165-502: Bowls , also known as lawn bowls or lawn bowling , is a sport in which players try to roll their ball (called a bowl) closest to a smaller ball (known as a "jack" or sometimes a "kitty"). The bowls are shaped (biased), so that they follow a curved path when being rolled. The game is played either in teams or one against one. The game was first played in the 13th century. The game is played on grass, although other surfaces are sometimes used. Matches are held either until one player gets to
330-492: A wage or salary ). Amateur participation in sport at lower levels is often called "grassroots sport". The popularity of spectator sport as a recreation for non-participants has led to sport becoming a major business in its own right, and this has incentivised a high paying professional sport culture, where high performing participants are rewarded with pay far in excess of average wages, which can run into millions of dollars. Some sports, or individual competitions within
495-652: A "gyration" (tour) of the country to muster support for his cause. By installing de Vere as Justice of Chester , he began the work of creating a loyal military power base in Cheshire . He also secured a legal ruling from Chief Justice Robert Tresilian that parliament's conduct had been unlawful and treasonable. On his return to London, the King was confronted by Gloucester, Arundel and Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick , who brought an appeal of treason against de la Pole, de Vere, Tresilian, and two other loyalists:
660-547: A "tie" or "draw", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament format, producing a champion . Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season , followed in some cases by playoffs . Sport is generally recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity , with major competitions admitting only sports meeting this definition. Some organisations, such as
825-717: A ball has crossed the goal line or not. The technology is not compulsory, but was used in the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada, as well as in the Premier League from 2013–14 , and the Bundesliga from 2015–16 . In the NFL , a referee can ask for a review from the replay booth, or a head coach can issue a challenge to review the play using replays. The final decision rests with
990-482: A bit bigger than usual bowls. The target is an unmovable feather or metal plate on the ground, instead of a small ball. The length of the tra is about 18 m (59 ft). The scoring is also different, as a point is awarded for every shot that brings the ball closer to the target than any opponent's ball. This causes pure blocking strategies to be less effective. In 1972, the West-Flemish tra bowls federation
1155-562: A book on, and sponsored writing and discussion of them in his court. In June 1399, Louis I, Duke of Orléans , gained control of the court of the insane Charles VI of France . The policy of rapprochement with the English crown did not suit Louis's political ambitions, and for this reason he found it opportune to allow Henry Bolingbroke to leave for England. With a small group of followers, Henry landed at Ravenspurn in Yorkshire towards
1320-527: A continuity in civil discord starting with Richard's misrule that did not end until Henry VII 's accession in 1485. The idea that Richard was to blame for the later-15th century Wars of the Roses was prevalent as late as the 19th century, but came to be challenged in the 20th. Some recent historians prefer to look at the Wars of the Roses in isolation from the reign of Richard II. Richard's mental state has been
1485-513: A dense wood giving rise to the term "woods" for bowls, but are now more typically made of a hard plastic composite material. Bowls were once only available coloured black or brown, but they are now available in a variety of colours. They have unique symbol markings engraved on them for identification. Since many bowls look the same, coloured, adhesive stickers or labels are also used to mark the bowls of each team in bowls matches. Some local associations agree on specific colours for stickers for each of
1650-471: A disability have no equivalent in able-bodied sports. Masters sport , senior sport , or veteran sport is an age category of sport, that usually contains age groups of those 35 and older. It may concern unaltered or adapted sport activities, with and without competitions. Competitions The competition element of sport, along with the aesthetic appeal of some sports, result in the popularity of people attending to watch sport being played. This has led to
1815-712: A graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing of the summer amusements of young men, says that on holidays they were "exercised in Leaping, Shooting, Wrestling, Casting of Stones [ in jactu lapidum ], and Throwing of Javelins fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like fighting Men." It is commonly supposed that by jactus lapidum , Fitzstephen refers to an early variety of bowls, possibly played using round stone; there
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#17328020709831980-407: A large, rectangular, precisely levelled and manicured grass or synthetic surface known as a bowling green which is divided into parallel playing strips called rinks . In the simplest competition, singles, one of the two opponents flips a coin to see who wins the "mat" and begins a segment of the competition (in bowling parlance, an "end"), by placing the mat and rolling the jack to the other end of
2145-414: A major issue of historical debate since the first academic historians started treating the subject in the 19th century. One of the first modern historians to deal with Richard II as a king and as a person was Bishop Stubbs . Stubbs argued that towards the end of his reign, Richard's mind "was losing its balance altogether." Historian Anthony Steel , who wrote a full-scale biography of the King in 1941, took
2310-468: A matter of three years, these councillors earned the mistrust of the Commons to the point that the councils were discontinued in 1380. Contributing to discontent was an increasingly heavy burden of taxation levied through three poll taxes between 1377 and 1381 that were spent on unsuccessful military expeditions on the continent. By 1381, there was a deep-felt resentment against the governing classes in
2475-434: A player wins two sets, or gets a win and a tie, that player wins the game. If each player wins a set, or both sets end tied, there is a 3-end tiebreaker to determine a winner. Bowls are designed to travel a curved path because of a weight bias which was originally produced by inserting weights in one side of the bowl. The word bias itself is recorded as a technical term of the game in the 1560s. The insertion of weights
2640-430: A psychiatric approach to the issue, and concluded that Richard had schizophrenia . This was challenged by V. H. Galbraith , who argued that there was no historical basis for such a diagnosis, a line that has also been followed by later historians of the period, such as Anthony Goodman and Anthony Tuck . Nigel Saul , who wrote an academic biography of Richard II in 1997 concedes that – even though there
