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142-475: In June 1546, Pope Paul III entered into an agreement with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to curb the spread of the Protestant Reformation . The agreement stated, in part: In the name of God and with the help and assistance of his Papal Holiness, his Imperial Majesty should prepare himself for war, and equip himself with soldiers and everything pertaining to warfare against those who objected to

284-559: A catarrh at 7:00 pm, opining that the pope had very little time to live. Paul III died on 10 November 1549 from a catarrh. It is said that he repented of his nepotism on his deathbed. Paul III's bronze tomb, executed by Guglielmo della Porta , is located in Saint Peter's Basilica. Stendhal 's novel La Chartreuse de Parme was inspired by an inauthentic Italian account of the dissolute youth of Alessandro Farnese. The character of Pope Paul III , played by Peter O'Toole in

426-709: A novice . Bucer later claimed his grandfather had forced him into the order. After a year, he was consecrated as an acolyte in the Strasbourg church of the Williamites , and he took his vows as a full Dominican friar . In 1510, he was ordained as a deacon . By 1515, Bucer was studying theology in the Dominican monastery in Heidelberg . The following year, he took a course in dogmatics in Mainz , where he

568-551: A brother? I for one have never met two people who believed exactly the same thing. This holds true in theology as well. The extent of the theological division among the reformers became evident when the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V asked them to present their views to him in 1530 at the Diet of Augsburg . Philipp Melanchthon , the main delegate from Wittenberg, quickly prepared the draft that eventually became

710-597: A castle, and Bucer moved to the town in May 1522. In summer 1522, he met and married Elisabeth Silbereisen, a former nun. Sickingen also offered to pay for Bucer to study in Wittenberg. On his way, Bucer stopped in the town of Wissembourg , whose leading reformer, Heinrich Motherer, asked him to become his chaplain. Bucer agreed to interrupt his journey and went to work immediately, preaching daily sermons in which he attacked traditional church practices and monastic orders. On

852-592: A change of doctrine. Yet, even after the Regensburg Conference had proved fruitless, the Emperor insisted on a still larger council, with the final result being the Council of Trent , which was finally convoked on 15 March 1545, under the bull Laetare Hierusalem . Meanwhile, after the peace of Crespy (September 1544), Emperor Charles V (1519 – 1556) began to put down Protestantism by force. Pending

994-484: A daughter, whom they named Elisabeth. Electors of Saxony Holy Roman Emperors Building Literature Theater Liturgies Hymnals Monuments Calendrical commemoration On 5 February 1542, Bucer and Gropper met with Hermann von Wied , archbishop-elector of Cologne, to discuss the introduction of church reform in his archdiocese. As one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire,

1136-615: A draft document of sixteen articles on church doctrine. The synod convened on 3 June 1533 at the Church of the Penitent Magdalens to debate Bucer's text, eventually accepting it in full. Sectarian leaders were brought before the synod and questioned by Bucer. Ziegler was dismissed and allowed to stay in Strasbourg; Hoffmann was imprisoned as a danger to the state; and Schwenckfeld left Strasbourg of his own accord. Following

1278-518: A follower of Luther. To escape Dominican jurisdiction, Bucer needed to be freed of his monastic vows. Capito and others were able to expedite the annulment of his vows, and on 29 April 1521 he was formally released from the Dominican Order. For the next two years, Bucer was protected by Sickingen and Hutten. He also worked for a time at the court of Ludwig V, Elector Palatine , as chaplain to Ludwig's younger brother Frederick . Sickingen

1420-590: A formula that he hoped would satisfy both sides: different understandings of scripture were acceptable, and church unity was assured so long as both sides had a "child-like faith in God". Bucer stated that his and Zwingli's interpretation on the eucharist was the correct one, but while he considered the Wittenberg theologians to be in error, he accepted them as brethren as they agreed on the fundamentals of faith. He also published two translations of works by Luther and Johannes Bugenhagen , interpolating his own interpretation of

1562-598: A formula to which both Catholics and Protestants of Germany could subscribe was objected to outright by the Catholic Electors , the prince-bishops and the pope even before the decree was published. Therefore, as a decree, the Interim applied only to the Protestant princes, who were given just 18 days to signify their compliance. Although Philip Melanchthon , a friend of Luther's and co-architect and voice of

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1704-519: A major colloquy to settle all religious issues within the Empire. Bucer placed great hopes on this meeting: he believed it would be possible to convince most German Catholics to accept the doctrine of sola fide as the basis for discussions on all other issues. Under various pseudonyms, he published tracts promoting a German national church. A conference in Haguenau began on 12 June 1540, but during

1846-543: A mistress, Silvia Ruffini . Between about 1500 and 1510 she gave birth to at least four children: Costanza , Pier Luigi (who was later created Duke of Parma ), Paolo, and Ranuccio . In July 1505, Pope Julius II legitimated the two eldest sons so that they could inherit the Farnese family estates. On 23 June 1513, Pope Leo X published a second legitimation of Pier Luigi, and also legitimated Ranuccio (the second son Paolo had already died). On 28 March 1509 Alessandro

1988-552: A monk who had attacked Luther in satires . While the city council vacillated on religious issues, the number of people supporting the Reformation and hostile towards the traditional clergy had grown. The hostility reached a boiling point when Conrad Treger, the prior provincial of the Augustinians , denounced the reformist preachers and the burghers of Strasbourg as heretics. On 5 September 1524, angry mobs broke into

2130-563: A month's discussion the two sides failed to agree on a common starting point. They decided to reconvene in Worms . Melanchthon led the Protestants, with Bucer a major influence behind the scenes. When the colloquy again made no progress, the imperial chancellor, Nicholas Perrenot de Granvelle , called for secret negotiations. Bucer then began working with Johannes Gropper , a delegate of the archbishop of Cologne , Hermann von Wied . Aware of

2272-404: A public disputation. His opponents, the local Franciscans and Dominicans, ignored him, but his sermons incited the townspeople to threaten the town's monasteries. The bishop of Speyer reacted by excommunicating Bucer, and although the town council continued to support him, events beyond Wissembourg left Bucer in danger. His leading benefactor, Franz von Sickingen, was defeated and killed during

2414-553: A rift between Bucer and Gropper. On 19 December, the chapter lodged a formal protest against Bucer's appointment, but von Wied supported his new protégé and Bucer was allowed to stay. He led a small congregation at Bonn cathedral , where he preached three times a week, although his main responsibility was to plan reform. In January 1543, Bucer began work on a major document for von Wied, Einfältiges Bedenken, worauf eine christliche, im Worte Gottes gegründete Reformation ... anzurichten sei [ Simple Consideration Concerning

