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128-553: Ruthenian and Ruthene are exonyms of Latin origin, formerly used in Eastern and Central Europe as common ethnonyms for Ukrainians and partially Belarusians , particularly during the late medieval and early modern periods. The Latin term Rutheni was used in medieval sources to describe Eastern Slavs of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , as an exonym for people of the former Kievan Rus' , thus including ancestors of

256-700: A pejorative way. For example, Romani people often prefer that term to exonyms such as Gypsy (from the name of Egypt ), and the French term bohémien , bohème (from the name of Bohemia ). People may also avoid exonyms for reasons of historical sensitivity, as in the case of German names for Polish and Czech places that, at one time, had been ethnically or politically German (e.g. Danzig/ Gdańsk , Auschwitz/ Oświęcim and Karlsbad/ Karlovy Vary ); and Russian names for non-Russian locations that were subsequently renamed or had their spelling changed (e.g. Kiev/ Kyiv ). In recent years, geographers have sought to reduce

384-466: A "Concílio dos Deuses Marinhos" (Council of the Sea Gods) whose decision is to support Bacchus and unleash powerful winds to sink the armada. Then, while the sailors are listening to Fernão Veloso telling the legendary and chivalrous episode of Os Doze de Inglaterra (The Twelve Men of England), a storm strikes. Vasco da Gama, seeing the near destruction of his caravels , prays to his own God, but it

512-681: A Ilha angélica pintada, Outra cousa não é que as deleitosas Honras que a vida fazem sublimada That the Nymphs of the Ocean, so beautiful, Tethys and the angelic painted Island, Are none other than the delightful Honours that render life sublime The Canto is ended with the poet communicating to the reader: Impossibilidades não façais, Que quem quis sempre pôde: e numerados Sereis entre os heróis esclarecidos E nesta Ilha de Vénus recebidos. Impossiblities you cannot do, Who always wanted always could: and numbered You will be amongst

640-532: A Patriarchal Synod. The Holy Synod confirmed that Alexis was the Metropolitan of Kiev while Roman was also confirmed in his see at Novogorodek. In 1361, the two sees were formally divided. Shortly afterwards, in the winter of 1361/62, Roman died. From 1362 to 1371, the vacant see of Lithuania–Halych was administered by Alexius. By that point, the Lithuanian metropolis was effectively dissolved. Following

768-482: A Razão e a Ordem concertavam ", but it ends in insubordination, to which Mars brutally puts an end. Jupiter, after the end of his speech, entirely neglects the guidance of the other Gods, so two parties are formed: the party of Venus , favourable to the Portuguese, and the party of Bacchus, defending the interests of this god who wanted to stop the Portuguese from reaching their goal. The council ends by accepting

896-460: A bigger thing than a storm?" (" Ó potestade – disse – sublimada, / que ameaço divino ou que segredo / este clima e este mar nos apresenta, / que mor cousa parece que tormenta? ") The "strange Colossus" (" estranhíssimo Colosso "): "Rude son of the Earth" (" Filho aspérrimo da Terra ") is described as having: "huge stature", "squalid beard", "earthy colour", "full of earth and crinkly of hairs / blacken

1024-677: A different writing system. For instance, Deutschland is the endonym for the country that is also known by the exonyms Germany and Germania in English and Italian , respectively, Alemania and Allemagne in Spanish and French , respectively, Niemcy in Polish , Saksa and Saksamaa in Finnish and Estonian . The terms autonym , endonym , exonym and xenonym are formed by adding specific prefixes to

1152-734: A distinct language (1995). Since the 19th century, several speculative theories emerged regarding the origin and nature of medieval and early modern uses of Ruthenian terms as designations for East Slavs. Some of those theories were focused on a very specific source, a memorial plate from 1521, that was placed in the catacombe Chapel of St Maximus in Petersfriedhof , the burial site of St Peter's Abbey in Salzburg (modern Austria ). The plate contains Latin inscription that mentions Italian ruler Odoacer (476–493) as king of "Rhutenes" or "Rhutenians" ( Latin : Rex Rhvtenorvm ), and narrates

1280-453: A monster in the episode of the giant Adamastor , and the disease and death caused by scurvy . Canto V ends with the poet's censure of his contemporaries who despise poetry. After Vasco da Gama's narrative, the armada sails from Melinde guided by a pilot to teach them the way to Calicut . Bacchus, seeing that the Portuguese are about to arrive in India, asks for help of Neptune , who convenes

1408-559: A neutral name may be preferred so as to not offend anyone. Thus, an exonym such as Brussels in English could be used instead of favoring either one of the local names ( Dutch / Flemish : Brussel ; French : Bruxelles ). Other difficulties with endonyms have to do with pronunciation, spelling, and word category . The endonym may include sounds and spellings that are highly unfamiliar to speakers of other languages, making appropriate usage difficult if not impossible for an outsider. Over

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1536-711: A slide show, in which someone shows each of the things described there; examples include the geographic start of Gama's speech to the king of Melinde , certain sculptures of the palaces of Neptune and the Samorim, the speech of Paulo da Gama to the Catual, and the Machine of the World ( Máquina do Mundo ). Examples of dynamic descriptions include the "battle" of the Island of Mozambique , the battles of Ourique and Aljubarrota , and

1664-594: A story about the martyrdom of St Maximus during an invasion of several peoples into Noricum in 477. Due to the very late date (1521) and several anachronistic elements, the content of that plate is considered as legendary. In spite of that, some authors (mainly non-scholars) employed that plate as a "source" for several theories that were trying to connect Odoacer with ancient Celtic Ruthenes from Gaul, thus also providing an apparent bridge towards later medieval authors who labeled East Slavs as Ruthenes or Ruthenians . On those bases, an entire strain of speculative theories

1792-399: Is Venus who helps the Portuguese by sending the Nymphs to seduce the winds and calm them down. After the storm, the armada sights Calicut, and Vasco da Gama gives thanks to God. The canto ends with the poet speculating about the value of the fame and glory reached through great deeds. After condemning some of the other nations of Europe (who in his opinion fail to live up to Christian ideals),

1920-404: Is a Portuguese epic poem written by Luís Vaz de Camões ( c.  1524/5 – 1580) and first published in 1572. It is widely regarded as the most important work of Portuguese-language literature and is frequently compared to Virgil 's Aeneid (1st c. BC). The work celebrates the discovery of a sea route to India by the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama (1469–1524). The ten cantos of