2805-518: A refined atmosphere centred on art and culture at court, in which the king was an elevated figure. The King's dependence on a small number of courtiers caused discontent among the nobility, and in 1387 control of government was taken over by a group of aristocrats known as the Lords Appellant . By 1389 Richard had regained control, and for the next eight years governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. In 1397, he took his revenge on
2970-507: A regency led by the King's uncles was avoided. Instead, the King was nominally to exercise kingship with the help of a series of "continual councils", from which Gaunt was excluded. Gaunt, together with his younger brother Thomas of Woodstock, Earl of Buckingham , still held great informal influence over the business of government, but the King's councillors and friends, particularly Sir Simon de Burley and Robert de Vere, 9th Earl of Oxford , increasingly gained control of royal affairs. In
3135-741: A score, or when a number of ends are played. The game is mostly played on a bowling green , which can vary by the type of bowls being played. Whilst the game is often played outdoors, there are indoor bowling venues, and can also be played on rollable carpets. For outdoor games, this is usually on grass ; however, it can also be played on cotula in New Zealand . Bowls is a variant of the boules games (Italian: bocce ), which, in their general form, are of ancient or prehistoric origin. Ancient Greek variants are recorded that involved throwing light objects (such as flat stones, coins, or later also stone balls) as far as possible. The aspect of tossing
3300-457: A semblance of greatness only after his fall from power. Writing a work of fiction, Shakespeare took many liberties and made great omissions, basing his play on works by writers such as Edward Hall and Samuel Daniel , who in turn based their writings on contemporary chroniclers such as Thomas Walsingham. Hall and Daniel were part of Tudor historiography, which was highly unsympathetic to Richard. The Tudor orthodoxy, reinforced by Shakespeare, saw
3465-489: A small cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack. The world's oldest surviving bowling green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green , which was first used in 1299. Another manuscript of the same century has a crude but spirited picture which brings us into close touch with the existing game. Three figures are introduced and a jack. The first player's bowl has come to rest just in front of the jack;
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#17328020709833630-769: A small number of mind sports, it is not open to admitting any further mind sports. There has been an increase in the application of the term "sport" to a wider set of non-physical challenges such as video games , also called esports (from "electronic sports"), especially due to the large scale of participation and organised competition, but these are not widely recognised by mainstream sports organisations. According to Council of Europe , European Sports Charter, article 2.i, " 'Sport' means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels." There are opposing views on
3795-524: A specified number of ends may also be drawn. The draw may stand, or the opponents may be required to play an extra end to decide the winner. These provisions are always published beforehand in the event's Conditions of Play . In the Laws of the Sport of Bowls the winner in a singles game is the first player to score 21 shots. In all other disciplines (pairs, triples, fours), the winner is the team who has scored
3960-468: A sport from other leisure activities varies between sources. The closest to an international agreement on a definition is provided by the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF), which is the association for all the largest international sports federations (including association football , athletics , cycling , tennis , equestrian sports , and more), and is therefore
4125-471: A sport, retain a policy of allowing only amateur sport . The Olympic Games started with a principle of amateur competition with those who practised a sport professionally considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practised it merely as a hobby. From 1971, Olympic athletes were allowed to receive compensation and sponsorship, and from 1986, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for
4290-553: A stationary wood or jack from another end, it is again taken back and replayed, but the bowl struck is replaced where contact took place. The game is played usually to 21-up in Singles and Doubles format with some competitions playing to 31-up. The Panel (Professional Crown Green Bowls) is played at the Red Lion Bowling Green, Westhoughton daily and is played to 41-up with greenside betting throughout play. The Green
4455-409: A team bowling all their bowls, then handing over to the next player. The team captain or " skip " always plays last and is instrumental in directing his team's shots and tactics. The current method of scoring in the professional tour ( World Bowls Tour ) is sets. Each set consists of nine ends and the player with the most shots at the end of a set wins the set. If the score is tied the set is halved. If
4620-589: A tendency to stammer. While the Westminster Abbey portrait probably shows a good similarity of the King, the Wilton Diptych portrays him as significantly younger than he was at the time; it must be assumed that he had a beard by this point. Religiously, he was orthodox, and particularly towards the end of his reign he became a strong opponent of the Lollard heresy. He was particularly devoted to
4785-500: Is running , while association football is the most popular spectator sport. The word "sport" comes from the Old French desport meaning " leisure ", with the oldest definition in English from around 1300 being "anything humans find amusing or entertaining". Other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling; hunting; and games and diversions, including ones that require exercise. Roget's defines
4950-410: Is 242 pairs (also known as Australian Pairs). In the first end of the game the A players lead off with 2 bowls each, then the B players play 4 bowls each, before the A players complete the end with their final 2 bowls. The A players act as lead and skip in the same end. In the second end the roles are reversed with the A players being in the middle. This alternating pattern continues through the game which
5115-437: Is a problem at some national and international sporting contests. Female participation in sports continues to rise alongside the opportunity for involvement and the value of sports for child development and physical fitness . Despite increases in female participation during the last three decades, a gap persists in the enrollment figures between male and female players in sports-related teams. Female players account for 39% of
Bowls - Misplaced Pages Continue
5280-489: Is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn.. On the other hand, the jactus lapidum of which he speaks may have been more akin to shot put . It is clear, at any rate, that a rudimentary form of the game was played in England in the 13th century. A manuscript of that period in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.), contains a drawing representing two players aiming at