2556-522: A single city. The Swiss never accepted or rejected the Wittenberg Concord. Bucer's influence on the Swiss was eventually felt indirectly. In summer 1538, he invited John Calvin , the future reformer of Geneva , to lead a French refugee congregation in Strasbourg. Bucer and Calvin had much in common theologically and maintained a long friendship. The extent to which Bucer influenced Calvin

2698-415: A statement of advice ( Wittenberger Ratschlag ); later, Bucer produced his own arguments for and against bigamy. Although the document specified that bigamy could be sanctioned only under rare conditions, Philip took it as approval for his marriage to a lady-in-waiting of his sister. When rumours of the marriage spread, Luther told Philip to deny it, while Bucer advised him to hide his second wife and conceal

2840-431: A treatise for their orderly removal. First the authority of the magistrates should be obtained, and then the people instructed on abandoning devotion to images. Bucer's priority in Strasbourg was to instill moral discipline in the church. To this end, special wardens ( Kirchenpfleger ), chosen from among the laity, were assigned to each congregation to supervise both doctrine and practice. His concerns were motivated by

2982-539: Is an open question among modern scholars, but many of the reforms that Calvin later implemented in Geneva, including the liturgy and the church organisation, were originally developed in Strasbourg. When Philip of Hesse's law on the protection of the Jews in his territory expired in 1538, he commissioned Bucer to create a new policy. Philip gave him a draft that was tolerant in the regulation of their affairs. Bucer rejected

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3124-604: The Augsburg Confession . The Wittenberg theologians rejected attempts by Strasbourg to adopt it without the article on the Lord's Supper. In response, Bucer wrote a new confession, the Confessio Tetrapolitana ( Tetrapolitan Confession ), so named because only four cities adopted it, Strasbourg and three other southern German cities, Konstanz , Memmingen , and Lindau . A copy of Melanchthon's draft

3266-597: The Diet of Worms in 1545, the Emperor concluded a covenant of joint action with the papal legate Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, with Paul III agreeing to aid in the projected war against the German Protestant princes and estates. This prompt acquiescence was probably grounded on personal motives: since the Emperor was preoccupied in Germany, the moment now seemed opportune for the Pope to acquire for his son Pier Luigi

3408-486: The Grand Inquisitor of Cologne , tried to prosecute Johann Reuchlin , a humanist scholar. Other humanists, including the nobles Ulrich von Hutten and Imperial Knight Franz von Sickingen , took Reuchlin's side. Hoogstraten was thwarted, but he now planned to target Bucer. On 11 November 1520, Bucer told the reformer Wolfgang Capito in a letter that Hoogstraaten was threatening to make an example of him as

3550-649: The Jesuits , the Barnabites , and the Congregation of the Oratory . His efforts were distracted by nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family, including his illegitimate son Pier Luigi Farnese . Paul III was a significant patron of artists including Michelangelo , and it is to him that Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated his heliocentric treatise. Born in 1468 at Canino , Latium (then part of

3692-466: The Knights' War , and Ulrich von Hutten became a fugitive. The Wissembourg council urged Bucer and Motherer to leave, and on 13 May 1523 they fled to nearby Strasbourg. Bucer, excommunicated and without means of subsistence, was in a precarious situation when he arrived in Strasbourg . He was not a citizen of the city, a status that afforded protection, and on 9 June 1523 he wrote an urgent letter to

3834-564: The Levant and allowed them to settle with their families in Ancona , which had become part of the Papal States under his predecessor Clement VII – a decision which helped make Ancona a prosperous trading city for centuries to come. A Venetian travelling through Ancona in 1535 recorded that the city was "full of merchants from every nation and mostly Greeks and Turks." In the second half of

3976-626: The Piazza del Campidoglio . On 27 September 1540, Paul III formally approved the establishment of the Society of Jesus in the papal bull , Regimini militantis Ecclesiae . Originally, Paul III restricted the fledgling order to only sixty members in the bull Iniunctum nobis , however, he lifted that restriction upon seeing just how effective they were in their missionary actions. In 1548, he permitted Saint Ignatius of Loyola to print his Spiritual Exercises . Similarly, in 1540, Paul III approved

4118-538: The Schmalkaldic War and the retreat of Protestantism within the Empire. In 1548, Bucer was persuaded, under duress, to sign the Augsburg Interim , which imposed certain forms of Catholic worship. However, he continued to promote reforms until the city of Strasbourg accepted the Interim, and forced him to leave. In 1549, Bucer was exiled to England, where, under the guidance of Thomas Cranmer , he

4260-720: The Schmalkaldic War . The military might of Maurice combined with that of Charles V proved to be overwhelming to John Frederick and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League . On 24 April 1547, the armies of the Schmalkaldic League were decisively defeated at the Battle of Mühlberg . Following the defeat of the Schmalkaldic League at Mühlberg, Charles V's forces took and occupied the Lutheran territories in quick succession. On 19 May 1547 Wittenberg ,

4402-941: The Showtime series The Tudors , is loosely inspired by him. The young Alessandro Farnese is played by Diarmuid Noyes in the StudioCanal serial Borgia , and Cyron Melville in Showtime 's The Borgias . His image is portrayed in a parody of the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover, placed inside of the Frank Zappa Mothers of Invention We're Only In It For the Money album. Martin Bucer Martin Bucer ( Early German : Martin Butzer ; 11 November 1491 – 28 February 1551)

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4544-756: The Society of Jesus . In 1542, a second stage in the process of Counter-Reformation was marked by the institution, or reorganization, of the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition . On another side, the Emperor was insisting that Rome should forward his designs towards a peaceable recovery of the German Protestants. Accordingly, the Pope despatched Giovanni Morone (not yet a cardinal) as nuncio to Hagenau and Worms in 1540; and in 1541 Cardinal Gasparo Contarini took part in

4686-701: The Tetrapolitan Confession and the Wittenberg Concord , working closely with Philipp Melanchthon on the latter. Bucer believed that the Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire could be convinced to join the Reformation. Through a series of conferences organised by Charles V , he tried to unite Protestants and Catholics to create a German national church separate from Rome. He did not achieve this, as political events led to

4828-621: The Zürich reformer, Huldrych Zwingli , pleading for a safe post in Switzerland. Fortunately for Bucer, the Strasbourg council was under the influence of the reformer, Matthew Zell ; during Bucer's first few months in the city he worked as Zell's unofficial chaplain and was able to give classes on books of the Bible. The largest guild in Strasbourg, the Gärtner or Gardeners, appointed him as

4970-468: The eucharist . In this dispute, he attempted to mediate between Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli. The two theologians disagreed on whether the body and blood of Christ were physically present within the elements of bread and wine during the celebration of the Lord's Supper. Luther believed in a corporeal or physical real presence of Christ; and Zwingli believed Christ's body and blood were made present by

