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117-671: The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , also known as Austrian Galicia or colloquially Austrian Poland , was a constituent possession of the Habsburg monarchy in the historical region of Galicia in Eastern Europe . The crownland was established in 1772. The lands were annexed from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as part of the First Partition of Poland . In 1804 it became a crownland of

234-579: A Grand Duchy. In practice, it was administered by the Austrian authorities as if it was part of Galicia. In the same period, a sense of national awakening began to develop among the Ruthenians in the eastern part of Galicia. A circle of activists, primarily Greek Catholic seminarians, affected by the romantic movement in Europe and the example of fellow Slavs elsewhere, especially in eastern Ukraine under

351-511: A legislative assembly, the Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria ( Sejm in Polish). Although at first pro-Habsburg Ukrainian and Polish peasant representation was considerable in this body (about half the assembly), and the pressing social and Ukrainian questions were discussed, administrative pressures limited the effectiveness of both peasant and Ukrainian representatives and the diet became dominated by

468-678: A modified transliteration is based on the ALA-LC , or Library of Congress (in North America), or, less commonly, the British Standard system. Such a simplified system usually omits diacritics and ligatures (tie-bars) from, e.g., i͡e , ï or ĭ , often simplifies -yĭ and -iĭ word endings to "-y", omits romanizing the Ukrainian soft sign ( ь ) and apostrophe ( ' ), and may substitute ya, ye, yu, yo for ia, ie, iu, io at

585-463: A partition of the province into an Eastern, Ruthenian part, and a Western, Polish part. Eventually, Lviv was bombarded by imperial troops and the revolution put down completely. A decade of renewed absolutism followed, but to placate the Poles, Count Agenor Goluchowski , a conservative representative of the eastern Galician aristocracy, the so-called Podolians, was appointed Viceroy. He began to Polonize

702-603: A period of constitutional experiments. In 1860, the Vienna Government, influenced by Agenor Goluchowski , issued its October Diploma, which envisioned a conservative federalization of the empire, but a negative reaction in the German-speaking lands led to changes in government and the issuing of the February Patent which watered down this de-centralization. Nevertheless, by 1861, Galicia was granted

819-690: A return to federal ideas along the lines suggested by Goluchowski and negotiations on autonomy between the Polish aristocracy and Vienna began once again. Meanwhile, the Ruthenians felt more and more abandoned by Vienna and among the Old Ruthenians grouped around the Greek Catholic Cathedral of Saint George, there occurred a turn towards Russia. The more extreme supporters of this orientation came to be known as Russophiles . At

936-621: A seasonal one to Germany (newly unified and economically dynamic) and then later became a Trans-Atlantic one with large-scale emigration to the United States , Brazil , and Canada . Caused by the backward economic condition of Galicia where rural poverty was widespread, the emigration began in the western, Polish populated part of Galicia and quickly shifted east to the Ukrainian inhabited parts. Poles, Ukrainians, Jews, and Germans all participated in this mass movement of countryfolk and villagers. Poles migrated principally to New England and

1053-504: A special Unicode font. In many contexts, it is common to use a modified system of transliteration that strives to be read and pronounced naturally by anglophones . Such transcriptions are also used for the surnames of people of Ukrainian ancestry in English-speaking countries (personal names have often been translated to equivalent or similar English names, e.g., "Alexander" for Oleksandr , "Terry" for Taras ). Typically such

1170-512: A total of 63). The Regierungsbezirke and political districts abolished in 1853 and the Kreise formally reinstated in 1854 (see above). In 1867 the Kingdom was once again split into numerous political districts (German: Bezirkshauptmannschaften ), called powiaty (counties) in Polish, of which there were originally 74. In 1914 they numbered 82. Besides Lviv (Lwów in Polish) being

1287-748: A version without ligatures and diacritical marks is sometimes used. For broader audiences, a "modified Library of Congress system" is employed for personal, organizational, and place names, omitting all ligatures and diacritics, ignoring the soft sign ь (ʹ), with initial Є- ( I͡E- ), Й- ( Ĭ- ), Ю- ( I͡U- ), and Я- ( I͡A- ) represented by Ye- , Y- , Yu- , and Ya- , surnames' terminal -ий ( -yĭ ) and -ій ( -iĭ ) endings simplified to -y , and sometimes with common first names anglicized, for example, Олександр ( Oleksandr ) written as Alexander . Similar principles were systematically described for Russian by J. Thomas Shaw in 1969, and since widely adopted. Their application for Ukrainian and multilingual text were described in

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1404-509: A western, Polish half, and an eastern, Ukrainian half. Starting with the election of September 1895, Galicia became known for its "bloody elections" as the Austrian prime minister Count Kasimir Felix Badeni proceeded to rig the election results while having policemen beat those voters were not voting for the government at the poll stations. Beginning in the 1880s, a mass emigration of the Galician peasantry occurred. The emigration started as

1521-454: Is a Latinized form of Halych , one of several regional principalities of the medieval Kievan Rus' . The name " Lodomeria " is also a Latinized form of the original Slavic name of Vladimir , that was founded in the 10th century by Vladimir the Great . The title "King of Galicia and Lodomeria" was a late medieval royal title created by Andrew II of Hungary during his conquest of the region in

1638-640: Is also mentioned in the DSTU 9112:2021 standard (approved in 2022) as the "B system"; the new standard also includes an "A system" with diacritical marks and some differences from ISO 9:1995: г=ğ, ґ=g, є=je, и=y, і=i, х=x, ь=j, ю=ju, я=ja. ISO 9 is a series of systems from the International Organization for Standardization . The ISO published editions of its "international system" for romanization of Cyrillic as recommendations (ISO/R 9) in 1954 and 1968, and standards (ISO 9) in 1986 and 1995. This