5445-431: Is also a major source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues , and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting . Sport betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in others integral to the sport. According to A.T. Kearney , a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $ 620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport
5610-516: Is common for popular sports to attract large broadcast audiences, leading to rival broadcasters bidding large amounts of money for the rights to show certain events. The football World Cup attracts a global television audience of hundreds of millions; the 2006 final alone attracted an estimated worldwide audience of well over 700 million and the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final attracted an estimated audience of 135 million in India alone. In
5775-410: Is little evidence to tie Richard directly to the patronage of poetry , but it was nevertheless within his court that this culture was allowed to thrive. The greatest poet of the age, Geoffrey Chaucer , served the King as a diplomat, a customs official and a clerk of The King's Works while producing some of his best-known work. Chaucer was also in the service of John of Gaunt, and wrote The Book of
5940-443: Is no basis for assuming the King had a mental illness – he showed clear signs of a narcissistic personality , and towards the end of his reign "Richard's grasp on reality was becoming weaker." One of the primary historiographical questions surrounding Richard concerns his political agenda and the reasons for its failure. His kingship was thought to contain elements of the early modern absolute monarchy as exemplified by
6105-445: Is no longer permitted by the rules and bias is now produced entirely by the shape of the bowl. A bowler determines the bias direction of the bowl in his hand by a dimple or symbol on one side. Regulations determine the minimum bias allowed, and the range of diameters (11.6 to 13.1 cm (4.6 to 5.2 in)), but within these rules bowlers can and do choose bowls to suit their own preference. They were originally made from lignum vitae ,
6270-418: Is played on grass and variations from green to green are common. Greens come in all shapes and sizes: the most common are fast, slow, big crown, small crown. Bowls is generally played in a very good spirit, even at the highest professional level, acknowledgment of opponents' successes and near misses being quite normal. Scoring systems vary from competition to competition. Games can be decided when: Games to
6435-406: Is run out down the centre of the lane and wherever the jack lands, it is moved across to the string and the length is called out by a sighted marker. When the woods are sent the distance from the jack is called out, in yards, feet and inches. The position in relation to the jack is given using the clock; 12.00 is behind the jack. In the province of West Flanders (and surrounding regions), tra bowls
6600-412: Is the bias side toward which the bowl will turn. It is not uncommon for players to deliver a "wrong bias" shot from time to time and see their carefully aimed bowl crossing neighbouring rinks rather than heading towards their jack. When bowling there are several types of delivery. "Draw" shots are those where the bowl is rolled to a specific location without causing too much disturbance of bowls already in
6765-502: Is the most popular variation of bowls. As opposed to playing it on a flat or uneven terrain, the terrain is made smooth but hollow ( tra just means "hollow road" in Flemish). The hollow road causes the path to be curving even more. The balls are biased in the same way as the lawn bowls balls but with a diameter of about 20 cm (7.9 in), a thickness of 12 cm (4.7 in) and a weight of about 2 kg (4.4 lb), they are
Bowls - Misplaced Pages Continue
6930-506: Is thought to have been starved to death in captivity, although questions remain regarding his final fate. Richard's posthumous reputation has been shaped to a large extent by William Shakespeare , whose play Richard II portrayed Richard's misrule and his deposition as responsible for the 15th-century Wars of the Roses . Modern historians do not accept this interpretation, while not exonerating Richard from responsibility for his own deposition. While probably not insane, as many historians of
7095-424: Is typically over 15 ends. Short Mat Bowls is an all-year sport unaffected by weather conditions and it does not require a permanent location as the rink mats can be rolled up and stowed away. This makes it particularly appropriate for small communities as it can be played in village halls, schools, sports and social clubs. Bowls are played by the blind and paraplegic. Blind bowlers are extremely skillful. A string
7260-842: The 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin , and the 1936 Winter Olympics held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen , to promote the Nazi ideology of the superiority of the Aryan race , and inferiority of the Jews and other " undesirables ". Germany used the Olympics to give off a peaceful image while secretly preparing for war. When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sports people, particularly in rugby union , adopted
7425-497: The Bodleian Library at Oxford , contains a drawing in which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt (Sports and Pastimes) suggests that the first player's bowl may have been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in that case it is not clear what was the first player's target. In these three earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting that each player has one bowl only, and that
7590-608: The Council of Europe , preclude activities without any physical element from classification as sports. However, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports . The International Olympic Committee who oversee the Olympic Games recognises both chess and bridge as sports. SportAccord , the international sports federation association, recognises five non-physical sports: chess, bridge, draughts , Go and xiangqi . However, they limit
7755-588: The English Parliament genuinely feared that Richard's uncle, John of Gaunt , would usurp the throne. For this reason, Richard was quickly invested with the princedom of Wales and his father's other titles. On 21 June 1377, King Edward III, who was for some years frail and decrepit, died after a 50-year reign. This resulted in the 10-year-old Richard succeeding to the throne. He was crowned on 16 July at Westminster Abbey . Again, fears of John of Gaunt's ambitions influenced political decisions, and
7920-646: The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) if she/he played or supported Association football , or other games seen to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of football and rugby union at Gaelic venues. This ban, also known as Rule 42, is still enforced, but was modified to allow football and rugby to be played in Croke Park while Lansdowne Road was redeveloped into Aviva Stadium . Until recently, under Rule 21,
8085-674: The Hundred Years' War . A major challenge of the reign was the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, and the young king played a central part in the successful suppression of this crisis. Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years' War. A firm believer in the royal prerogative , Richard restrained the power of the aristocracy and relied on a private retinue for military protection instead. In contrast to his grandfather, Richard cultivated