2048-460: Is a crystalline seat of stars and the rest of the Olympian furniture is equally ornate: "In shiny seats, enamelled / of gold and pearls, under there were / the other gods (...)" (" Em luzentes assentos, marchetados / de ouro e perlas, mais abaixo estavam / os outros Deuses (...) "). During the council, the behaviour of the gods is described as disgraceful. It starts as "Reason and Order demanded" "

2176-403: Is divided into three segments. The first, a theophany , goes from strophe 37 to 40; the second, which in chronological-narrative terms is a prolepsis , occupies strophes 41 to 48; finally, the third part, a marine eclogue with some points of contact with Écloga III of Camões, ends in strophe 59. The vigorous theophany that the first part describes is in the following verses: "Chill the flesh and

2304-468: Is most commonly used. The changes to Hanyu Pinyin were not only financially costly but were unpopular with the locals, who opined that the Hanyu Pinyin versions were too difficult for non-Chinese or non-Mandarin speakers to pronounce. The government eventually stopped the changes by the 1990s, which has led to some place names within a locality having differing spellings. For example, Nee Soon Road and

2432-718: Is not its Dutch exonym. Old place names that have become outdated after renaming may afterward still be used as historicisms . For example, even today one would talk about the Siege of Leningrad , not the Siege of St. Petersburg because at that time (1941–1944) the city was called Leningrad. Likewise, one would say that Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg in 1724, not in Kaliningrad ( Калининград ), as it has been called since 1946. Likewise, Istanbul (Turkish: İstanbul )

2560-563: Is now spelled Xinyi . However, districts like Tamsui and even Taipei itself are not spelled according to Hanyu Pinyin spelling rules. As a matter of fact, most names of Taiwanese cities are still spelled using Chinese postal romanization , including Taipei , Taichung , Taitung , Keelung , and Kaohsiung . During the 1980s, the Singapore Government encouraged the use of Hanyu Pinyin spelling for place names, especially those with Teochew, Hokkien or Cantonese names, as part of

2688-409: Is one of the most famous of Os Lusíadas (canto iii, stanzas 118–135). It is normally classified as a lyric, thus distinguishing it from the more common war episodes. The episode discusses destiny , and leads the action to its tragic end, even something close to the coir ( apostrophes ). The nobility of the characters is also emphasised, in a way that is intended to create feelings of sympathy when

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2816-549: Is still called Constantinople ( Κωνσταντινούπολη ) in Greek, although the name was changed in Turkish to dissociate the city from its Greek past between 1923 and 1930 (the name Istanbul itself derives from a Medieval Greek phrase ). Prior to Constantinople , the city was known in Greek as Byzantion ( Greek : Βυζάντιον , Latin : Byzantium ), named after its mythical founder, Byzas . Following independence from

2944-572: Is the human tendency towards neighbours to "be pejorative rather than complimentary, especially where there is a real or fancied difference in cultural level between the ingroup and the outgroup ." For example, Matisoff notes, Khang "an opprobrious term indicating mixed race or parentage" is the Palaung name for Jingpo people and the Jingpo name for Chin people ; both the Jingpo and Burmese use

3072-680: Is thinking about this exciting tone of oratory. There are in the poem some speeches that are brief but notable, including Jupiter's and the Old Man of the Restelo's. There are also descriptive passages, like the description of the palaces of Neptune and the Samorim of Calicute , the locus amoenus of the Island of Love (Canto IX), the dinner in the palace of Thetis (Canto X), and Gama's cloth (end of Canto II). Sometimes these descriptions are like

3200-473: Is told at this point. Finally, Tethys relates the voyage of Magellan . The epic concludes with more advice to young King Sebastião. This episode, which comes right after the first strophe of the narration (no. 19 of Canto I) and depicts the entry of the caravan of carracks in the poem, sailing into the unknown upon the sheet of white foam of the Indian Ocean, has huge significance in the organization of

3328-653: Is well represented in Slovakia. The single category of people who listed their ethnicity as Rusyn was created in the 1920s; however, no generally accepted standardised Rusyn language existed. After World War II, following the practice in the Soviet Union, Ruthenian ethnicity was disallowed. This Soviet policy maintained that the Ruthenians and their language were part of the Ukrainian ethnic group and language. At

3456-656: The Beijing dialect , became the official romanization method for Mandarin in the 1970s. As the Mandarin pronunciation does not perfectly map to an English phoneme , English speakers using either romanization will not pronounce the names correctly if standard English pronunciation is used. Nonetheless, many older English speakers still refer to the cities by their older English names, and even today they are often used in their traditional associations, such as Peking duck , Peking opera , and Peking University . As for Nanjing,

3584-545: The Cape of Good Hope . At the urging of Bacchus, who is disguised as a Moor, the local Muslims plot to attack the explorer and his crew. Two scouts sent by Vasco da Gama are fooled by a fake altar created by Bacchus into thinking that there are Christians among the Muslims. Thus, the explorers are lured into an ambush but successfully survive with the aid of Venus. Venus pleads with her father Jove , who predicts great fortunes for

3712-599: The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople to the Holy See . It had a single metropolitan territory — the Metropolis of Kiev, Galicia and all Ruthenia . The formation of the church led to a high degree of confrontation among Ruthenians, such as the murder of the hierarch Josaphat Kuntsevych in 1623. Opponents of the union called church members " Uniates ", although Catholic documents no longer use

3840-455: The Fados is the same one that the orator presented). There is then a confirmation of suggestions already put forth in the narration of the 4th strophe. This episode then ends with two strophes of peroration , where Jupiter appeals to the benevolence of the gods concerning the sons of Lusus, with Jupiter's speech eventually settling the debate. The episode, usually known as "of Inês de Castro ",

3968-562: The Gdańsk lute tablature of 1640. Exonym An exonym (also known as xenonym ) is an established, non-native name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used primarily outside the particular place inhabited by the group or linguistic community. Exonyms exist not only for historico-geographical reasons but also in consideration of difficulties when pronouncing foreign words, or from non-systematic attempts at transcribing into

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4096-606: The Greek root word ónoma ( ὄνομα , 'name'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃nómn̥ . The prefixes added to these terms are also derived from Greek: The terms autonym and xenonym also have different applications, thus leaving endonym and exonym as the preferred forms. Marcel Aurousseau , an Australian geographer , first used the term exonym in his work The Rendering of Geographical Names (1957). Endonyms and exonyms can be divided in three main categories: As it pertains to geographical features ,