5112-535: The protodeacon Innocenzo Cybo . The elevation to the cardinalate of his grandsons, Alessandro Farnese , aged fourteen, and Guido Ascanio Sforza , aged sixteen, displeased the reform party and drew a protest from the emperor, but this was forgiven when, shortly after, he introduced into the Sacred College Reginald Pole , Gasparo Contarini , Jacopo Sadoleto , and Giovanni Pietro Caraffa, who became Pope Paul IV . The fourth pope during

5254-593: The "Magna Carta" for the human rights of the indigenous peoples of the Americas in its declaration that "the Indians were human beings and they were not to be robbed of their freedom or possessions". The subsequent implementing document Pastorale officium declared automatic excommunication for anyone who failed to abide by the new ruling. However, it met with strong opposition from the Council of The West Indies and

5396-482: The "Worms Book", which they confidentially presented to a prince on each side of the religious divide: Philip of Hesse and Joachim II, Elector of Brandenburg . The Worms Book laid the groundwork for final negotiations at the Diet of Regensburg in 1541. Charles created a small committee, consisting of Johannes Eck , Gropper, and Julius Pflug on the Catholic side and Melanchthon, Bucer, and Johann Pistorius on

5538-424: The "sectarian" doctrines. The ruling authorities, who had allowed sectarian congregations to thrive among the refugees and lower orders, would only expel the obvious troublemakers. Bucer insisted that the council urgently take control of all Christian worship in the city for the common good. In response to the petition, the council set up a commission that proposed a city synod . For this gathering, Bucer provided

5680-404: The 1541 Gesangbuch surpassed it in terms of musical significance. ) By May 1525, liturgical reforms had been implemented in Strasbourg's parish churches, but the city council decided to allow masses to continue in the cathedral and in the collegiate churches St. Thomas , Young St Peter , and Old St Peter . Beginning in 1524, Bucer concentrated on the main issue dividing leading reformers,

5822-607: The 16th century, the presence of Greek and other merchants from the Ottoman Empire declined after a series of restrictive measures taken by the Italian authorities and the pope. Around this time, family complications arose. In order to vest his grandson Ottavio Farnese with the Duchy of Camerino , Paul forcibly wrested the same from the duke of Urbino (1540). He also incurred virtual war with his own subjects and vassals by

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5964-464: The Catholic faith, or he would use military force to suppress them. This prompted Melanchthon to call a meeting with Bucer and after lengthy discussions they agreed on nine theses, which they sent to Luther and to Strasbourg. The Strasbourg magistrates forwarded them to Basel and Zürich. Bucer met Luther in Coburg on 26–28 September. Luther still rejected Bucer's theses, but he encouraged him to continue

6106-534: The Catholics the magisterium —in other words, the pope and his bishops. Into the article on the mass and the Lord's Supper, Contarini had inserted the concept of transubstantiation, which was also unacceptable to the Protestants. As a result, the colloquy became deadlocked. To salvage some of the agreements reached, Charles and Granvelle had the Regensburg Book reprinted with additional articles in which

6248-467: The College of Cardinals . On the death of Clement VII in 1534, he was elected as Pope Paul III on 13 October 1534. Farnese, who did not fall within any of the factions, was considered a very good choice by the cardinals since his state of health denoted a short papacy which would give those cardinals time to select a proper candidate for a future conclave. On 3 November, Paul III was formally crowned by

6390-541: The Council [of Trent], against the Smalcald League, and against all who were addicted to the false belief and error in Germany, and that he do so with all his power and might, in order to bring them back to the old faith and to the obedience of the Holy See. Shortly thereafter, Maurice of Saxony invaded the lands of his rival and stepbrother John Frederick, beginning the brief, but devastating, conflict known as

6532-712: The Crown, which declared that it violated their patronato rights, and the Pope annulled the orders the following year with the document Non Indecens Videtur . Stogre (1992) notes that Sublimis Deus is not present in Denzinger , the authoritative compendium of official Catholic teachings, and Davis (1988) asserts it was annulled due to a dispute with the Spanish crown. However, the original bull continued to circulate and be quoted by las Casas and others who supported Indian rights. According to Falkowski (2002) Sublimis Deus had

6674-590: The Establishment of a Christian Reformation Founded upon God's Word ] (in German) . Melanchthon joined him in Bonn in May, and Caspar Hedio a month later, to help draft the document. At the beginning of July, Bucer discussed the draft with the archbishop, who, after studying it, submitted the document to the territorial diet on 23 July. Although the cathedral chapter flatly rejected it, the diet ruled in favour of

6816-521: The Holy Spirit . By late 1524, Bucer had abandoned the idea of corporeal real presence and, after some exegetical studies, accepted Zwingli's interpretation. However, he did not believe the Reformation depended on either position but on faith in Christ, other matters being secondary. In this respect he differed from Zwingli. In March 1526, Bucer published Apologia , defending his views. He proposed

6958-624: The Interim. They were exiled, and some of their families were killed or died as a result. Some preachers left for England (McCain et al., 476). As a result of the Interim, many Protestant leaders, such as Martin Bucer , fled to England, where they would influence the English Reformation . Charles V tried to enforce the Interim in the Holy Roman Empire but was successful only in territories under his military control, such as Württemberg and certain imperial cities in southern Germany. There

7100-439: The League were captured. The Emperor declared the Augsburg Interim as a magnanimous compromise with the defeated schismatics. Although the Emperor had subdued the German Protestant armies, he had failed to support the Pope's territorial ambitions for his son Pier Luigi, and relations between them cooled. The situation came to a total rupture when the imperial vice-regent, Ferrante Gonzaga , forcibly expelled Pier Luigi. In 1547

7242-543: The Lord's Supper into the text. This outraged the Wittenberg theologians and damaged their relations with Bucer. In 1528, when Luther published Vom Abendmahl Christi, Bekenntnis [ Confession Concerning Christ's Supper ] (in German) , detailing Luther's concept of the sacramental union , Bucer responded with a treatise of his own, Vergleichnung D. Luthers, und seins gegentheyls, vom Abendmal Christi [ Conciliation between Dr. Luther and His Opponents Regarding Christ's Supper ] (in German) . It took

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7384-523: The New World and did not condemn the transatlantic slave trade stimulated by the Spanish monarchy and the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1545, Paul repealed an ancient law that allowed slaves to claim their freedom under the Emperor's statue on Rome's Capitoline Hill , in view of the number of homeless people and tramps in the city. The decree included those who had become Christians after their enslavement and those born to Christian slaves. The right of inhabitants of Rome to publicly buy and sell slaves of both sexes

7526-412: The Papal States), Alessandro Farnese was the second son of Pier Luigi I Farnese, Signore di Montalto (1435–1487) and his wife Giovanna Caetani, a member of the Caetani family which had also produced Pope Gelasius II and Pope Boniface VIII . The Farnese family had prospered over the centuries but it was Alessandro's ascendency to the papacy and his dedication to family interests which brought about