8250-691: The King of Navarre and the King of Portugal ", were present at his birth. This anecdote, and the fact that his birth fell on the feast of Epiphany , was later used in the religious imagery of the Wilton Diptych , where Richard is one of three kings paying homage to the Virgin and Child . Richard's elder brother, Edward of Angoulême , died near his sixth birthday in 1370. The Prince of Wales finally succumbed to his long illness in June 1376. The Commons in
8415-508: The Lord Mayor of London , pulled Tyler down from his horse and killed him. The situation became tense once the rebels realised what had happened, but the King acted with calm resolve and, saying "I am your captain, follow me!", he led the mob away from the scene. Walworth meanwhile gathered a force to surround the peasant army, but the King granted clemency and allowed the rebels to disperse and return to their homes. The King soon revoked
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#17328020709838580-429: The Lords Appellant . On 20 December 1387 they intercepted de Vere at Radcot Bridge , where he and his forces were routed and he was obliged to flee the country. Richard now had no choice but to comply with the appellants' demands; Brembre and Tresilian were condemned and executed, while de Vere and de la Pole – who had by now also left the country – were sentenced to death in absentia at
8745-668: The Merciless Parliament in February 1388. The appellants had now succeeded completely in breaking up the circle of favourites around the King. Richard gradually re-established royal authority in the months after the deliberations of the Merciless Parliament. The aggressive foreign policy of the Lords Appellant failed when their efforts to build a wide, anti-French coalition came to nothing, and
8910-477: The Tudor dynasty . More recently, Richard's concept of kingship has been seen by some as not so different from that of his antecedents, and that it was exactly by staying within the framework of traditional monarchy that he was able to achieve as much as he did. Yet his actions were too extreme and too abrupt. For one, the absence of war was meant to reduce the burden of taxation, and so help Richard's popularity with
9075-483: The Unlawful Games Act 1541 —which was not repealed until 1845—artificers, labourers, apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to play bowls at any time except Christmas , and then only in their master's house and presence. It was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside his own garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s. 8d. (6 shillings and 8 pence), while those possessed of lands of
9240-675: The de facto representative of international sport. GAISF uses the following criteria, determining that a sport should: They also recognise that sport can be primarily physical (such as rugby or athletics ), primarily mind (such as chess or Go ), predominantly motorised (such as Formula 1 or powerboating ), primarily co-ordination (such as snooker and other cue sports ), or primarily animal-supported (such as equestrian sport ). The inclusion of mind sports within sport definitions has not been universally accepted, leading to legal challenges from governing bodies in regards to being denied funding available to sports. Whilst GAISF recognises
9405-489: The war on drugs encourage youth sport as a means to increase educational participation and to fight the illegal drug trade . According to the Center for Injury Research and Policy at Nationwide Children's Hospital , the biggest risk for youth sport is death or serious injury including concussion . These risks come from running, basketball, association football, volleyball, gridiron, gymnastics, and ice hockey. Youth sport in
9570-593: The "tyranny" of Richard II began towards the end of the 1390s. The King had Gloucester, Arundel and Warwick arrested in July 1397. The timing of these arrests and Richard's motivation are not entirely clear. Although one chronicle suggested that a plot was being planned against the King, there is no evidence that this was the case. It is more likely that Richard had simply come to feel strong enough to safely retaliate against these three men for their role in events of 1386–1388 and eliminate them as threats to his power. Arundel
9735-523: The 19th and 20th centuries believed him to be, he may have had a personality disorder, particularly manifesting itself towards the end of his reign. Most authorities agree that his policies were not unrealistic or even entirely unprecedented, but that the way in which he carried them out was unacceptable to the political establishment, leading to his downfall. Richard of Bordeaux was the younger son of Edward, Prince of Wales , and Joan, Countess of Kent . Edward, eldest son of Edward III and heir apparent to
9900-479: The Appellants, many of whom were executed or exiled. The next two years have been described by historians as Richard's "tyranny". In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, the King disinherited Gaunt's son Henry Bolingbroke , who had previously been exiled. Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Meeting little resistance, he deposed Richard and had himself crowned king. Richard
10065-523: The Black Prince), and Joan, Countess of Kent . Richard's father died in 1376, leaving Richard as heir apparent to his grandfather, King Edward III ; upon the latter's death, the 10-year-old Richard succeeded to the throne. During Richard's first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of regency councils, influenced by Richard's uncles John of Gaunt and Thomas of Woodstock . England at that time faced various problems, most notably
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#173280207098310230-431: The Commons in parliament. However, this promise was never fulfilled, as the cost of the royal retinue, the opulence of court and Richard's lavish patronage of his favourites proved as expensive as war had been, without offering commensurate benefits. As for his policy of military retaining, this was later emulated by Edward IV and Henry VII, but Richard II's exclusive reliance on the county of Cheshire hurt his support from
10395-457: The Duchess as a eulogy to Gaunt's wife Blanche . Chaucer's colleague and friend John Gower wrote his Confessio Amantis on a direct commission from Richard, although he later grew disenchanted with the King. Richard was interested in occult topics such as geomancy , which he viewed as a greater discipline that included philosophy , science , and alchemic elements and commissioned
10560-469: The English king pay homage to the King of France—a condition that proved unacceptable to the English public. Instead, in 1396, a truce was agreed to, which was to last 28 years. As part of the truce, Richard agreed to marry Isabella of Valois , daughter of Charles VI of France , when she came of age. There were some misgivings about the betrothal, in particular, because the princess was then only six years old and thus would not be able to produce an heir to
10725-591: The French and Bohemian courts that had been the homes of Richard's two wives, but also the court that his father had maintained while residing in Aquitaine. Richard's approach to kingship was rooted in his strong belief in the royal prerogative , the inspiration of which can be found in his early youth, when his authority was challenged first by the Peasants' Revolts and then by the Lords Appellant. Richard rejected