4224-586: The Polish census of 1931 counted Belarusian, Ukrainian, and Rusyn as separate language categories, and the census results were substantially different from before. According to Rusyn -American historian Paul Robert Magocsi , Polish government policy in the 1930s pursued a strategy of tribalization, regarding various ethnographic groups—i.e., Lemkos , Boykos , and Hutsuls , as well as Old Ruthenians and Russophiles —as different from other Ukrainians and offered instructions in Lemko vernacular in state schools set up in

4352-526: The Roman Empire applied the word " Walha " to foreigners they encountered and this evolved in West Germanic languages as a generic name for speakers of Celtic and later (as Celts became increasingly romanised) Romance languages; thence: During the late 20th century, the use of exonyms often became controversial. Groups often prefer that outsiders avoid exonyms where they have come to be used in

4480-557: The Singapore Armed Forces base Nee Soon Camp are both located in Yishun but retained the old spelling. Matisoff wrote, "A group's autonym is often egocentric, equating the name of the people with 'mankind in general,' or the name of the language with 'human speech'." In Basque , the term erdara/erdera is used for speakers of any language other than Basque (usually Spanish or French). Many millennia earlier,

4608-514: The Slavs are describing Germanic people as "mutes"—in contrast to themselves, "the speaking ones". The most common names of several Indigenous American tribes derive from pejorative exonyms. The name " Apache " most likely derives from a Zuni word meaning "enemy". The name " Sioux ", an abbreviated form of Nadouessioux , most likely derived from a Proto-Algonquian term, * -a·towe· ('foreign-speaking). The name " Comanche " comes from

4736-852: The Soviet Union by the end of World War II in June 1945. Ruthenians who identified under the Rusyn ethnonym and considered themselves to be a national and linguistic group separate from Ukrainians and Belarusians were relegated to the Carpathian diaspora and formally functioned among the large immigrant communities in the United States. A cross-European revival took place only with the collapse of communist rule in 1989. This has resulted in political conflict and accusations of intrigue against Rusyn activists, including criminal charges. The Rusyn minority

4864-547: The Speak Mandarin Campaign to promote Mandarin and discourage the use of dialects. For example, the area of Nee Soon, named after Teochew -Peranakan businessman Lim Nee Soon (Hanyu Pinyin: Lín Yìshùn) became Yishun and the neighbourhood schools and places established following the change used the Hanyu Pinyin spelling. In contrast, Hougang is the Hanyu Pinyin spelling but the Hokkien pronunciation au-kang

4992-511: The Uniate or Greek Catholic Churches . In Galicia, the Polish government actively replaced all references to "Ukrainians" with the old word rusini ("Ruthenians"). The Polish census of 1921 considered Ukrainians no other than Ruthenians, meanwhile Belarusians have already become a separate nation, which in Polish is literally translated as "White Ruthenians" ( Polish : Białorusini ). However

5120-541: The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names defines: For example, India , China , Egypt , and Germany are the English-language exonyms corresponding to the endonyms Bhārat ( भारत ), Zhōngguó ( 中国 ), Masr ( مَصر ), and Deutschland , respectively. There are also typonyms of specific features, for example hydronyms for bodies of water. In

5248-511: The Ute word kɨmantsi meaning "enemy, stranger". The Ancestral Puebloans are also known as the "Anasazi", a Navajo word meaning "ancient enemies", and contemporary Puebloans discourage the use of the exonym. Various Native-American autonyms are sometimes explained to English readers as having literal translations of "original people" or "normal people", with implicit contrast to other first nations as not original or not normal. Although

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5376-581: The arrival in India , was placed at the point in the poem that divides the work according to the golden section at the beginning of Canto VII. The heroes of the epic are the Lusiads ( Lusíadas ), the sons of Lusus —in other words, the Portuguese. The initial strophes of Jupiter 's speech in the Concílio dos Deuses Olímpicos (Council of the Olympian Gods), which open the narrative part, highlight

5504-877: The partition of Poland , the term Ruthenian referred exclusively to people of the Rusyn- and Ukrainian-speaking areas of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, especially in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , Bukovina , and Transcarpathia . At the request of Mykhailo Levytsky , in 1843, the term Ruthenian became the official name for the Rusyns and Ukrainians within the Austrian Empire . For example, Ivan Franko and Stepan Bandera in their passports were identified as Ruthenians ( Polish : Rusini ). By 1900, more and more Ruthenians began to call themselves with

5632-561: The "language". The term survives to this day in the Slavic languages (e.g. Ukrainian німці (nimtsi); Russian немцы (nemtsy), Slovene Nemčija), and was borrowed into Hungarian , Romanian , and Ottoman Turkish (in which case it referred specifically to Austria ). One of the more prominent theories regarding the origin of the term " Slav " suggests that it comes from the Slavic root slovo (hence " Slovakia " and " Slovenia " for example), meaning 'word' or 'speech'. In this context,

5760-653: The 12th century, the land of Rus' was usually known in Western Europe by the Latinised name Ruthenia . The Ruthenian language ( Ruthenian : рускаꙗ мова, рускїй ѧзыкъ) was an exonymic linguonym for a closely related group of East Slavic linguistic varieties , particularly those spoken from the 15th to 18th centuries in the East Slavic regions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . By

5888-499: The 16th century, was known in European Latin sources as Rhuteni Imperator , do to a self proclaimed title "Tsar of Rus' (Russia)" . Jacques Margeret in his book "Estat de l'empire de Russie, et grande duché de Moscovie" of 1607 said that the name "Muscovites" for the population of Tsardom (Empire) of Russia is an error. During conversations, they called themselves rusaki (which is a colloquial term for Russians ) and only

6016-817: The Chinese word yeren ( 野人 ; 'wild men', 'savage', 'rustic people' ) as the name for Lisu people . As exonyms develop for places of significance for speakers of the language of the exonym, consequently, many European capitals have English exonyms, for example: In contrast, historically less-prominent capitals such as Ljubljana and Zagreb do not have English exonyms, but do have exonyms in languages spoken nearby, e.g. German : Laibach and Agram (the latter being obsolete); Italian : Lubiana and Zagabria . Madrid , Berlin , Oslo , and Amsterdam , with identical names in most major European languages , are exceptions. Some European cities might be considered partial exceptions, in that whilst