7668-412: The Pope over all bishops and the whole Church was reaffirmed but with the proviso that "the powers that he has should be used not to destroy but to uplift". In stark contrast to Charles V's past attitude, significant concessions were made to the Protestants. What was basically a new code of religious practices permitted both clerical marriage and communion under both kinds . The Mass was reintroduced, but

7810-443: The Pope's son was assassinated at Piacenza , and Paul III placed some of the blame on the emperor. In the same year, however, and after the death of Francis I of France (1515–47) deprived the Pope of a potential ally, the stress of circumstances compelled him to accept the ecclesiastical measures in the Emperor's Interim. With reference to the assassinated prince's inheritance, the restitution of which Paul III demanded ostensibly in

7952-429: The Protestant Reformation, although it was during his pontificate that the foundation was laid for the Counter-Reformation . He decreed the second and final excommunication of Henry VIII of England in December 1538. His efforts in Parma led to the War of Parma two years after his death. In May–June 1537 Paul issued the bull Sublimis Deus (also known as Unigenitus and Veritas ipsa ), described by Prein (2008) as

8094-416: The Protestant princes, estates, and cities allied in the Schmalkaldic League (see Philip of Hesse ). Hermann was excommunicated on 16 April 1546, and was compelled by the Emperor to abdicate in February 1547. By the close of 1546, Charles V had subjugated South Germany. The victory at the Battle of Mühlberg , on 24 April 1547, established his imperial sovereignty everywhere in Germany, and the two leaders of

8236-402: The Protestant side. The basis for discussion was the "Regensburg Book"—essentially the Worms Book with modifications by the papal legate , Gasparo Contarini , and other Catholic theologians. The two sides made a promising start, reaching agreement over the issue of justification by faith. But they could not agree on the teaching authority of the Church, the Protestants insisting it was the Bible,

8378-434: The Protestants were allowed to present their views. However, Luther in Wittenberg and the papal court in Rome had by this time seen the book, and they both publicly rejected the article on justification by faith. The failure of the conference was a major setback for Bucer. After Bucer's return from Regensburg, the city of Strasbourg was struck by the plague . First, Bucer's friend and colleague Wolfgang Capito succumbed to

8520-446: The Reformation movement, was willing to compromise on those issues for the sake of peace, the Augsburg Interim was rejected by a significant number of Lutheran pastors and theologians. Pastors who refused to follow the regulations of the Augsburg Interim were removed from office and banished; some were imprisoned and some were even executed. In Swabia and along the Rhine River, some four hundred pastors went to prison, rather than agree to

8662-412: The Reformation to Bern . The last meeting between Zwingli and Luther was at the Marburg Colloquy of October 1529, organised by Philip of Hesse and attended by various leading reformers, including Bucer. Luther and Zwingli agreed on 13 of the 14 topics discussed, but Zwingli did not accept the doctrine of the real presence, on which Luther would not compromise. After the discussion broke down between

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8804-559: The Rule of the Somaschi Fathers and on 9 June 1544 approved the Rule for the Ursulines in the bull Regimini Universalis . Throughout his papacy, Paul III elevated 71 cardinals in twelve consistories. Six of those whom he named, and later revealed publicly, were nominated " in pectore ". Among those whom he named were his three immediate successors, Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte (the future Pope Julius III), Marcello Cervini (the future Pope Marcellus II ), and Gian Pietro Carafa (the future Pope Paul IV ). Among those whom he named were

8946-428: The Swiss to adopt a compromise wording on the eucharist that would not offend the Lutherans. The true presence of Christ was acknowledged while a natural or local union between Christ and the elements was denied. The result was the First Helvetic Confession , the success of which raised Bucer's hopes for the upcoming meeting with Luther. The meeting, moved to Wittenberg because Luther was ill, began on 21 May 1536. To

9088-421: The Wittenberg theologians accepted. In October 1535, Luther suggested a meeting in Eisenach to conclude a full agreement among the Protestant factions. Bucer persuaded the south Germans to attend, but the Swiss, led by Zwingli's successor Heinrich Bullinger , were skeptical of his intentions. Instead they met in Basel on 1 February 1536 to draft their own confession of faith. Bucer and Capito attended and urged

9230-404: The adjustment proceedings at the Conference of Regensburg . It was Contarini who proposed the famous formula "by faith alone are we justified," which did not, however, supersede the Roman Catholic doctrine of good works. At Rome, this definition was rejected in the consistory of 27 May, and Luther declared that he could accept it only provided the opposers would admit that this formula constituted

9372-405: The anniversary of his papal coronation. However, the pope was severely depressed by the deceit of his own family and the fall of Parma to Emperor Charles V, and it is known that he had a very heated argument with his cardinal nephew, Alessandro Farnese , to the point that he grabbed his red beretta, tore it into shreds, and threw it down to the ground in his anger. He had worked himself up so much to

9514-405: The archbishop of Cologne was a key political figure for both the emperor and the reformers. After consulting the territorial diet , the archbishop enlisted Bucer to lead the reform, and on 14 December Bucer moved to Bonn , the capital of the electorate. His selection caused consternation in the Cologne cathedral chapter , the clerics assisting the archbishop. The hostility of the clergy soon caused

9656-406: The authority of the pope and instead emphasised obedience to the government. Treger was released on 12 October and left Strasbourg. With his departure, overt opposition to the Reformation ended in the city. The reformers' first goal was the creation of a new order of service —at this time the Strasbourg reformers followed Zwingli's liturgy. They presented proposals for a common order of service for

9798-415: The basis of his belief that the Bible was the sole source for knowledge to attain salvation ( sola scriptura ), he preached that the Mass should not be considered as the recrucifying of Christ, but rather the reception of God's gift of salvation through Christ. He accused the monks of creating additional rules above what is contained in the Bible. He summarised his convictions in six theses, and called for

9940-534: The cardinalate, however, he declined on the grounds of ill health and his age. In preparations for the 1542 consistory, Paul III intended to nominate Giovanni Guidiccioni , however, the latter died before the consistory took place. In that 1542 consistory, according to Conradus Eubel, the pope is said to have reserved an undefined number of other cardinals in pectore . During his papacy, Paul III canonized only two saints: Ginés de la Jara (1541) and Abraham of Smolensk (1549). On 3 November 1549, Paul III celebrated

10082-447: The church in Wissembourg resulted in his excommunication from the Catholic Church , and he was forced to flee to Strasbourg. There he joined a team of reformers which included Matthew Zell , Wolfgang Capito , and Caspar Hedio . He acted as a mediator between the two leading reformers, Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli , who differed on the doctrine of the Eucharist . Later, Bucer sought agreement on common articles of faith such as