1755-642: Is always represented by the transliteration g ; ґ ( Ukrainian letter Ge ) is represented by g̀ . Representing all of the necessary diacritics on computers requires Unicode, and a few characters are rarely present in computer fonts, for example g-grave: g̀. This is the official system of Ukraine, also employed by the United Nations and many countries' foreign services. It is currently widely used to represent Ukrainian geographic names, which were almost exclusively romanized from Russian before Ukraine's independence in 1991, and for personal names in passports. It

1872-678: Is based on English orthography , and requires only ASCII characters with no diacritics. It can be considered a variant of the "modified Library of Congress system", but does not simplify the -ий and -ій endings. Its first version was codified in Decision No. 9 of the Ukrainian Committee on Issues of Legal Terminology on April 19, 1996, stating that the system is binding for the transliteration of Ukrainian names in English in legislative and official acts. A new official system

1989-555: Is based on the Croatian Latin alphabet . Different variations are appropriate to represent the phonology of historical Old Ukrainian (mid 11th–14th centuries) and Middle Ukrainian (15th–18th centuries). A variation was codified in the 1898 Prussian Instructions for libraries, or Preußische Instruktionen (PI), and widely used in bibliographic cataloguing in Central Europe and Scandinavia. With further modifications it

2106-560: Is intuitive for English-speakers. For Ukrainian, the former BGN/PCGN system was adopted in 1965, but superseded there by the Ukrainian National System in 2019. A modified version is also mentioned in the Oxford Style Manual. Requires only ASCII characters if optional separators are not used. The Soviet Union's GOST , COMECON 's SEV, and Ukraine's Derzhstandart are government standards bodies of

2223-689: Is the representation of the Ukrainian language in Latin letters . Ukrainian is natively written in its own Ukrainian alphabet , which is based on the Cyrillic script . Romanization may be employed to represent Ukrainian text or pronunciation for non-Ukrainian readers, on computer systems that cannot reproduce Cyrillic characters, or for typists who are not familiar with the Ukrainian keyboard layout . Methods of romanization include transliteration (representing written text) and transcription (representing

2340-810: The Jasłoer Kreis . West Galicia was merged with Galicia-proper in 1803. In the 1809 Treaty of Schönbrunn which ended the War of the Fifth Coalition , Austria was forced to cede the Zamośćer Kreis  [ de ; pl ] ( Zamość ), along with all of its third partition gains, to the Duchy of Warsaw ; these became part of the Russian-controlled Congress Poland in 1815, apart from Kraków (part of West Galicia) which became

2457-830: The Jasłoer Kreis was split between the Sandecer, Tarnower, Rzeszower and Sanoker Kreise ; and the Wadowicer and Bochniaer Kreise were merged into the Krakauer Kreis . In 1850 Galicia and Lodomeria was divided into three Regierungsbezirke ('government districts'), named after their capitals: Lemberg (Lviv/Lwów), Krakau (Krawów) and Stanislau (Stanislaviv/Stanisławów; today called Ivano-Frankivsk ). The Kreise were abolished and replaced with political districts ( Bezirkshauptmannschaften ), of which they had 19, 26 and 18 respectively (giving

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2574-548: The Kreise were briefly replaced with Regierungsbezirke and Bezirkshauptmannschaften (see below), but these reforms were reversed in 1853, with the exact administrative structure to be determined. In 1854 the Kreise were formally re-established, sub-divided into Amtsbezirke  [ de ] and grouped into two Verwaltungsgebiete ('administrative regions/territories') – Lemberg (Lviv/Lwów) and Krakau (Krawów). Lemberg and Krakau were themselves statutory cities subordinate directly to

2691-658: The Battle of Sadova and the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War , the Austro-Hungarian empire began to experience increased internal problems. In an effort to shore up support for the monarchy, Emperor Franz Joseph began negotiations for a compromise with the Magyar nobility to ensure their support. Some members of the government, such as the Austro-Hungarian prime minister Count Belcredi , advised

2808-829: The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza between 1814 and 1847. Also, the Second Mexican Empire , from 1863 to 1867, was headed by Maximilian I of Mexico , the brother of Emperor Franz Josef of Austria . The so-called "Habsburg monarchs" or "Habsburg emperors" held many different titles and ruled each kingdom separately through a personal union . The decline of the Habsburg Empire is given in Stefan Zweig's The World of Yesterday . Stefan Zweig, l'autore del più famoso libro sull'Impero asburgico, Die Welt von Gestern Romanization of Ukrainian The romanization of Ukrainian , or Latinization of Ukrainian ,

2925-708: The Encyclopedia of Ukraine ". Requires Unicode for connecting diacritics, but only plain ASCII characters for a simplified version. British Standard 2979:1958 "Transliteration of Cyrillic and Greek Characters" , from BSI , is used by the Oxford University Press. A variation is used by the British Museum and British Library, but since 1975 their new acquisitions have been catalogued using Library of Congress transliteration. In addition to

3042-670: The First Hungarian Republic in late 1918. In historiography , the terms "Austria" or "Austrians" are frequently used as shorthand for the Habsburg monarchy since the 18th century. From 1438 to 1806, the rulers of the House of Habsburg almost continuously reigned as Holy Roman Emperors . However, the realms of the Holy Roman Empire were mostly self-governing and are thus not considered to have been part of

3159-859: The Free City of Cracow . Austria was also forced to cede the Tarnopoler Kreis and most of the Zalestschyker Kreis to Russia, which collectively became the Tarnopolsky Krai  [ de ; pl ; ru ; uk ] ; the rump of Zalestschyker Kreis was merged with part of the Stanislauer Kreis to form the Kolomeaer Kreis . When the Tarnopolsky Krai was returned to Austria in 1815