6144-518: The East Slavic population of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , an area encompassing territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine from the 15th up to the 18th centuries. In the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy , the same term ( German : Ruthenen ) was employed up to 1918 as an official exonym for the entire Ukrainian population within the borders of the Monarchy. Ruteni , a misnomer that

6272-685: The Gods walk on the "beautiful crystalline sky" (" cristalino céu fermoso "), to the Milky Way . In strophes 22 and 23 they are also said to be shining. Jupiter is described as the "Father" (" Padre " – archaic Portuguese for 'father') who "vibrates the fierce rays of Vulcan " (" vibra os feros raios de Vulcano ") and presides from a "crystalline seat of stars" (" assento de estrelas cristalino "), carrying "a gleaming crown and sceptre / of another rock clearer than diamond" (" hua coroa e ceptro rutilante / de outra pedra mais clara que diamante "). Jupiter's chair

6400-678: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A parallel succession to the title ensued between Moscow and Vilnius. The Metropolitans of Kiev are the predecessors of the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus' that was formed in the 16th century. The Ruthenian Uniate Church was created in 1595–1596 by those clergy of the Eastern Orthodox churches who subscribed to the Union of Brest . In the process, they switched their allegiances and jurisdiction from

6528-651: The Greeks thought that all non-Greeks were uncultured and so called them " barbarians ", which eventually gave rise to the exonym " Berber ". Exonyms often describe others as "foreign-speaking", "non-speaking", or "nonsense-speaking". One example is the Slavic term for the Germans, nemtsi , possibly deriving from plural of nemy ("mute"); standard etymology has it that the Slavic peoples referred to their Germanic neighbors as "mutes" because they could not speak

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6656-509: The Orthodox church was still dominant. In the 14th century, Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos sanctioned the creation of two additional metropolitan sees: the Metropolis of Halych (1303) and the Metropolis of Lithuania (1317). Metropolitan Roman (1355–1362) of Lithuania and Metropolitan Alexius of Kiev both claimed the see. Both metropolitans travelled to Constantinople to make their appeals in person. In 1356, their cases were heard by

6784-657: The Ottoman Empire. Domination of tsarist-ruled Ukraine by the Russian Empire (from 1721) eventually led to the decline of Uniate Catholicism (officially founded in 1596) in the Ukrainian lands under Tsarist control. Musical scores titled " Baletto Ruteno " or " Horea Rutenia ", meaning Ruthenian Ballet can be found in European collections during the Lithuanian and Polish rule of Ruthenia, such as

6912-409: The Poles accepted it in its Latin form , Lithuanians largely remained pagan to the late Middle Ages before their nobility embraced the Latin form upon the political union with the Poles. The eastward expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had been facilitated by amicable treaties and inter-marriages of the nobility when faced with the external threat of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus' . By

7040-492: The Portuguese Colónia closely reflects the Latin original. In some cases, no standardised spelling is available, either because the language itself is unwritten (even unanalysed) or because there are competing non-standard spellings. Use of a misspelled endonym is perhaps more problematic than the respectful use of an existing exonym. Finally, an endonym may be a plural noun and may not naturally extend itself to adjectival usage in another language like English, which has

7168-448: The Portuguese in the east. The fleet lands at Melinde where it is welcomed by a friendly Sultan. After an appeal by the poet to Calliope , the Greek muse of epic poetry, Vasco da Gama begins to narrate the history of Portugal . He starts by referring to the situation of Portugal in Europe and the legendary story of Lusus and Viriathus . This is followed by passages on the meaning of Portuguese nationality and then by an enumeration of

7296-419: The Province of Guangdong ( 广东 ; Guǎngdōng ). However, older English exonyms are sometimes used in certain contexts, for example: Peking (Beijing; duck , opera , etc.), Tsingtao (Qingdao), and Canton (Guangdong). In some cases the traditional English exonym is based on a local Chinese variety instead of Mandarin , in the case of Xiamen , where the name Amoy is closer to the Hokkien pronunciation. In

7424-402: The Russians used the village name of Chechen , medieval Europeans took the tribal name Tatar as emblematic for the whole Mongolic confederation (and then confused it with Tartarus , a word for Hell , to produce Tartar ), and the Magyar invaders were equated with the 500-years-earlier Hunnish invaders in the same territory, and were called Hungarians . The Germanic invaders of

7552-438: The Ruthenian autonomies. The disadvantageous political status of the Ruthenian people also affected the status of their church and undermined her capacity for reform and renewal. Furthermore, they could not expect support from the Mother Church in Constantinople or from their co-religionists in Moscow. Thus, the Ruthenian church was in a weaker position than the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth. Until 1666, when Patriarch Nikon

7680-451: The Tágides and nymphs of Mondego (Cantos I and VII) and to Calliope (beginning of Cantos III and X), in typological terms, are also orations. Each one of these types of speech shows stylistic peculiarities. The epic begins with a dedication section, with the poet paying homage to Virgil and Homer . The first line mimics the opening line of the Aeneid , and pays a hopeful tribute to the young King Sebastião. The story then (in imitation of

7808-406: The UK in 1947, many regions and cities have been renamed in accordance with local languages, or to change the English spelling to more closely match the indigenous local name. The name Madras , now Chennai , may be a special case . When the city was first settled by English people , in the early 17th century, both names were in use. They possibly referred to different villages which were fused into

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7936-417: The Ukrainian-speaking literary class in the Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria . Following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, new states emerged and dissolved; borders changed frequently. After several years, the Rusyn and Ukrainian speaking areas of eastern Austria-Hungary found themselves divided between the Czechoslovakia , Poland , and Romania . When commenting on

8064-406: The beach among the crowd. This is the episode of the Old Man of the Restelo . The story moves on to the King of Melinde, describing the journey of the Armada from Lisbon to Melinde. During the voyage, the sailors see the Southern Cross , St. Elmo's Fire (maritime whirlwind), and face a variety of dangers and obstacles such as the hostility of natives in the episode of Fernão Veloso, the fury of

8192-430: The case of Beijing , the adoption of the exonym by media outlets quickly gave rise to a hyperforeignised pronunciation, with the result that many English speakers actualize the j in Beijing as / ʒ / . One exception of Pinyin standardization in mainland China is the spelling of the province Shaanxi , which is the mixed Gwoyeu Romatzyh –Pinyin spelling of the province. That is because if Pinyin were used to spell