10224-492: The church only temporarily pending the conclusions of the general council convened at Trent by Pope Paul III in December 1545. The first draft of the twenty-six chapter decree was written by Julius von Pflug , but several theologians were involved in the final draft: on the Catholic side, Michael Helding , Eberhard Billick , Pedro Domenico Soto and Pedro de Malvenda ; on the Protestant side, John Agricola . Included in

10366-542: The city. The decision established a new church in Strasbourg, with Capito declaring, "Bucer is the bishop of our church." By 1534, Bucer was a key figure in the German Reformation. He repeatedly led initiatives to secure doctrinal agreement between Wittenberg, the south German cities, and Switzerland. In December 1534, Bucer and Melanchthon held productive talks in Kassel , and Bucer then drafted ten theses that

10508-573: The council delayed, driving the pastors to the brink of resignation. Only when Hoffman's followers seized power in Münster, in the Münster Rebellion , did the council act, fearing a similar incident in Strasbourg. On 4 March 1534, the council announced that Bucer's Tetrapolitan Confession and his sixteen articles on church doctrine were now official church statements of faith. All Anabaptists should either subscribe to these documents or leave

10650-658: The disease; then Bucer's wife Elisabeth died on 16 November 1541. How many children Elisabeth had borne is unknown; several died during child-birth or at a young age. One son, Nathanael, although mentally and physically handicapped, survived to adulthood and remained with the Bucer family throughout his life. During Elisabeth's final hours, she urged Bucer to marry Capito's widow, Wibrandis Rosenblatt , after her death. He married Rosenblatt on 16 April 1542, as her fourth husband—she had outlived Ludwig Keller, Johannes Oecolampadius , and Wolfgang Capito. She brought with her four children from her previous marriages. The new couple produced

10792-528: The document, but much coaxing from Bucer was required before he managed to convince all the south German cities. The Swiss cities were resistant, Zürich in particular. They rejected even a mild statement suggesting a union of Christ with the elements of the eucharist. Bucer advised the Swiss to hold a national synod to decide on the matter, hoping he could at least persuade Bern and Basel. The synod met in Zürich from 28 May to 4 April 1538, but Bucer failed to win over

10934-582: The duchies of Parma and Piacenza . Although these belonged to the Papal States, Paul III planned to overcome the reluctance of the cardinals by exchanging these papal duchies for the less valuable domains of Camerino and Nepi . The Emperor agreed, welcoming the prospect of 12,000 infantry, 500 cavalry, and considerable funds from the Pope. In Germany the campaign began in the west, where Archbishop of Cologne Hermann of Wied had converted to Protestantism in 1542. Emperor Charles began open warfare against

11076-435: The early days of colonial rule, when hundreds and sometimes thousands of indigenous people were baptized every day. One interesting aspect of this bull is its discussion of how to deal with local practices, for example, polygamy. After their conversion, polygamous men had to marry their first wife, but if they could not remember which wife was the first, they then "could choose among the wives the one they preferred." Arguably

11218-420: The effect of revoking the bull of Alexander VI, Inter caetera , but still leaving the colonizers the duty of converting the native people. Father Gustavo Gutierrez describes it as "the most important papal document relating to the condition of native Indians and that it was addressed to all Christians". Maxwell (1975) notes that the bull did not change the traditional teaching that the enslavement of Indians

11360-467: The effects of a rapidly rising refugee population, attracted by Strasbourg's tolerant asylum policies. Influxes of refugees, particularly after 1528, had brought a series of revolutionary preachers into Strasbourg. These men were inspired by a variety of apocalyptic and mystical doctrines, and in some cases by hostility towards the social order and the notion of an official church. Significant numbers of refugees were Anabaptists and spiritualists, such as

11502-545: The elderly Michelangelo to take supervision of the building of St. Peter's Basilica . Paul also commissioned Michelangelo to paint the 'Crucifixion of St. Peter' and the 'Conversion of St. Paul' (1542–50), his last frescoes, in the Pauline Chapel of the Vatican. Paul III's artistic and architectural commissions were numerous and varied. The Venetian artist Titian painted a portrait of the Pope in 1543, and in 1546

11644-570: The elector Frederick III and his successors John and John Frederick . Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse —whose lands lay midway between Saxony and the Rhine—also supported the Reformation, and he figured prominently in the lives of both Luther and Bucer. The Emperor Charles V had to balance the demands of his imperial subjects. At the same time, he was often distracted by war with France and the Ottoman Empire and in Italy. The political rivalry among all

11786-447: The elements of the bread and the wine. Johannes Bugenhagen formulated a compromise, approved by Luther, that distinguished between the unworthy ( indigni ) and the unbelievers ( impii ). The south Germans accepted that the unworthy receive Christ, and the question of what unbelievers receive was left unanswered. The two sides then worked fruitfully on other issues and on 28 May signed the Wittenberg Concord . Strasbourg quickly endorsed

11928-692: The end of 1538, shortly before the Catholic Duke Georg of Saxony died, a religious colloquy was convened in Leipzig to discuss potential reforms within the Duchy. The Electorate of Saxony sent Melanchthon, and Philip of Hesse sent Bucer. The Duchy itself was represented by Georg Witzel , a former Lutheran who had reconverted to Catholicism. In discussions from 2 to 7 January 1539, Bucer and Witzel agreed to defer controversial points of doctrine, but Melanchthon withdrew, feeling that doctrinal unity

12070-476: The end, no results followed from the committee's recommendations. As a consequence of the extensive campaign against "idolatry" in England , culminating with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury , the Pope excommunicated Henry VIII on 17 December 1538 and issued an interdict. In 1534 a decision by Paul III favoured the activity of merchants of all nationalities and religions from

12212-474: The entire Reformation movement to the theologians of Wittenberg and Zürich. In Bucer's book Grund und Ursach (Basis and Cause), published in December 1524, he attacked the idea of the Mass as a sacrifice, and rejected liturgical garments , the altar , and certain forms of ritual. It was also this publication that acknowledged the introduction of congregational German hymn singing in the city. (Only his preface to

12354-427: The favourable conditions and recommended that Jews be prohibited from all trades except those providing minimum subsistence. His Judenratschlag also included his first use of negative stereotypes of the Jews. Philip's ordinance of 1539 represented a compromise. He allowed the Jews to engage in trade and commerce but included strict rules on their association with Christians. The potential for an arbitrary enforcement of

12496-418: The followers of Melchior Hoffman , Caspar Schwenckfeld , and Clemens Ziegler . Bucer personally took responsibility for attacking these and other popular preachers to minimize their influence and secure their expulsion and that of their followers. On 30 November 1532, the pastors and wardens of the church petitioned the council to enforce ethical standards, officially sanction the reformed faith, and refute

