocllo (Mama Uqllu), Mama Raua (Mama Rawa), Mama Huaco (Mama Waqu) and Mama Coea (Mama Qura). Out of

10556-459: The means of production) reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food and drink in celebratory feasts for their subjects. Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred huacas or wak’a , but the Inca leadership encouraged the sun worship of Inti —their sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other religious groups, such as that of Pachamama . The Incas considered their king,

10672-559: The north of Argentina and part of the southern Colombia . However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as Qullasuyu, was located in the Altiplano . The Inca Empire was an amalgamation of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour. The following quote describes

10788-566: The north of the Maule River . Traditional historiography claims the advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met determined resistance from the Mapuche . This view is challenged by historian Osvaldo Silva who argues instead that it was the social and political framework of the Mapuche that posed the main difficulty in imposing imperial rule. Silva does accept that

10904-598: The novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert ; the novelist Jorge Icaza (author of the novel Huasipungo , translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio ; U.S. based Ecuadorian poet Emanuel Xavier . The best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the Escuela Quiteña , which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries, examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito. Ecuadorian painters include: Eduardo Kingman , Oswaldo Guayasamín and Camilo Egas from

11020-485: The oldest literary piece in existence for any indigenous language in America, shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo. Collahuazo was imprisoned, and all of his work burned. The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito, and found a hidden manuscript. The salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of

11136-440: The population consists of Afro-Ecuadorians . Other statistics put the Mestizo population at 55% to 65% and the Indigenous population at 25%. Genetic research indicates that the ancestry of Ecuadorian Mestizos is predominantly Indigenous. There are five major ethnic groups in Ecuador : Mestizo , European Ecuadorian , Afro-Ecuadorian , Indigenous , and Montubio. The 2022 census reported Mestizos constitute more than 77.5% of

11252-481: The population, 7.7% Indigenous American, 7.7% Montubio, 4.8% Afro-Ecuadorian and 2.2% European Ecuadorian. Ecuador 's population primarily descends from Spanish immigrants and South American Indigenous peoples , admixed with descendants of enslaved sub-Saharan Africans who arrived to work on coastal plantations in the sixteenth century. The mix of these groups is described as Mestizo or Cholo . According to Kluck, writing in 1989, ethnic groups in Ecuador have had

11368-621: The process of switching their ethnic identity to that of Mestizos—lived on Costa plantations, in Quito, Guayaquil, and other cities, and in colonization areas in the Oriente and the Costa. Indeed, Sierra Indigenous peoples residing in the coastal region substantially outnumbered the remaining original Costa inhabitants, the Chachi and Tsáchila Indigenous people. In the late 1980s, analysts estimated that there were only about 4,000 Chachi and Tsáchila Indigenous peoples. Some Afro-Ecuadorians had migrated from

11484-400: The production of "vast quantities of goods". Carl Troll has argued that the development of the Inca state in the central Andes was aided by conditions that allow for the elaboration of the staple food chuño . Chuño, which can be stored for long periods, is made of potato dried at the freezing temperatures that are common at nighttime in the southern Andean highlands. Such a link between

11600-572: The qualifiers behind Argentina and above the team that would become World Champion, Brazil . In the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Ecuador finished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica to come in second to Germany in Group A in the 2006 World Cup. Futsal , often referred to as índor , is particularly popular for mass participation. There is considerable interest in tennis in the middle and upper classes of Ecuadorian society, and several Ecuadorian professional players have attained international fame. Basketball has

11716-557: The recipient group; such switches were made without resort to subterfuge. Moreover, the precise criteria for defining ethnic groups varies considerably. The vocabulary that more prosperous Mestizos and European Ecuadorians used in describing ethnic groups mixes social and biological characteristics. Ethnic affiliation thus is dynamic; Indigenous Ecuadorians often become Mestizos, and prosperous Mestizos seek to improve their status sufficiently to be considered European Ecuadorian. Ethnic identity reflects numerous characteristics, only one of which

11832-556: The region and be its viceroy . This approval was received as detailed in the following quote: "In July 1529 the Queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas. Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in Peru, or New Castile, as the Spanish now called the land". When the conquistadors returned to Peru in 1532, a war of succession between the sons of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa , and unrest among newly conquered territories weakened

11948-567: The remote region of the Ecuadorian-Colombian border to the towns and cities of Esmeraldas. Afro-Ecuadorians are an ethnic group in Ecuador who are descendants of enslaved sub-Saharan Africans brought by the Spanish during their conquest of Ecuador from the Incas . They make up from 3% to 5% of Ecuador's population. Ecuador has a population of about 1,120,000 descendants from sub-Saharan African people. The Afro-Ecuadorian culture