8320-409: The case of endonyms and exonyms of language names (glossonyms), Chinese , German , and Dutch , for example, are English-language exonyms for the languages that are endonymously known as Zhōngwén ( 中文 ), Deutsch , and Nederlands , respectively. By their relation to endonyms, all exonyms can be divided into three main categories: Sometimes, a place name may be unable to use many of

8448-690: The citizens of the capital called themself "Muscovites". Margeret considered that this error is worse than calling all the French "Parisians". Professor David Frick from the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute has also found in Vilnius the documents from 1655, which demonstrate that Moscovitae were sometimes referred in Lithuania as Rutheni (as former part of Kievan Rus'). The 16th century Portuguese poet Luís Vaz de Camões in his Os Lusíadas " (Canto III, 11) clearly writes "...Entre este mar e o Tánais vive estranha Gente: Rutenos, Moscos e Livónios, Sármatas outro tempo..." differentiating between Ruthenians and Muscovites. Ruthenians of different regions in 1836: After

8576-412: The classical epics) portrays the gods of Greece watching over the voyage of Vasco da Gama. Just as the gods had divided loyalties during the voyages of Odysseus and Aeneas , here Venus , who favors the Portuguese, is opposed by Bacchus , who is here associated with the east and resents the encroachment on his territory. We encounter Vasco da Gama's voyage in medias res as they have already rounded

8704-410: The concert of the nations. At the end of the poem, on the Island of Love, the fictional finale to the glorious tour of Portuguese history, Camões writes that the fear once expressed by Bacchus has been confirmed: that the Portuguese would become gods. The extraordinary Portuguese discoveries and the "new kingdom that they exalted so much" (" novo reino que tanto sublimaram ") in the East, and certainly

8832-417: The cutting bow, / (...)" ( "(...) / prosperamente os ventos assoprando, / quando hua noite, estando descuidados / na cortadora proa vigiando, / (...)" ). The final marine eclogue conforms to a pattern that is common to many of Camões' lyrical compositions: falling in love, forced separation, grieving over the frustrated dream. The locus amoenus : the strophes that come after strophe 52 of Canto IX, and some of

8960-408: The deeds of Tristão da Cunha , Pedro de Mascarenhas , Lopo Vaz de Sampaio and Nuno da Cunha ; and battles fought by Martim Afonso de Sousa and João de Castro. Tethys then guides da Gama to a summit and reveals to him a vision of how the ( Ptolemaic ) universe operates. The tour continues with glimpses of the lands of Africa and Asia. The legend of the martyrdom of the apostle St. Thomas in India

9088-418: The end of the 12th century, Europe was generally divided into two large areas: Western Europe with dominance of Catholicism, and Eastern Europe with Orthodox and Byzantine influences. The border between them was roughly marked by the Bug River . This placed the area now known as Belarus in a unique position where these two influences mixed and interfered. The first Latin Church diocese in White Ruthenia

9216-470: The end of the 18th century, they gradually diverged into regional variants, which subsequently developed into the modern Belarusian ( White Ruthenian ), Ukrainian ( Ruthenian ), and Rusyn ( Carpathian Ruthenian ) languages. With the baptism of Volodymyr began a long history of the dominance of Eastern Orthodoxy in Ruthenia . The Rus' accepted Christianity in its Byzantine form at the same time as

9344-864: The endonym Nederland is singular, while all the aforementioned translations except Irish are plural. Exonyms can also be divided into native and borrowed, e.g., from a third language. For example, the Slovene exonyms Dunaj ( Vienna ) and Benetke ( Venice ) are native, but the Avar name of Paris, Париж ( Parizh ) is borrowed from Russian Париж ( Parizh ), which comes from Polish Paryż , which comes from Italian Parigi . A substantial proportion of English-language exonyms for places in continental Europe are borrowed (or adapted) from French; for example: Many exonyms result from adaptations of an endonym into another language, mediated by differences in phonetics, while others may result from translation of

9472-404: The endonym, or as a reflection of the specific relationship an outsider group has with a local place or geographical feature. According to James Matisoff , who introduced the term autonym into linguistics , exonyms can also arise from the "egocentric" tendency of in-groups to identify themselves with "mankind in general", producing an endonym that out groups would not use, while another source

9600-575: The expansion of Soviet Ukraine following World War II, several groups who had not previously considered themselves Ukrainians were merged into the Ukrainian identity. In the interbellum period of the 20th century, the term rusyn ( Ruthenian ) was also applied to people from the Kresy Wschodnie (the eastern borderlands) in the Second Polish Republic , and included Ukrainians, Rusyns, and Lemkos, or alternatively, members of

9728-453: The famous heroes And in this Isle of Venus received. In Canto X, before the sailors return home the Siren invites Gama to the spectacle of the Machine of the World ( Máquina do Mundo ) with these words: Faz-te mercê, barão, a sapiência Suprema de, cos olhos corporais, veres o que não pode a vã ciência dos errados e míseros mortais Your lordship's wish is now fulfilled to share

9856-580: The first of the governors who rule Russia (Rus') is the Grand Duke of Moscow, the second is the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the third is the King of Poland. According to professor John-Paul Himka from the University of Alberta the word Rutheni did not include the modern Russians, who were known as Moscovitae throughout Western Europe. Vasili III of Russia , who ruled the Grand Duchy of Moscow in

9984-408: The goods on the ships brought to shore to be sold. The Muslims plot to detain the Portuguese until the annual trading fleet from Mecca can arrive to attack them, but Monçaide tells da Gama of the conspiracy, and the ships escape from Calicut. To reward the explorers for their efforts, Venus prepares an island for them to rest on and asks her son Cupid to inspire Nereids with desire for them. When

10112-515: The hairs/ to me and all [the others] only by listening and seeing him" (" Arrepiam-se as carnes e os cabelos / a mi e a todos só de ouvi-lo e vê-lo "). This is intended to convey pure fear, the imminent threat of annihilation. The evil demigod is preceded by a black cloud, which appears above the heads of the sailors. Expressing the surprise he experiences, Gama quotes himself: "Oh divine power – [I] said – sublimated, / what divine threat or what secret / this clime and this sea presents to us / that seems