12638-568: The form of a dialogue between two merchants, one from Nuremberg who supported Luther and the other from Strasbourg who supported Bucer, with the latter winning over his opponent. Bucer noted that as Luther had rejected impanation , the idea that Christ was "made into bread", there was no disagreement between Luther and Zwingli; both believed in a spiritual presence of Christ in the eucharist. Luther harshly rejected Bucer's interpretation. During this time, Bucer and Zwingli remained in close touch, discussing other aspects of theology and practice such as

12780-521: The heart of the Reformation and the final resting place of Martin Luther ’s remains, fell to the Emperor without a fight. Charles V had won a military victory but realized that his only chance he had to contain Lutheranism as a movement effectively was to pursue political and ecclesiastical compromises to restore religious peace in the Empire. The series of decrees issued by the Emperor became known as an “Interim” because they were intended to govern

12922-466: The imposition of burdensome taxes. Perugia , renouncing its obedience, was besieged by Paul's son, Pier Luigi, and forfeited its freedom entirely on its surrender. The burghers of Colonna were duly vanquished, and Ascanio was banished (1541). After this, the time seemed ripe for annihilating heresy. In 1540, the Church officially recognized the new society forming about Ignatius of Loyola , which became

13064-457: The likes of Reginald Pole , Rodrigo Luis de Borja y de Castre-Pinós (the great-great-grandson of Pope Alexander VI ), Ippolito II d'Este (the grandson of Pope Alexander VI), and Enrique de Borja y Aragón (the great-grandson of Pope Alexander VI). Paul III also named John Fisher as a cardinal, however, King Henry VIII had him executed after warning the pope not to nominate him. In 1535, Paul III intended to nominate Desiderius Erasmus to

13206-510: The monasteries, looting and destroying religious images . Many opponents of the Reformation were arrested, including Treger. After the council requested an official statement from the reformers, Bucer drafted twelve articles summarising the teachings of the Reformation, including justification by faith ( sola fide ). He rejected the Mass and Catholic concepts such as monastic vows , veneration of saints, and purgatory . He refused to recognise

13348-755: The most significant artistic work produced during Paul's reign was the Last Judgement by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican Palace . Although the work was commissioned by Paul III's predecessor, Pope Clement VII , following the latter's death in 1534 Paul renewed the commission and oversaw its completion in 1541. As a cardinal, Alessandro had begun construction of the Palazzo Farnese in central Rome, and its planned size and magnificence increased upon his election to

13490-636: The most significant increase in the family's wealth and power. Alessandro was given a humanist education at the University of Pisa and the court of Lorenzo de' Medici . Initially trained as an apostolic notary , he joined the Roman Curia in 1491 and in 1493 Pope Alexander VI appointed him Cardinal-Deacon of Santi Cosma e Damiano . Alessandro's sister, Giulia , was reputedly a mistress of Alexander VI, and might have been instrumental in securing this appointment for her brother. For this reason, he

13632-465: The name of the Church, the Pope's design was thwarted by the Emperor, who refused to surrender Piacenza, and by Pier Luigi's heir in Parma, Ottavio Farnese. In consequence of a violent altercation on this account with Cardinal Farnese, Paul III, at the age of eighty-one years, became so overwrought that an attack of sickness ensued from which he died on 10 November 1549. Paul III proved unable to suppress

13774-419: The new policy was frightening, and as a result many Jews chose to leave Hesse. For this Bucer must share part of the blame. In November 1539, Philip asked Bucer to produce a theological defence of bigamy, since he had decided to contract a bigamous marriage. Bucer reluctantly agreed, on condition the marriage be kept secret. Bucer consulted Luther and Melanchthon, and the three reformers presented Philip with

13916-479: The offertory was to be seen as an act of remembrance and thanks, rather than an act of propitiation as in traditional Catholic dogma. The Interim went further in making significant statements on other matters of dogma such as justification by faith, the veneration of the saints, and the authority of the Scriptures. Even such details as the practice of fasting was breached upon. The attempt by the emperor to devise

14058-466: The papacy. The palace was initially designed by the architect Antonio da Sangallo the Younger , received further architectural refinement from Michelangelo , and was completed by Giacomo della Porta . Like other Farnese family buildings, the imposing palace proclaims the family's power and wealth, similarly to Alessandro's Villa Farnese at Caprarola. In 1546, after the death of Sangallo, Paul appointed

14200-576: The papal throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527 and rife with uncertainties in the Catholic Church as the Protestant Reformation progressed. His pontificate initiated the Catholic Reformation with the Council of Trent in 1545, and witnessed wars of religion in which Emperor Charles V launched military campaigns against the Protestants in Germany. He recognized new Catholic religious orders and societies such as

14342-527: The parish churches. On 5 January 1530, when Strasbourg joined the alliance of Swiss cities, the Christliches Burgrecht [ Christian Confederation ] (in German) , the council systematically removed images and side altars from the churches. Bucer had at first tolerated images in places of worship as long as they were not venerated. He later came to believe they should be removed because of their potential for abuse, and he advocated in

14484-431: The pastor of St Aurelia's Church on 24 August 1523. A month later the council accepted his application for citizenship. In Strasbourg, Bucer joined a team of notable reformers: Zell, who took the role of the preacher to the masses; Wolfgang Capito, the most influential theologian in the city; and Caspar Hedio , the cathedral preacher. One of Bucer's first actions in the cause of reform was to debate with Thomas Murner ,

14626-411: The period of the Protestant Reformation , Paul III became the first to take active reform measures in response to Protestantism. Soon after his elevation, 2 June 1536, Paul III summoned a general council to meet at Mantua in the following May; but the opposition of the Protestant princes and the refusal of Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua to assume the responsibility of maintaining order frustrated

14768-419: The players greatly influenced the ecclesiastical developments within the Empire. In addition to the princely states, free imperial cities , nominally under the control of the Emperor but really ruled by councils that acted like sovereign governments, were scattered throughout the Empire. As the Reformation took root, clashes broke out in many cities between local reformers and conservative city magistrates. It

14910-624: The point that he may have suffered a heart attack . On 6 November, the pope suddenly contracted a fever , retreating to the Quirinal Hill where he had hoped that the fresher air would help ease his malady. On 7 November, the agent of King Ferdinand I of Bohemia and Hungary, Diego Lasso, wrote that the pope's temperature had increased that morning, while the French ambassador in Rome reported to King Henry II of France that Paul III suffered from

15052-550: The previous conflict, worked with Melanchthon and his supporters a compromise known as the Leipzig Interim in late 1548. Despite its even greater concessions to Protestantism, it was barely enforced. Protestant leaders rejected the terms of the Augsburg Interim. The Leipzig Interim was designed to allow Lutherans to retain their core theological beliefs, specifically where the doctrine of justification by grace