3276-458: The Grand Duchy of Tuscany between 1765 and 1801, and again from 1814 to 1859. While exiled from Tuscany, this line ruled at Salzburg from 1803 to 1805, and in Grand Duchy of Würzburg from 1805 to 1814. The House of Austria-Este ruled the Duchy of Modena from 1814 to 1859, while Empress Marie Louise , Napoleon 's second wife and the daughter of Austrian Emperor Francis I , ruled over

3393-677: The House of Austria . Between 1438 and 1806, with few exceptions, the Habsburg Archduke of Austria was elected as Holy Roman Emperor . The Habsburgs grew to European prominence as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor . Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy , thus bringing the Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg possessions. Their son, Philip the Handsome , married Joanna

3510-539: The Netherlands through marriage. Both realms passed to his grandson and successor, Charles V , who also inherited the Spanish throne and its colonial possessions , and thus came to rule the Habsburg empire at its greatest territorial extent. The abdication of Charles V in 1556 led to a division within the dynasty between his son Philip II of Spain and his brother Ferdinand I , who had served as his lieutenant and

3627-530: The Ottoman Turks , Archduke Ferdinand (who was his brother-in-law by virtue of an adoption treaty signed by Maximilian and Vladislaus II , Louis's father at the First Congress of Vienna ) was also elected the next king of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526. Bohemia and Hungary became hereditary Habsburg domains only in the 17th century: Following victory in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) over

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3744-677: The Second Polish Republic . Then, as a result of border changes following World War II , the region of Galicia became divided between the Polish People's Republic (Republic of Poland until 1952) and the Ukrainian SSR of the Soviet Union , now Poland and Ukraine . The nucleus of historic Galicia broadly corresponds to the modern Lviv , Ternopil , and Ivano-Frankivsk regions of western Ukraine while

3861-540: The phonemes , or meaningful sounds of a language, and is useful to describe the general pronunciation of a word. Phonetic transcription represents every single sound, or phone , and can be used to compare different dialects of a language. Both methods can use the same sets of symbols, but linguists usually denote phonemic transcriptions by enclosing them in slashes / ... /, while phonetic transcriptions are enclosed in square brackets [ ... ]. The International Phonetic Alphabet precisely represents pronunciation. It requires

3978-537: The "British" system, the standard also includes tables for the "International" system for Cyrillic, corresponding to ISO/R 9:1968 (and ISO's recommendation reciprocally has an alternate system corresponding to BSI's). It also includes tables for romanization of Greek. BGN/PCGN romanization is a series of standards approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names and Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use. Pronunciation

4095-497: The "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council". When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed (after 30 years of occupation and administration ), it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy. Instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance. During the dissolution of Austria-Hungary , the Austrian territories collapsed under the weight of the various ethnic independence movements that came to

4212-469: The "Podolians", they gained a political ascendency in Galicia which lasted to 1914. This shift in power from Vienna to the Polish landowning class was not welcomed by the Ruthenians, who became more sharply divided between Ukrainophiles , who looked to Kyiv and the common people for historic connection, and Russophiles who stressed their connections to Russia. Both Vienna and the Poles saw treason among

4329-605: The 13th century. Since that time, the title "King of Galicia and Lodomeria" was included among many ceremonial titles used by the kings of Hungary , thus creating the basis for later (1772) Habsburg claims. In the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars , the region was annexed by the Kingdom of Poland in the 14th century and remained in Poland until the 18th-century partitions . After World War I , Galicia became part of

4446-509: The 1984 English translation of Kubiiovych's Encyclopedia of Ukraine and in the 1997 translation of Hrushevskyi's History of Ukraine-Rusʹ , and other sources have referred to these, for example, historian Serhii Plokhy in several works. However, the details of usage vary, for example, the authors of the Historical Dictionary of Ukraine render the soft sign ь before о with an i , "thus Khvyliovy, not Khvylovy, as in

4563-487: The American Library Association in 1885, and published in 1904 and 1908, including rules for romanizing Church Slavic, the pre-reform Russian alphabet, and Serbo-Croatian. Revised tables including Ukrainian were published in 1941, and remain in use virtually unchanged according to the latest 2011 release. This system is used to represent bibliographic information by US and Canadian libraries, by

4680-788: The Austrian Empire extracted from Galicia considerable wealth and conscripted large numbers of the peasant population into its armed services. In 1809, during the Napoleonic wars , Austria was forced in the Treaty of Schönbrunn to cede all of its third partition gains, plus Zamość and some other areas, to the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw , and some eastern areas around Ternopil to the Russian Empire . (For details, see § Administrative divisions .) In 1815, after

4797-650: The Bohemian rebels, Ferdinand II promulgated a Renewed Land Ordinance (1627/1628) that established hereditary succession over Bohemia. Following the Battle of Mohács (1687) , in which Leopold I reconquered almost all of Ottoman Hungary from the Turks, the emperor held a diet in Pressburg to establish hereditary succession in the Hungarian kingdom. Charles V divided the House in 1556 by ceding Austria along with

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4914-503: The British Library since 1975, and in North American publications. In addition to bibliographic cataloguing, simplified versions of the Library of Congress system are widely used for romanization in the text of academic and general publications. For notes or bibliographical references, some publications use a version without ligatures, which offers sufficient precision but simplifies the typesetting burden and easing readability. For specialist audiences or those familiar with Slavic languages,

5031-505: The Dual Monarchy, but the Galician Sejm and provincial administration had extensive privileges and prerogatives, especially in education, culture, and local affairs. These changes were supported by many Polish intellectuals. In 1869 a group of young conservative publicists in Kraków, including Józef Szujski , Stanisław Tarnowski , Stanisław Koźmian and Ludwik Wodzicki , published a series of satirical pamphlets entitled Teka Stańczyka ( Stańczyk 's Portfolio ). Only five years after