10240-555: The historical event called the Nanking Massacre (1937) uses the city's older name because that was the name of the city at the time of occurrence. Likewise, many Korean cities like Busan and Incheon (formerly Pusan and Inchǒn respectively) also underwent changes in spelling due to changes in romanization, even though the Korean pronunciations have largely stayed the same. Exonyms and endonyms must not be confused with

10368-515: The laudatory orientation of the author. In these strophes, Camões speaks of the first and second Viriathus and Quintus Sertorius , the people of Lusus , a people predestined by the Fates to accomplish great deeds. Jupiter says that their history proves it because, having emerged victorious against the Moors and Castilians , this tiny nation has gone on to discover new worlds and impose its law in

10496-820: The letters when transliterated into an exonym because of the corresponding language's lack of common sounds. Māori , having only one liquid consonant , is an example of this here. London (originally Latin : Londinium ), for example, is known by the cognate exonyms: An example of a translated exonym is the name for the Netherlands ( Nederland in Dutch) used, respectively, in German ( Niederlande ), French ( Pays-Bas ), Italian ( Paesi Bassi ), Spanish ( Países Bajos ), Irish ( An Ísiltír ), Portuguese ( Países Baixos ) and Romanian ( Țările de Jos ), all of which mean " Low Countries ". However,

10624-605: The main narrator; Vasco da Gama , recognized as "eloquent captain" (" facundo capitão "); Paulo da Gama ; Thetis ; and the Siren who tells the future in Canto X. The poet asks the Tágides (nymphs of the river Tagus) to give him "a high and sublime sound,/ a grandiloquent and flowing style" (" um som alto e sublimado, / Um estilo grandíloquo e corrente "). In contrast to the style of lyric poetry, or "humble verse" (" verso humilde "), he

10752-552: The main parts that appear from strophe 68 to 95 describe the scenery where the love encountered between the sailors and the Nymphs take place. The poet also talks about the fauna that live there and of fruits produced instantly. It is portrayed as a paradise. The allegory in the second part of Canto IX sees Camões describing the scene between the sailors – whom the Nymphs were expecting – prepared by Venus. Given in an allegoric sense: Que as Ninfas do Oceano, tão fermosas, Tétis e

10880-748: The modern Belarusians , Rusyns and Ukrainians . The use of Ruthenian and related exonyms continued through the early modern period, developing several distinctive meanings, both in terms of their regional scopes and additional religious connotations (such as affiliation with the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church ). In medieval sources, the Latin term Rutheni was commonly applied to East Slavs in general, thus encompassing all endonyms and their various forms ( Belarusian : русіны , romanized :  rusiny ; Ukrainian : русини , romanized :  rusyny ). By opting for

11008-468: The mouth, yellow the teeth" (" disforme estatura ", " barba esquálida ", " cor terrena ", " cheios de terra e crespos os cabelos / a boca negra, os dentes, amarelos "). Such emphasis on the appearance of Adamastor is intended to contrast with the preceding scenery, which was expressed as: "seas of the South" (" mares do Sul "): "(...) / the winds blowing favourably / when one night, being careless/ watching in

11136-405: The movement is perceptible, although the visible surface is always the same. To be able to translate this by the "painting that talks" is to achieve one of the highest points in universal literature." Manuel de Faria e Sousa wrote a commentary about the work in the 17th century. Published after Sousa's death, the work was originally written in Spanish and eventually translated into Portuguese in

11264-470: The new arrivals. The Catual then goes to the Portuguese ships himself to confirm what Monsayeed has told him and is treated well. The Catual sees a number of paintings that depict significant figures and events from Portuguese history, all of which are detailed by the author. Bacchus appears in a vision to a Muslim priest in Samorin's court and convinces him that the explorers are a threat. The priest spreads

11392-411: The new settlement. In any case, Madras became the exonym, while more recently, Chennai became the endonym. Madrasi, a term for a native of the city, has often been used derogatorily to refer to the people of Dravidian origin from the southern states of India . Os Lus%C3%ADadas Os Lusíadas ( Portuguese pronunciation: [uʒ luˈzi.ɐðɐʃ] ), usually translated as The Lusiads ,

11520-434: The number of exonyms were over-optimistic and not possible to realise in an intended way. The reason would appear to be that many exonyms have become common words in a language and can be seen as part of the language's cultural heritage. In some situations, the use of exonyms can be preferred. For instance, in multilingual cities such as Brussels , which is known for its linguistic tensions between Dutch- and French-speakers,

11648-481: The partition of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in March 1939, US diplomat George Kennan noted, "To those who inquire whether these peasants are Russians or Ukrainians, there is only one answer. They are Neither. They are simply Ruthenians ." Dr. Paul R. Magocsi emphasizes that modern Ruthenians have "the sense of a nationality distinct from Ukrainians" and often associate Ukrainians with Soviets or Communists. After

11776-650: The poem are in ottava rima and total 1,102 stanzas . Written in Homeric fashion, the poem focuses mainly on a fantastic interpretation of the Portuguese voyages of discovery during the 15th and 16th centuries. Os Lusíadas is often regarded as Portugal's national epic , much as Virgil 's Aeneid was for the Ancient Romans , or Homer 's Iliad and Odyssey for the Ancient Greeks . It

11904-506: The poem narrates the maritime journey to India—an aim that Dom João II did not accomplish during his lifetime, but would come true with Dom Manuel, to whom the rivers Indus and Ganges appeared in dreams foretelling the future glories of the Orient. This canto ends with the sailing of the Armada, the sailors in which are surprised by the prophetically pessimistic words of an old man who was on

12032-566: The poem. The gods of the four corners of the world are reunited to talk about "the future matters of the East" (" as cousas futuras do Oriente "); in fact, what they are going to decide is whether the Portuguese will be allowed to reach India and what will happen next. The gods are described by Jupiter as residents of the "shiny, / starry Pole and bright Seat" (" luzente, estelífero Pólo e claro Assento "); this shiny, starry Pole and bright Seat or Olympus had already been described before as "luminous";

12160-457: The poet assumes a tone of lamentation, as at the end of Canto I, in parts of the speech of the Old Man of the Restelo, the end of Canto V, the beginning and end of Canto VII, and the final strophes of the poem. Many times, da Gama bursts into oration at challenging moments: in Mombasa (Canto II), on the appearance of Adamastor, and in the middle of the terror of the storm. The poet's invocations to