10890-657: The GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the RUC from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 led to the eventual removal of the ban. Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can lead to violent confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond
11055-523: The IOC or SportAccord are required to implement a testing programme, looking for a list of banned drugs, with suspensions or bans being placed on participants who test positive for banned substances. Violence in sports involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behaviour on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration. Rioting or hooliganism by fans in particular
11220-418: The King previously had been addressed simply as " highness ", now "royal majesty ", or "high majesty" were often used. It was said that on solemn festivals Richard would sit on his throne in the royal hall for hours without speaking, and anyone on whom his eyes fell had to bow his knees to the King. The inspiration for this new sumptuousness and emphasis on dignity came from the courts on the continent, not only
11385-484: The King's friends, making Richard an absolute ruler unbound by the necessity of gathering a Parliament again. On 3 February 1399, John of Gaunt died. Rather than allowing Henry to succeed, Richard extended the term of his exile to life and expropriated his properties. The King felt safe from Henry, who was residing in Paris, since the French had little interest in any challenge to Richard and his peace policy. Richard left
11550-413: The Olympics, with the exceptions of boxing , and wrestling. Technology plays an important part in modern sport. It is a necessary part of some sports (such as motorsport), and it is used in others to improve performance. Some sports also use it to allow off-field decision making. Sports science is a widespread academic discipline, and can be applied to areas including athlete performance, such as
11715-555: The Realm Edmund, Duke of York , had little choice but to side with Henry. Meanwhile, Richard was delayed in his return from Ireland and did not land in Wales until 24 July. He made his way to Conwy , where on 12 August he met with Northumberland for negotiations. On 19 August, Richard surrendered to Henry at Flint Castle , promising to abdicate if his life were spared. Both men then made their way to Chester Castle where Richard
11880-509: The Tower. The next day, Friday, 14 June, he set out by horse and met the rebels at Mile End . He agreed to the rebels' demands, but this move only emboldened them; they continued their looting and killings. Richard met Wat Tyler again the next day at Smithfield and reiterated that the demands would be met, but the rebel leader was not convinced of the King's sincerity. The King's men grew restive, an altercation broke out, and William Walworth ,
12045-518: The US is a $ 15 billion industry including equipment up to private coaching. Disabled or adaptive sports are played by people with a disability , including physical and intellectual disabilities . As many of these are based on existing sports modified to meet the needs of people with a disability, they are sometimes referred to as adapted sports . However, not all disabled sports are adapted; several sports that have been specifically created for people with
12210-687: The United States, the championship game of the NFL , the Super Bowl , has become one of the most watched television broadcasts of the year. Super Bowl Sunday is a de facto national holiday in America; the viewership being so great that in 2015, advertising space was reported as being sold at $ 4.5m for a 30-second slot. Sport can be undertaken on an amateur, professional or semi-professional basis, depending on whether participants are incentivised for participation (usually through payment of
12375-790: The activity will be enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known sentiment by sports journalist Grantland Rice , that it is "not that you won or lost but how you played the game", and the modern Olympic creed expressed by its founder Pierre de Coubertin : "The most important thing... is not winning but taking part" are typical expressions of this sentiment. Key principles of sport include that the result should not be predetermined, and that both sides should have equal opportunity to win. Rules are in place to ensure fair play, but participants can break these rules in order to gain advantage. Participants may cheat in order to unfairly increase their chance of winning, or in order to achieve other advantages such as financial gains. The widespread existence of gambling on
12540-400: The aim of knocking either the jack or a specific bowl out of play - and with the drive's speed, there is virtually no noticeable (or, at least, much less) curve on the shot. An "upshot" or "yard on" shot involves delivering the bowl with an extra degree of weight (often referred to as "controlled" weight or "rambler"), enough to displace the jack or disturb other bowls in the head without killing
12705-415: The ancient Olympics up to the present century. Industrialisation has brought motorised transportation and increased leisure time , letting people attend and follow spectator sports and participate in athletic activities. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport's popularity, as sports fans followed
12870-434: The appellants. The fines levied on these men brought great revenues to the crown, although contemporary chroniclers raised questions about the legality of the proceedings. These actions were made possible primarily through the collusion of John of Gaunt, but with the support of a large group of other magnates, many of whom were rewarded with new titles, and were disparagingly referred to as Richard's "duketti". These included
13035-401: The approach his grandfather Edward III had taken to the nobility. Edward's court had been a martial one, based on the interdependence between the king and his most trusted noblemen as military captains. In Richard's view, this put a dangerous amount of power in the hands of the baronage. To avoid dependence on the nobility for military recruitment, he pursued a policy of peace towards France. At
13200-443: The attitude in delivering it was as various five or six hundred years ago as it is today. In the third, he stands almost upright; in the first, he kneels; in the second, he stoops, halfway between the upright and the kneeling position. The game eventually came under the ban of king and Parliament, both fearing it might jeopardise the practice of archery, then so important in battle. Statutes forbidding it and other sports were enacted in
13365-486: The balls to approach a target as closely as possible is recorded in ancient Rome. This game was spread to Roman Gaul by soldiers or sailors. A Roman sepulchre in Florence shows people playing this game, stooping down to measure the points. Bowls in England has been traced certainly to the 13th century, and conjecturally to the 12th century. William Fitzstephen (d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas Becket , gives