15194-601: The principle " Cuius regio, eius religio " – He who rules, his the religion – allowing the ruler of a territory to set the religion therein. Pope Paul III Artists Clergy Monarchs Popes Pope Paul III ( Latin : Paulus III ; Italian : Paolo III ; 29 February 1468 – 10 November 1549), born Alessandro Farnese , was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 13 October 1534 to his death, in November 1549. He came to

15336-554: The project. Paul III first deferred for a year and then discarded the whole project. In 1536, Paul III invited a committee of nine eminent prelates , distinguished by learning and piety alike, to report on the reformation and rebuilding of the Church. In 1537 they produced the celebrated Consilium de emendenda ecclesia , exposing gross abuses in the Roman Curia, the church administration, and public worship; and proffering bold proposals aimed at abolishing such abuses. The report

15478-499: The provisions of the Interim was that the Lutherans restore the number of sacraments (which the Lutherans reduced to two: Baptism, the Lord's Supper) and that the churches restore a number of specifically Roman ceremonies, doctrines, and practices that had been discarded by the Lutheran reformers, including transubstantiation , and the rejection of the doctrine of justification by grace, through faith alone . The God-given authority of

15620-536: The reform programme. The final document was over three hundred pages and covered a number of subjects on doctrine, church law, and liturgy. Some of the principles proposed include justification by faith, the acceptance of baptism and the Lord's Supper as the only valid sacraments, the offering of the cup to the laity, the holding of worship services in the vernacular, and the authorisation of priests to marry. These first steps toward reform were halted on 17 August 1543 when Charles V and his troops entered Bonn. The emperor

15762-559: The reformed religion. Strasbourg's Jakob Sturm negotiated the city's inclusion on the basis of the Tetrapolitan Confession. By this time, Bucer's relationship with Zwingli was deteriorating. Strasbourg's political ties with the Elector of Saxony , and Bucer's partial theological support of Luther, became too much for Zwingli, and on 21 February 1531, he wrote to Bucer ending their friendship. When representatives of

15904-506: The risks of such apparent collusion, he was determined to forge unity among the German churches. The two agreed on twenty-three articles in which Bucer conceded some issues toward the Catholic position. These included justification, the sacraments, and the organisation of the church. Four disputed issues were left undecided: veneration of the saints, private masses , auricular confession , and transubstantiation . The results were published in

16046-412: The search for unity. Bucer then traveled to several southern German cities, including Ulm , Isny , Konstanz, Memmingen, and Lindau, and to the Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich. In Zurich on 12 October, he presented the articles to Zwingli, who neither opposed him nor agreed with him. In February 1531, the evangelical princes and cities of the empire set up the Protestant Schmalkaldic League to defend

16188-472: The south and west of the German lands, Strasbourg followed this pattern of Reformation. It was ruled by a complex local government largely under the control of a few powerful families and wealthy guildsmen. In Bucer's time, social unrest was growing as lower-level artisans resented their social immobility and the widening income gap. The citizens may not have planned revolution, but they were receptive to new ideas that might transform their lives. Martin Bucer

16330-484: The southern German cities and Swiss cities. The latter remained unconvinced and did not join the Protestant alliance. While these events unfolded, the reformers in Strasbourg were slowly making progress. Their pressure on the council to ban all masses finally succeeded. On 20 February 1529, Strasbourg openly joined the Reformation when the practice of the mass was officially suspended. In its place, two preaching services ( Predigtgottesdienste ) per Sunday were held in all

16472-672: The southern German cities convened in Ulm on 23–24 March 1532 to discuss their alliance with the Schmalkaldic League, Bucer advised them to sign the Augsburg Confession, if they were being pressured to do so. For Bucer to recommend the rival confession over his own version surprised the Swiss cities. Luther continued his polemical attacks on Bucer, but Bucer was unperturbed: "In any case, we must seek unity and love in our relationships with everyone," he wrote, "regardless of how they behave toward us." In April and May 1533, he again toured

16614-420: The surprise of the south Germans, Luther began by attacking them, demanding that they recant their false understanding of the eucharist. Capito intervened to calm matters, and Bucer claimed that Luther had misunderstood their views on the issue. The Lutherans insisted that unbelievers who partake of the eucharist truly receive the body and blood of Christ. Bucer and the south Germans believed that they receive only

16756-405: The synod, the city council dragged its heels for several months. The synod commission, which included Bucer and Capito, decided to take the initiative and produced a draft ordinance for the regulation of the church. It proposed that the council assume almost complete control of the church, with responsibility for supervising doctrine, appointing church wardens, and maintaining moral standards. Still

16898-406: The truth. Some scholars have noted a possible motivation for this notorious advice: the theologians believed they had advised Philip as a pastor would his parishioner, and that a lie was justified to guard the privacy of their confessional counsel. The scandal that followed the marriage caused Philip to lose political influence, and the Reformation within the Empire was severely compromised. At

17040-475: The two, Bucer tried to salvage the situation, but Luther noted, "It is obvious that we do not have one and the same spirit." The meeting ended in failure. The following year, Bucer wrote of his disappointment at doctrinal inflexibility: If you immediately condemn anyone who doesn't quite believe the same as you do as forsaken by Christ's Spirit, and consider anyone to be the enemy of truth who holds something false to be true, who, pray tell, can you still consider

17182-498: The use of religious images and the liturgy. Bucer did not hesitate to disagree with Zwingli on occasion, although unity between Strasbourg and the Swiss churches took priority over such differences. In 1527, Bucer and Capito attended the Bern Disputation to decide whether the city should accept reformed doctrines and practices. Bucer provided strong support for Zwingli's leading role in the disputation, which finally brought

17324-667: The vicar-general of the Augustinians , invited the Wittenberg reformer Martin Luther to argue his theology at the Heidelberg Disputation . Here Bucer met Luther for the first time. In a long letter to his mentor, Beatus Rhenanus , Bucer recounted what he learned, and he commented on several of Luther's Ninety-five Theses . He largely agreed with them and perceived the ideas of Luther and Erasmus to be in concordance. Because meeting Luther posed certain risks, he asked Rhenanus to ensure his letter did not fall into

17466-617: The well-known portrait of Paul III with his grandsons Cardinal Alessandro Farnese and Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma . Both are now in the Capodimonte Museum , Naples . The military fortifications in Rome and the Papal States were strengthened during his reign. He had Michelangelo relocate the ancient bronze of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius to the Capitoline Hill , where it became the centerpiece to