12288-456: The poet tells of the Portuguese fleet reaching the Indian city of Calicut . A Muslim named Monçaide greets the fleet and tells the explorers about the lands they have reached. The king, Samorin, hears of the newcomers and summons them. A governor and official of the king, called the Catual, leads the Portuguese to the king, who receives them well. The Catual speaks with Monçaide to learn more about

12416-399: The point of view earlier expressed by Jupiter; however, Bacchus will not accept this. The speech that Jupiter uses to start the meeting is a finished piece of oratory . It opens with an exordium (1st strophe), in which, after an original welcome, Jupiter briefly defines the subject. This is followed, in the ancient rhetorical fashion, by the narration (the past shows that the intention of

12544-557: The pronunciation for several names of Chinese cities such as Beijing and Nanjing has not changed for quite some time while in Mandarin Chinese (although the prestige dialect shifted from Nanjing dialect to Beijing dialect during the 19th century), they were called Peking and Nanking in English due to the older Chinese postal romanization convention, based largely on the Nanjing dialect . Pinyin , based largely on

12672-520: The propensity to use the adjectives for describing culture and language. Sometimes the government of a country tries to endorse the use of an endonym instead of traditional exonyms outside the country: Following the 1979 declaration of Hanyu Pinyin spelling as the standard romanisation of Chinese , many Chinese endonyms have successfully replaced English exonyms, especially city and most provincial names in mainland China , for example: Beijing ( 北京 ; Běijīng ), Qingdao ( 青岛 ; Qīngdǎo ), and

12800-538: The protagonist suffers. This technique is used most strongly when Inês fears the orphaning of her children more than losing her own life and she begs for the commutation of capital punishment for an exile in Siberia (Cítia) or in Libya in order to have an opportunity to raise her children, and she is compared with "the young beautiful Policena ". Strophes 134 and 135 are written to evoke this pity . The Adamastor episode

12928-474: The province, it would be indistinguishable from its neighboring province Shanxi , where the pronunciations of the two provinces only differ by tones, which are usually not written down when used in English. In Taiwan, however, the standardization of Hanyu Pinyin has only seen mixed results. In Taipei , most (but not all) street and district names shifted to Hanyu Pinyin. For example, the Sinyi District

13056-537: The recent and extraordinary deeds of the "strong Castro" (" Castro forte ", the viceroy Dom João de Castro ), who had died some years before the poet's arrival in Indian lands, were the decisive factors in Camões' completion of the Portuguese epic. Camões dedicated his masterpiece to King Sebastian of Portugal . The vast majority of the narration in Os Lusíadas consists of grandiloquent speeches by various orators:

13184-563: The results of geographical renaming as in the case of Saint Petersburg , which became Petrograd ( Петроград ) in 1914, Leningrad ( Ленинград ) in 1924, and again Saint Petersburg ( Санкт-Петербург , Sankt-Peterbúrg ) in 1991. In this case, although Saint Petersburg has a Dutch etymology, it was never a Dutch exonym for the city between 1914 and 1991, just as Nieuw Amsterdam , the Dutch name of New York City until 1664,

13312-640: The ruling class. Jogaila , then ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , ordered the whole population of Lithuania to convert to Catholicism. One and a half years after the Union of Krewo, the Wilno (Vilnius) episcopate was created which received a lot of land from the Lithuanian dukes. By the mid-16th century Catholicism became strong in Lithuania and bordering with it north-west parts of White Ruthenia, but

13440-574: The sailors arrive on the Isle of Love, the ocean nymphs make a pretense of running but surrender quickly. During a sumptuous feast on the Isle of Love, Tethys , who is now the lover of da Gama, prophecies the future of Portuguese exploration and conquest. She tells of Duarte Pacheco Pereira 's defense of Cochin ( Battle of Cochin ); the Battle of Diu fought by Francisco de Almeida and his son Lourenço de Almeida against combined Gujarati-Egyptian fleets;

13568-618: The same time, the Greek Catholic church was banned and replaced with the Eastern Orthodox church under the Russian Patriarch, in an atmosphere which repressed all religions. Thus, in Slovakia, the former Ruthenians were technically free to register as any ethnicity but Ruthenian. The government of Slovakia has proclaimed Rusyns ( Rusíni ) to be a distinct national minority (1991) and recognised Rusyn language as

13696-421: The self-designated name Ukrainians. With the emergence of Ukrainian nationalism during the mid-19th century, use of "Ruthenian" and cognate terms declined among Ukrainians and fell out of use in Eastern and Central Ukraine. Most people in the western region of Ukraine followed suit later in the 19th century. During the early 20th century, the name Ukrajins'ka mova ("Ukrainian language") became accepted by much of

13824-410: The shifting geographical scopes of the term Carpathian Ruthenia . Those meanings were also spanning from wider uses as designations for all East Slavs of the Carpathian region, to narrower uses, focusing on those local groups of East Slavs who did not accept a modern Ukrainian identity, but rather opted to keep their traditional Rusyn identity. The designations Rusyn and Carpatho-Rusyn were banned in

13952-529: The signing of the Council of Florence , Metropolitan Isidore of Kiev returned to Moscow in 1441 as a Ruthenian cardinal. He was arrested by the Grand Duke of Moscow and accused of apostasy . The Grand Duke deposed Isidore and in 1448 installed own candidate as Metropolitan of Kyiv — Jonah . This was carried out without the approval of Patriarch Gregory III of Constantinople . When Isidore died in 1458, he

14080-475: The spelling is the same across languages, the pronunciation can differ. For example, the city of Paris is spelled the same way in French and English, but the French pronunciation [ paʁi ] is different from the English pronunciation [ ˈpærɪs ]. For places considered to be of lesser significance, attempts to reproduce local names have been made in English since the time of the Crusades . Livorno , for instance,

14208-594: The storm. Camões is a master in these descriptions, marked by the verbs of movement, the abundance of visual and acoustic sensations, and expressive alliterations. There are also many lyrical moments. Those texts are normally narrative-descriptive. This is the case with the initial part of the episode of the Sad Inês, the final part of the episode of the Adamastor , and the encounter on the Island of Love (Canto IX). All these cases resemble eclogues . On several occasions