13530-585: The border suggest the man had a mental illness, one also describing him as a "beggar" by the time of his death in 1419, but he was buried as a king in Blackfriars, Stirling , the local Dominican friary . Meanwhile, Henry V – in an effort both to atone for his father's act of murder and to silence the rumours of Richard's survival – had decided to have the body at King's Langley reinterred in Westminster Abbey on 4 December 1413. Here Richard himself had prepared an elaborate tomb, where
13695-473: The charters of freedom and pardon that he had granted, and as disturbances continued in other parts of the country, he personally went into Essex to suppress the rebellion. On 28 June at Billericay , he defeated the last rebels in a small skirmish and effectively ended the Peasants' Revolt. In the following days rebel leaders, such as John Ball, were hunted down and executed. Despite his young age, Richard had shown great courage and determination in his handling of
13860-487: The childless Richard. Discord broke out in the inner circles of court in December 1397, when Henry, Duke of Hereford, and Thomas, Duke of Norfolk, became embroiled in a quarrel. According to Henry, Thomas had claimed that the two, as former Lords Appellant, were next in line for royal retribution. Thomas vehemently denied these charges, as such a claim would have amounted to treason. A parliamentary committee decided that
14025-409: The closest bowl will often make their subsequent shots not with the goal of placing the bowl near the jack, but in positions to make it difficult for opponents to get their bowls into the head, or to places where the jack might be deflected to if the opponent attempts to disturb the head. There are many different ways to set up the game. Crown Green Bowling utilises the entire green. A player can send
14190-401: The clubs in their area. Provincial or national colours are often assigned in national and international competitions. These stickers are used by officials to distinguish teams. Bowls have symbols unique to the set of four for identification. The side of the bowl with a larger symbol within a circle indicates the side away from the bias. That side with a smaller symbol within a smaller circle
14355-471: The community in sports such as mass media campaigns, educational sessions, and policy changes. There is also no high-quality studies that investigate the effect of such interventions in promoting healthy behaviour change in the community. sports is one of the important part of life Benito Mussolini used the 1934 FIFA World Cup , which was held in Italy, to showcase Fascist Italy . Adolf Hitler also used
14520-483: The conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects. In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism . Until the mid-20th century a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football , hurling , or other sports administered by
14685-551: The country in May for another expedition in Ireland. In the last years of Richard's reign, and particularly in the months after the suppression of the appellants in 1397, the King enjoyed a virtual monopoly on power in the country, a relatively uncommon situation in medieval England. In this period a particular court culture was allowed to emerge, one that differed sharply from that of earlier times. A new form of address developed; where
14850-512: The cult of Edward the Confessor, and around 1395 he had his own coat of arms impaled with the mythical arms of the Confessor. Though not a warrior king like his grandfather, Richard nevertheless enjoyed tournaments , as well as hunting. The popular view of Richard has more than anything been influenced by Shakespeare 's play about the King, Richard II . Shakespeare's Richard was a cruel, vindictive, and irresponsible king, who attained
15015-428: The difficulties of the past years had been due solely to bad councillors. He outlined a foreign policy that reversed the actions of the appellants by seeking peace and reconciliation with France, and promised to lessen the burden of taxation on the people significantly. Richard ruled peacefully for the next eight years, having reconciled with his former adversaries. Still, later events would show that he had not forgotten
15180-482: The disgrace of executing a prince of the blood. Warwick was also condemned to death, but his life was spared and his sentence reduced to life imprisonment. Arundel's brother Thomas Arundel , the Archbishop of Canterbury, was exiled for life. Richard then took his persecution of adversaries to the localities. While recruiting retainers for himself in various counties, he prosecuted local men who had been loyal to
15345-461: The distance of the closest bowls to the jack is determined (the jack may have been displaced) and points, called "shots", are awarded for each bowl which a competitor has closer than the opponent's nearest to the jack. For instance, if a competitor has bowled two bowls closer to the jack than their opponent's nearest, they are awarded two shots. The exercise is then repeated for the next end, a game of bowls typically being of twenty-one ends. Lawn bowls
15510-585: The division of Europe caused by the Western Schism , Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire were seen as potential allies against France in the ongoing Hundred Years' War. Nonetheless, the marriage was not popular in England. Despite great sums of money awarded to the Empire, the political alliance never resulted in any military victories. Furthermore, the marriage was childless. Anne died from
15675-454: The end of June 1399. Meeting with Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland , who had his own misgivings about the King, Henry Bolingbroke insisted that his only object was to regain his own patrimony. Northumberland took him at his word and declined to interfere. The King had taken most of his household knights and the loyal members of his nobility with him to Ireland, so Henry Bolingbroke experienced little resistance as he moved south. Keeper of
15840-561: The end of the match time. Artifacts and structures suggest sport in China as early as 2000 BC. Gymnastics appears to have been popular in China's ancient past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a number of sports, including swimming and fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt . Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as
16005-456: The end. A "block" shot is one that is intentionally placed short to defend from a drive or to stop an oppositions draw shot. The challenge in all these shots is to be able to adjust line and length accordingly, the faster the delivery, the narrower the line or "green". Particularly in team competition there can be a large number of bowls on the green towards the conclusion of the end, and this gives rise to complex tactics. Teams "holding shot" with
16170-551: The event when one has "touched" the jack on its way. "Touchers" are marked with chalk and remain alive in play even if they get into the ditch. Similarly if the jack is knocked into the ditch it is still alive unless it is out of bounds to the side resulting in a "dead" end which is replayed, though according to international rules the jack is "respotted" to the centre of the rink and the end is continued. After each competitor has delivered all of their bowls (four each in singles and pairs, three each in triples, and two bowls each in fours),