5148-443: The Emperor to make a more comprehensive constitutional deal with all of the nationalities that would have created a federal structure. Belcredi worried that an accommodation with the Magyar interests would alienate the other nationalities. However, Franz Joseph was unable to ignore the power of the Magyar nobility, and they would not accept anything less than dualism between themselves and the traditional Austrian élites. Finally, after

5265-481: The German or Polish. Others are transcribed from equivalent names in other languages, for example Ukrainian Pavlo ("Paul") may be called by the Russian equivalent Pavel , Ukrainian Kyiv by the Russian equivalent Kiev . The employment of romanization systems can become complex. For example, the English translation of Kubijovyč's Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopædia uses a modified Library of Congress (ALA-LC) system as outlined above for Ukrainian and Russian names—with

5382-450: The Great War, and Ukrainians were novices in governing themselves, only the Poles, not the Ukrainians, would be able to administer eastern Galicia and its precious oil assets. The Ukrainians of the former eastern Galicia and the neighbouring province of Volhynia made up about 12% of the population of the Second Polish Republic , and were its largest minority. As Polish government policies were unfriendly towards minorities, tensions between

5499-483: The Habsburg monarchy. Hence, the Habsburg monarchy (of the Austrian branch) is often called "Austria" by metonymy . Around 1700, the Latin term monarchia austriaca came into use as a term of convenience. Within the empire alone, the vast possessions included the original Hereditary Lands, the Erblande , from before 1526; the Lands of the Bohemian Crown ; the formerly Spanish Austrian Netherlands from 1714 until 1794; and some fiefs in Imperial Italy . Outside

5616-413: The Imperial crown to Ferdinand (as decided at the Imperial election, 1531 ), and the Spanish Empire to his son Philip . The Spanish branch (which also held the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Portugal between 1580 and 1640, and the Mezzogiorno of Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which also ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary and Bohemia) was itself divided between different branches of

5733-439: The Italian Piedmont these Ukrainian and Polish nationalists felt that the liberation of their two countries would begin in Galicia. In spite of almost 750,000 persons emigrating across the Atlantic from 1880 to 1914 Galicia's population increased by 45% between 1869 and 1910. During the First World War , Galicia saw heavy fighting between the forces of Russia and the Central Powers . The Imperial Russian Army overran most of

5850-542: The Kingdom. Below is a list of the Kreise as of 1854 and their Verwaltungsgebiete . Aside from the Verwaltungsgebiete and the addition of Krakau these had essentially remained consistent since shortly after the end of the Napoleonic wars. (A listing which includes the Bezirke for each Kreis can be found at Subdivisions of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria § List of Kreise and Bezirke from 1854 .) In 1860 Verwaltungsgebiet Krakau and Bukovina were dissolved and re-subordinated to Lemberg ;

5967-399: The Land of Halicz), Bełz and Kraków Voivodeships and smaller parts of the Podolian , Lublin and Sandomierz Voivodeships . Soon after the partition the newly acquired Polish territories were organised into six Kreise ( lit.   ' circles ' ). They were subdivided in November 1773 into 59 Kreisdistrikte ('circle districts'); this was reduced to 19 in 1777. In 1782

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6084-416: The Low Countries, to govern his various realms. At the Diet of Worms in 1521, Emperor Charles V came to terms with his younger brother Ferdinand . According to the Habsburg compact of Worms (1521), confirmed a year later in Brussels , Ferdinand was made Archduke , as a regent of Charles V in the Austrian hereditary lands. Following the death of Louis II of Hungary in the Battle of Mohács against

6201-503: The Mad of Spain (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile ). Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , the son of Philip and Joanna, inherited the Habsburg Netherlands in 1506, Habsburg Spain and its territories in 1516, and Habsburg Austria in 1519. At this point, the Habsburg possessions were so vast that Charles V was constantly travelling throughout his dominions and therefore needed deputies and regents, such as Isabella of Portugal in Spain and Margaret of Austria in

6318-405: The Napoleonic wars, the Congress of Vienna returned Ternopil and a few other territories to Austria, but assigned the bulk of the formerly-Austrian territory of the Duchy of Warsaw to Congress Poland (Kingdom of Poland), which was ruled by the Tsar. The city of Kraków and surrounding territory, also formerly also part of New or West Galicia, became the semi-autonomous Free City of Kraków under

6435-424: The Polish aristocracy and gentry who inhabited almost all parts of Galicia, and the Ukrainians in the east, there existed a large Jewish population, also more heavily concentrated in the eastern parts of the province. During the first decades of Austrian rule, Galicia was firmly governed from Vienna , and many significant reforms were carried out by a bureaucracy staffed largely by Germans and Czechs. The aristocracy

6552-404: The Polish aristocracy and gentry, who favoured further autonomy . This same year, disturbances broke out in Russian Poland and to some extent spilled over into Galicia. The diet ceased to sit. By 1863, an open revolt broke out in Russian Poland and from 1864 to 1865 the Austro-Hungarian government declared a state of siege in Galicia, temporarily suspending civil liberties. The year 1865 brought

6669-409: The Polish government and the Ukrainian population grew, eventually giving the rise to the militant underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists . Prior to the First Partition of Poland which established the kingdom, the region had been divided into Voivodeships (historically also 'palatinates'). Specifically, the area that became Galicia and Lodomeria comprised most of the Ruthenian (with