14336-533: The story of the House of Aviz from the 1383–85 Crisis until the moment during the reign of Dom Manuel I when the armada of Vasco da Gama sails to India. The narrative of the Crisis of 1383–85, which focuses mainly on the figure of Nuno Álvares Pereira and the Battle of Aljubarrota , is followed by the events of the reigns of Dom João II , especially those related to expansion into Africa. Following this incident,

14464-438: The supreme knowledge; you with corporeal eyes may see what the vain science of erring and miserable mortals cannot The Machine of the World is presented as the spectacle unique, divine, seen by "corporeal eyes". In the words of literary historian António José Saraiva, "it is one of the supreme successes of Camões", "the spheres are transparent, luminous, all of them are seen at the same time with equal clarity; they move, and

14592-702: The term due to its perceived negative overtones. In 1620, these dissenters erected their own metropolis — the " Metropolis of Kyev, Galicia and all Ruthenia ". In the 16th century, a crisis began in Christianity: the Protestant Reformation began in Catholicism and a period of heresy began in an Orthodox area. From the mid-16th century Protestant ideas began spreading in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The first Protestant Church in Belarus

14720-401: The use of exonymic terms, authors who wrote in Latin were relieved from the need to be specific in their applications of those terms, and the same quality of Ruthenian exonyms is often recognized in modern, mainly Western authors, particularly those who prefer to use exonyms (foreign in origin) over endonyms. During the early modern period, the exonym Ruthenian was most frequently applied to

14848-710: The use of exonyms to avoid this kind of problem. For example, it is now common for Spanish speakers to refer to the Turkish capital as Ankara rather than use the Spanish exonym Angora . Another example, it is now common for Italian speakers to refer to some African states as Mauritius and Seychelles rather than use the Italian exonyms Maurizio and Seicelle . According to the United Nations Statistics Division : Time has, however, shown that initial ambitious attempts to rapidly decrease

14976-572: The warnings among the Catuals and the court, prompting Samorin to confront da Gama on his intentions. Da Gama insists that the Portuguese are traders, not buccaneers. The king then demands proof from da Gama's ships, but when he tries to return to the fleet, da Gama finds that the Catual, who has been corrupted by the Muslim leaders, refuses to lend him a boat at the harbor and holds him prisoner. Da Gama manages to get free only after agreeing to have all of

15104-431: The warrior deeds of the 1st Dynasty kings, from Dom Afonso Henriques to Dom Fernando . Episodes that stand out include Egas Moniz and the Battle of Ourique during Dom Afonso Henriques' reign, formosíssima Maria (the beautiful Maria, in 16th-century Portuguese) in the Battle of Salado , and Inês de Castro during Dom Afonso IV 's reign. Vasco da Gama continues the narrative of the history of Portugal by recounting

15232-493: The westernmost Lemko Region . The Polish census of 1931 listed "Belarusian", "Rusyn" and "Ukrainian" ( Polish : białoruski, ruski, ukraiński , respectively) as separate languages. By the end of the 19th century, another set of terms came into use in several western languages, combining regional Carpathian with Ruthenian designations, and thus producing composite terms such as: Carpatho-Ruthenes or Carpatho-Ruthenians. Those terms also acquired several meanings, depending on

15360-540: The years, the endonym may have undergone phonetic changes, either in the original language or the borrowing language, thus changing an endonym into an exonym, as in the case of Paris , where the s was formerly pronounced in French. Another example is the endonym for the German city of Cologne , where the Latin original of Colonia has evolved into Köln in German, while the Italian and Spanish exonym Colonia or

15488-527: Was Leghorn because it was an Italian port essential to English merchants and, by the 18th century, to the British Navy ; not far away, Rapallo , a minor port on the same sea, never received an exonym. In earlier times, the name of the first tribe or village encountered became the exonym for the whole people beyond. Thus, the Romans used the tribal names Graecus (Greek) and Germanus (Germanic),

15616-585: Was also the name of an extinct and unrelated Celtic tribe in Ancient Gaul , was used in reference to Rus' in the Annales Augustani of 1089. An alternative early modern Latinisation, Rucenus (plural Ruceni ) was, according to Boris Unbegaun , derived from Rusyn . Baron Herberstein , describing the land of Russia (Rus'), inhabited by the Rutheni who call themselves Russi , claimed that

15744-848: Was created in Brest by Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł . Protestantism did not survive due to the Counter-Reformation in Poland . Both the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth and the Ruthenian Church underwent a period of decay. The Ruthenian Church was the church of a people without statehood. The Poles considered the Ruthenians a conquered people. Over time, the Lithuanian military and political ascendancy did away with

15872-417: Was created, regarding the alleged connection between ancient Gallic Ruthenes and later East Slavic "Ruthenians". As noted by professor Paul R. Magocsi , those theories should be regarded as "inventive tales" of "creative" writers. From the 9th century, Kievan Rus' – now part of the modern states of Ukraine , Belarus and Russia – was known in Western Europe by a variety of names derived from Rus'. From

16000-664: Was deposed by the tsar , the Russian Orthodox Church had been independent of the State. In 1721, the first Russian Emperor, Peter I , abolished completely the patriarchate and effectively made the church a department of the government, ruled by the Most Holy Synod composed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the emperor himself. Over time, Imperial Russia would style itself a protector and patron of all Orthodox Christians, especially those within

16128-589: Was established in Turaŭ between 1008 and 1013. Catholicism was a traditionally dominant religion of Belarusian nobility (the szlachta ) and of a large part of the population of western and northwestern parts of Belarus. Before the 14th century, the Eastern Orthodox Church was dominant in White Ruthenia. The Union of Krewo in 1385 broke this monopoly and made Catholicism the religion of

16256-572: Was succeeded as metropolitan in the Patriarchate of Constantinople by Gregory the Bulgarian . Gregory's canonical territory was the western part of the traditional Kievan Rus' lands — the states of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland . The episcopal seat was in the city of Navahrudak which is today located in Belarus . It was later moved to Vilnius — the capital of

16384-632: Was written when Camões was an exile in Macau and was first printed in 1572, three years after the author returned from the Indies . The poem consists of ten cantos , each with a different number of stanzas (1102 in total). It is written in the decasyllabic ottava rima , which has the rhyme scheme ABABABCC, and contains a total of 8816 lines of verse. The poem is made up of four sections: The narration concludes with an epilogue, starting in stanza 145 of canto X. The most important part of Os Lusíadas ,

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