16335-585: The exploits of professional athletes – all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been increasing debate about whether transgender sports people should be able to participate in sport events that conform with their post-transition gender identity . Sportsmanship is an attitude that strives for fair play, courtesy toward teammates and opponents, ethical behaviour and integrity, and grace in victory or defeat. Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that
16500-405: The field of architecture was Westminster Hall , which was extensively rebuilt during his reign, perhaps spurred on by the completion in 1391 of John of Gaunt's magnificent hall at Kenilworth Castle . Fifteen life-size statues of kings were placed in niches on the walls, and the hammer-beam roof by the royal carpenter Hugh Herland , "the greatest creation of medieval timber architecture", allowed
16665-520: The forces to disperse the rebels and that the only feasible option was to negotiate. It is unclear how much Richard, who was still only fourteen years old, was involved in these deliberations, although historians have suggested that he was among the proponents of negotiations. The King set out by the River Thames on 13 June, but the large number of people thronging the banks at Greenwich made it impossible for him to land, forcing him to return to
16830-565: The former Lords Appellant Also among them were With the forfeited lands of the convicted appellants, the King could reward these men with lands suited to their new ranks. A threat to Richard's authority still existed, however, in the form of the House of Lancaster , represented by John of Gaunt and his son Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford. The House of Lancaster not only possessed greater wealth than any other family in England, they were of royal descent and, as such, likely candidates to succeed
16995-408: The game as globurum . The name of bowls is implied in the gerund bowlyn , recorded in the mid-15th century. The term bowl for "wooden ball" is recorded in the early 1400s. The name is explicitly mentioned, as bowles , in a list of unlawful games in a 1495 act by Henry VII ( Tenys, Closshe, Dise, Cardes, Bowles ). It occurs again in a similar statute by Henry VIII (1511). By a further act,
17160-420: The game is played over 21 ends. A player concedes the game before the 21st end if the score difference is such that it is impossible to draw equal or win within the 21 ends. If the score is equal after 21 ends, an extra end is played to decide the winner. An additional scoring method is set play. This comprises two sets over nine ends. Should a player win a set each, they then play a further 3 ends that will decide
17325-408: The green to serve as a target. Once it has come to rest, the jack is aligned to the centre of the rink and the players take turns to roll their bowls from the mat towards the jack and thereby build up the "head". A bowl may curve outside the rink boundary on its path, but must come to rest within the rink boundary to remain in play. Bowls falling into the ditch are dead and removed from play, except in
17490-457: The head. For a right-handed bowler, "forehand draw" or "finger peg" is initially aimed to the right of the jack, and curves in to the left. The same bowler can deliver a "backhand draw" or "thumb peg" by turning the bowl over in his hand and curving it the opposite way, from left to right. In both cases, the bowl is rolled as close to the jack as possible, unless tactics demand otherwise. A "drive" or "fire" or "strike" involves bowling with force with
17655-414: The host broadcaster, a number of different technologies are used during an umpire or player review, including instant replays, Hawk-Eye , Hot Spot and Real Time Snickometer . Hawk-Eye is also used in tennis to challenge umpiring decisions. Research suggests that sports have the capacity to connect youth to positive adult role models and provide positive development opportunities, as well as promote
17820-427: The impact of losing on less able participants, there has been an introduction of non-competitive physical activity to traditionally competitive events such as school sports days , although moves like this are often controversial. In competitive events, participants are graded or classified based on their "result" and often divided into groups of comparable performance, (e.g. gender, weight and age). The measurement of
17985-509: The impact of technical advantage between participants. For example, in 2010, full-body, non-textile swimsuits were banned by FINA , as they were enhancing swimmers' performances. The increase in technology has also allowed many decisions in sports matches to be taken, or reviewed, off-field, with another official using instant replays to make decisions. In some sports, players can now challenge decisions made by officials. In Association football , goal-line technology makes decisions on whether
18150-553: The incumbent president is more likely to win, and if the Redskins lose, then the opposition candidate is more likely to win; this has become known as the Redskins Rule . Richard II of England Richard II (6 January 1367 – c. 14 February 1400 ), also known as Richard of Bordeaux , was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. He was the son of Edward, Prince of Wales (later known as
18315-477: The indignities he perceived. In particular, the execution of his former teacher Sir Simon de Burley was an insult not easily forgotten. With national stability secured, Richard began negotiating a permanent peace with France. A proposal put forward in 1393 would have greatly expanded the territory of Aquitaine possessed by the English Crown. However, the plan failed because it included a requirement that
18480-412: The jack anywhere on the green in this game and the green itself is more akin to a golf green, with much undulation. It is played with only two woods each. The jack also has a bias and is only slightly smaller than the woods. At the amateur level it is usual for several ends to be played simultaneously on one green. If two moving woods meet, both are taken back and the shots replayed. If a moving wood strikes
18645-407: The late 1800s. In the then-Victorian Colony (now the state of Victoria, Australia ), the (Royal) Victorian Bowling Association was formed in 1880. The Scottish Bowling Association was established in 1892, although there had been a failed attempt in 1848 by 200 Scottish clubs. Today, bowls is played in over 40 countries with more than 50 member national authorities. Lawn bowls is usually played on
18810-523: The leaders Wat Tyler , John Ball , and Jack Straw . John of Gaunt's Savoy Palace was burnt down. The Archbishop of Canterbury , Simon Sudbury , who was also Lord Chancellor , and Lord High Treasurer Robert Hales were both killed by the rebels, who were demanding the complete abolition of serfdom . The King, sheltered within the Tower of London with his councillors, agreed that the Crown did not have
18975-431: The learning and application of life skills . In recent years the use of sport to reduce crime , as well as to prevent violent extremism and radicalization , has become more widespread, especially as a tool to improve self-esteem , enhance social bonds and provide participants with a feeling of purpose. There is no high-quality evidence that shows the effectiveness of interventions to increase sports participation of