6786-417: The Russians, began to turn their attention to the common folk and their language. In 1837, the so-called Ruthenian Triad led by Markiian Shashkevych , published Rusalka Dnistrovaia (The Nymph of the Dniester), a collection of folksongs and other materials in vernacular Ukrainian (then called rusynska , Ruthenian). Alarmed by such democratism, the Austrian authorities and the Greek Catholic Metropolitan banned

6903-416: The Russophiles and a series of political trials eventually discredited them. Meanwhile, by 1890, an agreement was worked out between the Poles and the "Populist" Ruthenians or Ukrainians which saw the partial Ukrainianization of the school system in eastern Galicia and other concessions to Ukrainian culture. Possibly as a result of this agreement, Ukrainian language students rose sharply in number. Thereafter,

7020-409: The Ruthenians, was renamed the Greek Catholic Church to bring it on a par with the Roman Catholic Church; it was given seminaries, and eventually, a Metropolitan. Although unpopular with the aristocracy, among the common folk, Polish and Ukrainian/Ruthenian alike, these reforms created a reservoir of good will toward the emperor which lasted almost to the end of Austrian rule. At the same time, however,

7137-418: The UN Group of Experts on Geographical Names ( UNGEGN ) held in New York 30 July and 10 August 2012 after a report by the State Agency of Land Resources of Ukraine (now known as Derzhheokadastr: Ukraine State Service of Geodesy, Cartography and Cadastre) experts approved the Ukrainian system of romanization. The BGN/PCGN jointly adopted the system in 2019. Official geographic names are romanized directly from

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7254-412: The Ukrainian national movement spread rapidly among the Ruthenian peasantry and, despite repeated setbacks, by the early years of the twentieth century this movement had almost completely replaced other Ruthenian groups as the main rival for power with the Poles. Throughout this period, the Ukrainians never gave up the traditional Ruthenian demands for national equality and for partition of the province into

7371-429: The area was the most undeveloped in the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Galician peasantry was always living at the verge of starvation. This led the Polish peasants to ironically refer to the province as "Golicja i Głodomeria" i.e "(the place of) Bareness and Starvation". Tsar Alexander II had officially banned serfdom and liberated the serfs in the Russian Empire in the 1870s and enacted legislation to protect

7488-423: The available character set. For telegraph transmission. Each separate Ukrainian letter had a 1:1 equivalence to a Latin letter. Latin Q, W, V, and X are equivalent to Ukrainian Я (or sometimes Щ), В, Ж, Ь. Other letters are transcribed phonetically. This equivalency is used in building the KOI8-U table. Transcription is the representation of the spoken word. Phonological , or phonemic, transcription represents

7605-473: The beginnings of words. It may also simplify doubled letters. Unlike in the English language where an apostrophe is punctuation, in the Ukrainian language it is a letter. Therefore sometimes Rus' is translated with an apostrophe, even when the apostrophe is dropped for most other names and words. Conventional transliterations can reflect the history of a person or place. Many well-known spellings are based on transcriptions into another Latin alphabet, such as

7722-470: The book. In 1848, revolutionary actions broke out in Vienna and other parts of the Austrian Empire . In Lviv, a Polish National Council, and then later, a Ukrainian, or Ruthenian Supreme Council were formed. Even before Vienna had acted, the remnants of serfdom were abolished by the Governor, Franz Stadion, in an attempt to thwart the revolutionaries. Moreover, Polish demands for Galician autonomy were countered by Ruthenian demands for national equality and for

7839-440: The capital of the Kingdom, Kraków was considered as the unofficial capital of the western part of Galicia and the second most important city in the region. West Galicia was part of the Kingdom from 1795 to 1809, until 1803 as a separate administrative unit. As with the rest of Galicia it was divided into Kreise : Bukovina was part of the Kingdom from 1775 to 1849 (after 1849: Duchy of Bukovina ). The Free City of Cracow

7956-454: The course of its history, other lands were, at times, under Austrian Habsburg rule (some of these territories were secundogenitures , i.e. ruled by other lines of Habsburg dynasty): The boundaries of some of these territories varied over the period indicated, and others were ruled by a subordinate (secundogeniture) Habsburg line. The Habsburgs also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor between 1438 and 1740, and again from 1745 to 1806. Within

8073-431: The course of the next several years, a number of significant concessions were made toward the establishment of Galician autonomy. From 1873, Galicia was de facto an autonomous province of Austria-Hungary with Polish and, to a lesser degree, Ukrainian or Ruthenian , as official languages. The Germanisation had been halted and the censorship lifted as well. Galicia was subject to the Ciseleithanian jurisdiction of

8190-570: The early 1860s, the famous Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was arrived at, by which the so-called dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary was set up. In this system, the Kingdom of Hungary ("Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen.") was an equal sovereign with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. Although the non-Hungarian Habsburg lands were referred to as "Austria", received their own central parliament (the Reichsrat , or Imperial Council ) and ministries, as their official name –

8307-417: The early modern Habsburg monarchy, each entity was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same person—junior members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. Serious attempts at centralization began under Maria Theresa and especially her son Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor in

8424-463: The elected king of Hungary , Croatia and Bohemia . The Spanish branch (which held all of Iberia , the Netherlands , and lands in Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which ruled the Holy Roman Empire , Hungary, Bohemia and various other lands) was itself split into different branches in 1564 but reunited 101 years later. It became extinct in the male line in 1740, but continued through

8541-525: The empire, they encompassed all the Kingdom of Hungary as well as conquests made at the expense of the Ottoman Empire . The dynastic capital was Vienna , except from 1583 to 1611, when it was in Prague . The first Habsburg who can be reliably traced was Radbot of Klettgau , who was born in the late 10th century; the family name originated with Habsburg Castle , in present-day Switzerland , which