17608-496: The wrong hands. He also wrote his will, which contains the inventory of his books. In early 1519, Bucer received the baccalaureus degree, and that summer he stated his theological views in a disputation before the faculty at Heidelberg, revealing his break with Aquinas and scholasticism. The events that caused Bucer to leave the Dominican Order arose from his embrace of new ideas and his growing contact with other humanists and reformers. A fellow Dominican, Jacob van Hoogstraaten ,

17750-549: Was a German Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran , Calvinist , and Anglican doctrines and practices. Bucer was originally a member of the Dominican Order , but after meeting and being influenced by Martin Luther in 1518 he arranged for his monastic vows to be annulled. He then began to work for the Reformation , with the support of Franz von Sickingen . Bucer's efforts to reform

17892-534: Was a centralised state in name only. The Empire was divided into many princely and city states that provided a powerful check on the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor . The division of power between the emperor and the various states made the Reformation in Germany possible, as individual states defended reformers within their territories. In the Electorate of Saxony , Martin Luther was supported by

18034-415: Was a great deal of political opposition to the Interim. Many Catholic princes did not accept the Interim since they were worried about rising imperial authority. The papacy refused to recognize the Interim for over a year, as it was seen as an infringement upon papal jurisdiction. In a further effort to compromise, Melanchthon strived for a second "Interim". Maurice of Saxony , who had been Charles's ally in

18176-480: Was a political failure, began making plans to drive Charles V and his army from Saxony. It was, in his estimation, "more expedient for him [Maurice] to be viewed as a champion of Lutheranism than as a traitor" (McCain et al., 480). On 5 April 1552, Maurice attacked Charles V's forces at Augsburg, and Charles was forced to withdraw. This victory eventually resulted in the signing of the treaties of Passau (2 August 1552) and Augsburg (1555). These two treaties resulted in

18318-465: Was a prerequisite of a reform plan. Bucer and Witzel agreed on fifteen articles covering various issues of church life. Bucer, however, made no doctrinal concessions: he remained silent on critical matters such as the mass and the papacy. His ecumenical approach provoked harsh criticism from other reformers. In the Truce of Frankfurt of 1539, Charles and the leaders of the Schmalkaldic League agreed on

18460-507: Was a senior figure at Ludwig's court. This appointment enabled Bucer to live in Nuremberg , the most powerful city of the Empire, whose governing officials were strongly reformist. There he met many people who shared his viewpoint, including the humanist Willibald Pirckheimer and the future Nuremberg reformer Andreas Osiander . In September 1521, Bucer accepted Sickingen's offer of the position of pastor at Landstuhl , where Sickingen had

18602-504: Was able to influence both Edwardine Ordinals and the second revision of the Book of Common Prayer . He died in Cambridge, England , at the age of 59. Although his ministry did not lead to the formation of a new denomination, many Protestant denominations have claimed him as one of their own. He is remembered as an early pioneer of ecumenism . In the 16th century, the Holy Roman Empire

18744-477: Was affirmed. Stogre (1992) asserts that the lifting of restrictions was due to a shortage of slaves in Rome. In 1548, Paul authorized the purchase and possession of Muslim slaves in the Papal states. Also in 1537, Paul issued the bull, Altitudo divini consilii . The bull discusses evangelization and conversion, including the real way to apply the sacraments, in particular baptism. This was especially important in

18886-478: Was born in Sélestat (Schlettstadt), Alsace , a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. His father and grandfather, both named Claus Butzer, were coopers (barrelmakers) by trade. Almost nothing is known about Bucer's mother. Bucer likely attended Sélestat's prestigious Latin school , where artisans sent their children. He completed his studies in the summer of 1507 and joined the Dominican Order as

19028-471: Was concerned, but to make them yield in other less important matters, such as church rituals. This compromise document again drew opposition. Those who supported the Leipzig Interim became identified as Philippists , as they supported Melanchthon's efforts at compromise. Those who opposed Melanchthon became known as "Gnesio-Lutherans", or "genuine" Lutherans. Maurice, seeing that the Leipzig Interim

19170-439: Was engaged in a harsh campaign to assert his claim over lands contested by Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg . Bucer was forced to return to Strasbourg shortly afterwards. When the anti-reformist Cologne cathedral chapter and the University of Cologne appealed to both emperor and pope for protection against their archbishop, Charles took their side. Bucer wrote several treatises defending von Wied's reformation plan, including

19312-408: Was in a free imperial city, Strasbourg , that Martin Bucer began his work. Located on the western frontier of the Empire, Strasbourg was closely allied with the Swiss cities that had thrown off the imperial yoke. Some had adopted a reformed religion distinct from Lutheranism, in which humanist social concepts and the communal ethic played a greater role. Along with a group of free imperial cities in

19454-437: Was named Bishop of Parma - although he was not ordained a priest until 26 June 1519 and not consecrated a bishop until 2 July 1519. As Bishop of Parma, he came under the influence of his vicar-general, Bartolomeo Guidiccioni . This led to Alessandro breaking off the relationship with his mistress and committing himself to reform in his diocese. Under Pope Clement VII (1523–34) he was named Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Dean of

19596-483: Was ordained a priest, returning to Heidelberg in January 1517 to enroll in the university . Around this time, he became influenced by humanism , and he started buying books published by Johannes Froben , some by the great humanist Erasmus . A 1518 inventory of Bucer's books includes the major works of Thomas Aquinas , leader of medieval scholasticism in the Dominican Order. In April 1518, Johannes von Staupitz ,

19738-455: Was permissible if they were considered "enemies of Christendom", as this would be considered by the Church as a "just war". He further argues that the Indian nations had every right to self-defence. Stark - 2003 - describes the bull as "magnificent" and believes that it was long forgotten due to the neglect of Protestant historians. Falola noted that the bull related to the native populations of

19880-510: Was sometimes mockingly referred to as the "Borgia brother-in-law," just as Giulia was mocked as "the Bride of Christ." Much later (in 1535) the Venetian nobleman Soriano recorded that Alessandro was called cardinale Fregnese (Cardinal Pussy, or Cardinal Cunt) on account of the relationship between his sister and Alexander VI. As a young cleric, Alessandro lived a notably dissolute life, taking

20022-496: Was used as the starting point and the only major change was the wording on the article on the eucharist. According to Eells, the article on the eucharist in the Tetrapolitan Confession stated, "In this sacrament his true body and true blood are truly given to eat and drink, as food for their souls, and to eternal life, that they may remain in him and he in them". The ambiguous word "truly" was not defined. Charles, however, decreed on 22 September that all reformers must reconcile with

20164-543: Was widely printed, and the Pope was in earnest when he took up the problem of reform. He clearly perceived that Emperor Charles V would not rest until the problems were grappled with in earnest. But to the Protestants the report seemed far from thorough; Martin Luther had his edition (1538) prefaced with a vignette showing the cardinals cleaning the Augean stable of the Roman Church with foxtails instead of brooms. In

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