12064-470: The rest of the populace. Indigenous Ecuadorians wore more manufactured items by the late 1970s than previously; their clothing, nonetheless, was distinct from that of other rural inhabitants. Indigenous Ecuadorians in communities relying extensively on wage labor sometimes assumed Western-style dress while still maintaining their Indigenous identity. Indigenous Ecuadorians speak Spanish and, Quichua—a Quechua dialect—although most are bilingual, speaking Spanish as

12180-461: The side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans. Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live. They traveled for a long time. On the way, Ayar Cachi boasted about his strength and power. His siblings tricked him into returning to the cave to get a sacred llama . When he went into the cave, they trapped him inside to get rid of him. Ayar Uchu decided to stay on

12296-475: The society and culture of the former Inca Empire until the rule of Francisco de Toledo as viceroy from 1569 to 1581. The Spanish installed Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish while they fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile, an associate of Pizarro, Diego de Almagro , attempted to claim Cusco. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but

12412-571: The stage of ignorance to development the child must learn the roles associated with their gender. The next important ritual was to celebrate the maturity of a child. Unlike the coming of age ceremony, the celebration of maturity signified the child's sexual potency. This celebration of puberty was called warachikuy for boys and qikuchikuy for girls. The warachikuy ceremony included dancing, fasting, tasks to display strength, and family ceremonies. The boy would also be given new clothes and taught how to act as an unmarried man. The qikuchikuy signified

12528-401: The top of the cave to look over the Inca people. The minute he proclaimed that, he turned to stone. They built a shrine around the stone and it became a sacred object. Ayar Auca grew tired of all this and decided to travel alone. Only Ayar Manco and his four sisters remained. Finally, they reached Cusco. The staff sank into the ground. Before they arrived, Mama Ocllo had already borne Ayar Manco

12644-415: The wheel, draft animals, knowledge of iron or steel, or even a system of writing. Notable features of the Inca Empire included its monumental architecture , especially stonework, extensive road network ( Qhapaq Ñan ) reaching all corners of the empire, finely-woven textiles , use of knotted strings ( quipu or khipu ) for record keeping and communication, agricultural innovations and production in

12760-622: Was also a macroeconomist for the operational division of the World Bank 's West African department. On August 25, 1992, she was inaugurated President of the Central Bank of Ecuador by Sixto Durán Ballén . However, she began to experience difficulties with the president of the Ecuadorian Monetary Board, Roberto Baquerizo, which made the future of either organization uncertain until the departure of Baquerizo and appointment of Armijos to his post on July 15, 1993. During

12876-516: Was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí . When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family was required to send a replacement. Although smallpox is usually presumed to have spread through the Empire before the arrival of the Spaniards, the devastation is also consistent with other theories. Beginning in Colombia , smallpox spread rapidly before

12992-493: Was grown in conjunction with a wide variety of other fruits and vegetables. Yumbo men also resorted to wage labor to obtain cash for the few purchases deemed necessary. By the mid-1970s, increasing numbers of Quichua speakers settled around some of the towns and missions of the Oriente. Indigenous Ecuadorians themselves had begun to make a distinction between Christian and jungle Indigenous people. The former engaged in trade with townspeople. The Shuar and Achuar peoples, in contrast to

13108-517: Was imprisoned in and twice that amount of silver. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa's imprisonment, Huascar was assassinated elsewhere. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally executed him, in August 1533. Although "defeat" often implies an unwanted loss in battle, many of

13224-757: Was lost as almost all fell into disuse and disintegrated over time or were destroyed by the Spaniards. The empire was linguistically diverse. Some of the most important languages were Quechua , Aymara , Puquina and Mochica , respectively mainly spoken in the Central Andes, the Altiplano ( Qullasuyu ), the south coast ( Kuntisuyu ), and the area of the north coast ( Chinchaysuyu ) around Chan Chan , today Trujillo . Other languages included Quignam , Jaqaru , Leco , Uru-Chipaya languages , Kunza , Humahuaca , Cacán , Mapudungun , Culle , Chachapoya , Catacao languages , Manta , Barbacoan languages , and Cañari–Puruhá as well as numerous Amazonian languages on

13340-402: Was the Inca's way of teaching and accustoming them to pay tribute. Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama , reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after another expedition in 1529 Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer

13456-528: Was to denote a person of mixed heritage, with one parent of European descent (often Spanish) and one parent of Indigenous American descent; a Cholo had one Indigenous American parent and one Mestizo parent. By the 20th century, Mestizo and Cholo were frequently used interchangeably. Kluck suggested that societal relationships, occupation, manners, and clothing all derived from ethnic affiliation. Nonetheless, according to Kluck, individuals could potentially switch ethnic affiliation if they had culturally adapted to

#637362