8658-492: The exceptions for endings or doubled consonants applying variously to personal and geographic names. For technical reasons, maps in the Encyclopedia follow different conventions. Names of persons are anglicized in the encyclopedia's text, but also presented in their original form in the index. Various geographic names are presented in their anglicized, Russian, or both Ukrainian and Polish forms, and appear in several forms in

8775-433: The family from 1564 until 1665, but thereafter it remained a single personal union . It became extinct in the male line in 1740, but through the marriage of Queen Maria Theresa with Francis of Lorraine , the dynasty continued as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine . Names of some smaller territories: The territories ruled by the Austrian monarchy changed over the centuries, but the core always consisted of four blocs: Over

8892-512: The female line as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine . The Habsburg monarchy was a union of crowns, with only partial shared laws and institutions other than the Habsburg court itself; the provinces were divided in three groups: the Archduchy proper, Inner Austria that included Styria and Carniola , and Further Austria with Tyrol and the Swabian lands. The territorial possessions of

9009-513: The following period, several territorial changes occurred. In 1795 the Habsburg monarchy participated in the Third Partition of Poland and annexed additional Polish-held territory, that was renamed as West Galicia . That region was lost in 1809. Some other changes also occurred, by territorial expansion or contraction (1786, 1803, 1809, 1815, 1846, 1849). After 1849, borders of the crownland remained stable until 1918. The name "Galicia"

9126-689: The fore with its defeat in World War I. After its dissolution, the new republics of Austria (the German-Austrian territories of the Hereditary lands) and the First Hungarian Republic were created. In the peace settlement that followed, significant territories were ceded to Romania and Italy and the remainder of the monarchy's territory was shared out among the new states of Poland , the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and Czechoslovakia . A junior line ruled over

9243-425: The former Eurasian communist countries. They published a series of romanization systems for Ukrainian, which were replaced by ISO 9:1995. For details, see GOST 16876-71 . On 1 April 2022, the "Cyrillic-Latin transliteration and Latin-Cyrillic retransliteration of Ukrainian texts. Writing rules" ( SSOU 9112:2021 ) was approved as State Standard of Ukraine . The standard is based on modified ISO 9:1995 standard and

9360-668: The former northwestern part of Moldavia which had been occupied by Russia in 1769 (during the Russo-Turkish War ) and ceded to the Habsburg monarchy in 1774 as a "token of appreciation" – became part of Galicia as the Bukowiner Kreis . (Prior to that it had been administered as a military district.) After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795 the three western-most Kreise – Mislenicer , Sandecer and Bochnier – were transferred to West Galicia (see below). The Dukl(a)er Kreis became

9477-821: The independence of Eastern Galicia as the West Ukrainian People's Republic . During the Polish-Soviet War the Soviets tried to establish the puppet-state of the Galician SSR in East Galicia, the government of which after a couple of months was liquidated. The fate of Galicia was settled by the Peace of Riga on March 18, 1921, giving all of Galicia to the Second Polish Republic . Although never accepted as legitimate by some Ukrainians, it

9594-685: The local administration and managed to have Ruthenian ideas of partitioning the province shelved. He was unsuccessful, however, in forcing the Greek Catholic Church to shift to the use of the western or Gregorian calendar, or among Ruthenians generally, to replace the Cyrillic alphabet with the Latin alphabet. In 1859, following the Austro-Hungarian military defeat in Italy, the Empire entered

9711-410: The manorial estates of western Galicia, reduced to misery by poor harvests, saw little advantage for themselves in a free Poland. Instead, they seized the opportunity to rise against the institution of serfdom by killing many of the estate owners . With the collapse of the uprising for a free Poland, the city of Kraków lost its semi-autonomy and was integrated into the Austrian Empire under the title of

9828-500: The mid to late 18th century, but many of these were abandoned following large scale resistance to Joseph's more radical reform attempts, although a more cautious policy of centralization continued during the revolutionary period and the Metternichian period that followed. Another attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the various revolutions of 1848 . For the first time, ministers tried to transform

9945-633: The midwestern states of the United States, but also to Brazil and elsewhere; Ruthenians/Ukrainians migrated to Brazil, Canada, and the United States, with a very intense emigration from Western Podolia around Ternopil to Western Canada ; and Jews emigrated both directly to the New World and also indirectly via other parts of Austria-Hungary. The vast majority of the Ukrainians and Poles who went to Canada prior to 1914 came from either Galicia or

10062-525: The monarchy into a centralized bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary was placed under martial law , being divided into a series of military districts, the centralized neo-absolutism tried to as well to nullify Hungary's constitution and Diet . Following the Habsburg defeats in the Second Italian War of Independence (1859) and Austro-Prussian War (1866), these policies were step by step abandoned. After experimentation in

10179-611: The monarchy were thus united only by virtue of a common monarch. The Habsburg realms were unified in 1804 with the formation of the Austrian Empire and later split in two with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 . The monarchy began to fracture in the face of inevitable defeat during the final years of World War I and ultimately disbanded with the proclamation of the Republic of German-Austria and

10296-441: The neighboring Bukovina province of the Austrian empire. In 1847, 1849, 1855, 1865, 1876 and 1889, there were famines in Galicia that led to thousands starving to death, which increased the sense that life in Galicia was hopeless and inspired people to leave in search of a better life in the New World. Adding to the exodus were the inheritance laws in Galicia adopted in 1868 which stated that the land should be equally divided amongst

10413-535: The newly proclaimed Austrian Empire . From 1867 it was a crownland within the Cisleithanian or Austrian half of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary . It maintained a degree of provincial autonomy. Its status remained unchanged until the dissolution of the monarchy in 1918. The domain was initially carved in 1772 from the south-western part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . During

10530-399: The normal orthography of another Slavic language, such as Polish or Croatian (such as the established system of scientific transliteration, described above). Czech and Slovak standard transliteration uses letters with diacritics (ž, š, č, ď, ť, ň, ě) and letters i, y, j, h, ch, c in the local meaning. Diphthong letters are transcribed as two letters (ja, je, ji, ju, šč). Czech transliteration

10647-498: The original Ukrainian and not translated. For example, Kyivska oblast not Kyiv Oblast , Pivnichnokrymskyi kanal not North Crimean Canal . Romanization intended for readers of other languages than English is usually transcribed phonetically into the familiar orthography. For example, y , kh , ch , sh , shch for anglophones may be transcribed j , ch , tsch , sch , schtsch for German readers (for letters й, х, ч, ш, щ), or it may be rendered in Latin letters according to

10764-399: The original text, or it may be preferable to have a transliteration which sounds like the original language when read aloud. Scientific transliteration , also called the academic , linguistic , international , or scholarly system, is most often seen in linguistic publications on Slavic languages. It is purely phonemic, meaning each character represents one meaningful unit of sound, and

10881-403: The postal system, in schools, etc. Scientific transliteration, also called the scholarly system, is used internationally, with very little variation, while the various practical methods of transliteration are adapted to the orthographical conventions of other languages, like English, French, German, etc. Depending on the purpose of the transliteration it may be necessary to be able to reconstruct

10998-561: The region in 1914 after defeating the Austro-Hungarian Army in a chaotic frontier battle in the opening months of the war. They were in turn pushed out in the spring and summer of 1915 by a combined German and Austro-Hungarian offensive . In late 1918 Eastern Galicia became a part of the restored Republic of Poland , which absorbed the Lemko-Rusyn Republic . The local Ukrainian population briefly declared

11115-510: The same proportions. The Great Economic Emigration, especially the emigration to Brazil, the "Brazilian Fever" as it was called at the time, was described in contemporary literary works by the Polish poet Maria Konopnicka , the Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko , and many others. Some states in south of Brazil have a large percentage of their population formed by direct descendants of these Ruthenian/Ukrainian immigrants. When it comes to social relations, most especially between peasants and landlords,

11232-586: The same time, influenced by the Ukrainian language poetry of the central Ukrainian writer, Taras Shevchenko , an opposing Ukrainophile movement arose which published literature in the Ukrainian/Ruthenian language and eventually established a network of reading halls. Supporters of this orientation came to be known as Populists , and later, as Ukrainians. Almost all Ruthenians , however, still hoped for national equality and for an administrative division of Galicia along ethnic lines. In 1866, following

11349-433: The serfs. But in Galicia the serfs could be coerced or forced through predatory practices back into serfdom by the affluent Polish merchant class and local nobility, a condition which lasted until the start of World War I. At the time of these emigrations in the 1890s, many Polish and Ukrainian liberals saw Galicia as a Polish Piedmont or a Ukrainian Piedmont. Because Italians had started their liberation from Austrian rule in

11466-544: The so-called Ausgleich of February 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into a dualist Austria-Hungary . Although the Polish and Czech plans for their parts of the monarchy to be included in the federal structure failed, a slow yet steady process of liberalisation of Austrian rule in Galicia started. Representatives of the Polish aristocracy and intelligentsia addressed the Emperor asking for greater autonomy for Galicia. Their demands were not accepted outright, but over

11583-497: The sons of a peasant, which—owing to the tendency of Galician peasants to have large families—led to the land being divided into so many small holdings as to make farming uneconomical. A total of several hundred thousand people were involved in this Great Economic Emigration which grew steadily more intense until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. The war put a temporary halt to emigration which never again reached

11700-518: The spoken word). In contrast to romanization, there have been several historical proposals for a native Ukrainian Latin alphabet , usually based on those used by West Slavic languages , but none have been widely accepted. Transliteration is the letter-for-letter representation of text using another writing system . Rudnyckyj classified transliteration systems into scientific transliteration, used in academic and especially linguistic works, and practical systems, used in administration, journalism, in

11817-600: The supervision of the three powers that severally ruled Poland (i.e. Austria, Russia, and Prussia). The 1820s and 1830s were periods of bureaucratic rule that was overseen by Vienna. Most administrative positions were filled by German speakers, including German-speaking Czechs. After the failure of the November insurrection in Russian Poland in 1830–31 , in which a few thousand Galician volunteers participated, many Polish refugees arrived in Galicia. The late 1830s period

11934-580: The tragic end of the January Uprising , the pamphlets ridiculed the idea of armed national uprisings and suggested compromise with Poland's enemies, especially the Austrian Empire , concentration on economic growth, and acceptance of the political concessions offered by Vienna. This political grouping came to be known as the Stanczyks or Kraków Conservatives. Together with the eastern Galician conservative Polish landowners and aristocracy called

12051-730: The two parts were re-separated; the former Zalestschyker Kreis became the Czortkower Kreis . By 1815 the Kreise had mostly taken on stable forms. In 1819 the Myslenicer Kreis became the Wadowicer Kreis . In 1846 Austria annexed the Free City of Cracow and it became the Grand Duchy of Kraków . Administratively this was treated as the Galician Krakauer Kreis . In 1850

12168-448: The two-level system was abolished and the Kingdom was divided into 18 standard Kreise ( sg. Kreis ; Polish: cyrkuły , sg. cyrkuł ; Ukrainian: округи okruhy , sg. [округа] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |links= ( help ) okruha ), much like the other ( non-Hungarian ) Habsburg realms. This system remained in place (except 1850–53) until they were finally abolished in 1867. In 1786 Bukovina –

12285-1300: The western part makes up the bulk of the Polish Lesser Poland and Subcarpathian Voivodeships and a large part of the Silesian Voivodeship . The name of the Kingdom in its ceremonial form, in English: Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Grand Duchy of Kraków and the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator , existed in all languages spoken there including German : Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator ; Polish : Królestwo Galicji i Lodomerii wraz z Wielkim Księstwem Krakowskim i Księstwem Oświęcimia i Zatoru ; Ukrainian : Королівство Галичини та Володимирії з великим князіством Краківським і князівствами Освенцима і Затору , romanized :  Korolivstvo Halychyny ta Volodymyrii z velykym kniazivstvom Krakivskym i kniazivstvamy Osventsyma i Zatoru , and Hungarian : Galícia és Lodoméria királysága Krakkó nagyhercegségével és Auschwitz és Zator hercegséggel . Galicia

12402-458: The westernmost ethnically Polish parts of the first partition territory, became West Galicia (or New Galicia), which changed the geographical reference of the term Galicia . Lviv (Lemberg in German) served as the capital of Austrian Galicia, which was dominated by the Polish aristocracy, despite the fact that the population of the eastern half of the province was mostly Ukrainians . In addition to

12519-485: Was a co - protectorate with Prussia and Russia from 1815 to 1846. It was annexed by Austria in 1846 as the Grand Duchy of Kraków and became de facto part of the Kingdom. Habsburg monarchy The history of the Habsburg monarchy can be traced back to the election of Rudolf I as King of Germany in 1273 and his acquisition of the Duchy of Austria for the Habsburgs in 1282. In 1482, Maximilian I acquired

12636-459: Was built by Radbot. After 1279, the Habsburgs came to rule in the Duchy of Austria , which was part of the elective Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire . King Rudolf I of Germany of the Habsburg family assigned the Duchy of Austria to his sons at the Diet of Augsburg (1282), thus establishing the " Austrian hereditary lands ". From that moment, the Habsburg dynasty was also known as

12753-737: Was developed by the Technical Committee 144 "Information and Documentation" of the State Scientific and Technical Library of Ukraine . According to the SSTL , it could be used in future cooperation between the European Union and Ukraine , in which "Ukrainian will soon, along with other European languages, take its rightful place in multilingual natural language processing scenarios, including machine translation." The Derzhstandart 1995 system (invented by Maksym Vakulenko)

12870-437: Was guaranteed its rights, but these rights were considerably circumscribed. The former serfs were no longer mere chattels, but became subjects of law and were granted certain personal freedoms, such as the right to marry without the lord's permission. Their labour obligations were defined and limited, and they could bypass the lords and appeal to the imperial courts for justice. The eastern-rite Uniate Church, which primarily served

12987-531: Was internationally recognized with significant French support on May 15, 1923. The French support for Polish rule of ethnically Ukrainian eastern Galicia and its oil resources in the Borysław-Drohobycz basin were rewarded by Warsaw allowing significant French investment to pour into the Galician oil industry. The Poles had convinced the French that since less than 25% of the ethnic Ukrainians were literate before

13104-599: Was introduced for transliteration of Ukrainian personal names in Ukrainian passports in 2007. An updated 2010 version became the system used for transliterating all proper names and was approved as Resolution 55 of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine , January 27, 2010. This modified earlier laws and brought together a unified system for official documents, publication of cartographic works, signs and indicators of inhabited localities, streets, stops, subway stations, etc. It has been adopted internationally. The 27th session of

13221-648: Was originally derived from scientific transliteration in 1954, and is meant to be usable by readers of most European languages. The 1968 edition also included an alternative system identical to the British Standard. The 1995 edition supports most national Cyrillic alphabets in a single transliteration table. It is a pure transliteration system, with each Cyrillic character represented by exactly one unique Latin character, making it reliably reversible, but sacrificing readability and adaptation to individual languages. It considers only graphemes and disregards phonemic differences. So, for example, г ( Ukrainian He or Russian Ge )

13338-714: Was published by the International Organization for Standardization as recommendation ISO/R 9 in 1954, revised in 1968, and again as an international standard in 1986 and 1995. Representing all of the necessary diacritics on computers requires Unicode , Latin-2 , Latin-4 , or Latin-7 encoding. Other Slavic based romanizations occasionally seen are those based on the Slovak alphabet or the Polish alphabet , which include symbols for palatalized consonants. The ALA-LC Romanization Tables were first discussed by

13455-574: Was rife with Polish conspiratorial organizations whose work culminated in the unsuccessful Galician insurrection of 1846 . This uprising was easily put down by the Austrians with the help of a Galician peasantry that remained loyal to the emperor. The uprising occurred in the Polish-populated part of Galicia. Polish manorial gentry supported or were sympathetic to plans for an uprising to establish an independent Polish state , but peasants on

13572-465: Was the largest part of the area annexed by the Habsburg monarchy in the First Partition of Poland in 1772. As such, the newly annexed territory was named the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria to underline the Hungarian claims to the country. In the Third Partition of Poland , a large portion of the ethnically Polish lands to the northwest was also annexed by the Habsburgs; this, along with some of

13689-964: Was used, for example, on hiking signs in Transcarpathia, which was established according to the methodology of the Czech Tourists Club – the Ukrainian markers replaced that later with the English transcription. However, the fact that Ukraine itself has started to use English transliteration on its documents and boards, also influences the practice in Czech and Slovak, which is also penetrated by English transliteration of Ukrainian. Users of public-access computers or mobile text messaging services sometimes improvise informal romanization due to limitations in keyboard or character set. These may include both sound-alike and look-alike letter substitutions. Example: YKPAIHCbKA ABTOPKA for "УКРАЇНСЬКА АВТОРКА". See also Volapuk encoding. This system uses

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