19140-547: The lower levels of English society. Whereas the poll tax of 1381 was the spark of the Peasants' Revolt , the root of the conflict lay in tensions between peasants and landowners precipitated by the economic and demographic consequences of the Black Death and subsequent outbreaks of the plague. The rebellion started in Kent and Essex in late May, and on 12 June, bands of peasants gathered at Blackheath near London under
19305-459: The mayor of London, Nicholas Brembre , and Alexander Neville , the Archbishop of York . Richard stalled the negotiations to gain time, as he was expecting de Vere to arrive from Cheshire with military reinforcements. The three peers then joined forces with Gaunt's son Henry Bolingbroke , Earl of Derby, and Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham – the group known to history as
19470-417: The more established nobility. Another member of the close circle around the King was Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford , who in this period emerged as the King's favourite . Richard's close friendship to de Vere was also disagreeable to the political establishment. This displeasure was exacerbated by the earl's elevation to the new title of Duke of Ireland in 1386. The chronicler Thomas Walsingham suggested
19635-416: The most shots after 21 or 25 ends of play. Often local tournaments will play shorter games (usually 10 or 12 ends). Some competitions use a "set" scoring system, with the first to seven points awarded a set in a best-of-three or best-of-five set match. As well as singles competition, there can be two (pairs), three (triples) and four-player (fours) teams. In these, teams bowl alternately, with each player within
19800-599: The necessity of competition as a defining element of a sport, with almost all professional sports involving competition, and governing bodies requiring competition as a prerequisite of recognition by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) or GAISF. Other bodies advocate widening the definition of sport to include all physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe include all forms of physical exercise, including those competed just for fun. In order to widen participation, and reduce
19965-672: The new king and restore Richard in the Epiphany Rising . Although averted, the plot highlighted the danger of allowing Richard to live. He is thought to have starved to death in captivity in Pontefract Castle on or around 14 February 1400, although there is some question over the date and manner of his death. His body was taken south from Pontefract and displayed in St Paul's Cathedral on 17 February before burial in King's Langley Priory on 6 March. Rumours that Richard
20130-430: The north of England fell victim to a Scottish incursion . Richard was now over twenty-one years old and could with confidence claim the right to govern in his own name. Furthermore, John of Gaunt returned to England in 1389 and settled his differences with the King, after which the old statesman acted as a moderating influence on English politics. Richard assumed full control of the government on 3 May 1389, claiming that
20295-470: The noun sport as an "activity engaged in for relaxation and amusement" with synonyms including diversion and recreation. The singular term "sport" is used in most English dialects to describe the overall concept (e.g. "children taking part in sport"), with "sports" used to describe multiple activities (e.g. "football and rugby are the most popular sports in England"). American English uses "sports" for both terms. The precise definition of what differentiates
20460-581: The number of mind games which can be admitted as sports. Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs , which serve to ensure fair competition. Winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic impression. Records of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news . Sport
20625-461: The official record, read by the Archbishop of Canterbury during an assembly of lords and commons at Westminster Hall on Tuesday 30 September, Richard gave up his crown willingly and ratified his deposition citing as a reason his own unworthiness as a monarch. In contrast, the Traison et Mort Chronicle suggests otherwise. It describes a meeting between Richard and Henry that took place one day before
20790-574: The oldest club in Scotland, instituted in 1740. The patenting of the first lawn mower in 1830, in Britain, is strongly believed to have been the catalyst for the worldwide preparation of modern-style greens, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, grass courts, etc. This, in turn, led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn bowls, most football codes, lawn tennis and others. National Bowling Associations were established in
20955-424: The original three Romanesque aisles to be replaced with a single huge open space, with a dais at the end for Richard to sit in solitary state. The rebuilding had been begun by Henry III in 1245, but had by Richard's time been dormant for over a century. The court's patronage of literature is especially important because this was the period in which the English language took shape as a literary language . There
21120-473: The parliament of October that year, Michael de la Pole – in his capacity of chancellor – requested taxation of an unprecedented level for the defence of the realm. Rather than consenting, the parliament responded by refusing to consider any request until the chancellor was removed. The parliament (later known as the Wonderful Parliament ) was presumably working with
21285-473: The parliament's session. The King succumbed to blind rage, ordered his own release from the Tower, called his cousin a traitor, demanded to see his wife, and swore revenge, throwing down his bonnet, while Henry refused to do anything without parliamentary approval. When parliament met to discuss Richard's fate, John Trevor , Bishop of St Asaph, read thirty-three articles of deposition that were unanimously accepted by lords and commons. On 1 October 1399, Richard II
21450-404: The plague in 1394, greatly mourned by her husband. Michael de la Pole had been instrumental in the marriage negotiations; he had the King's confidence and gradually became more involved at court and in government as Richard came of age. De la Pole came from an upstart merchant family. When Richard made him chancellor in 1383, and created him Earl of Suffolk two years later, this antagonised
21615-514: The rebellion. It is likely, though, that the events impressed upon him the dangers of disobedience and threats to royal authority, and helped shape the absolutist attitudes to kingship that would later prove fatal to his reign. It is only with the Peasants' Revolt that Richard starts to emerge clearly in the annals . One of his first significant acts after the rebellion was to marry Anne of Bohemia , daughter of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor , on 20 January 1382. It had diplomatic significance; in
21780-572: The referee. A video referee (commonly known as a Television Match Official or TMO) can also use replays to help decision-making in rugby (both league and union ). In international cricket, an umpire can ask the Third umpire for a decision, and the third umpire makes the final decision. Since 2008, a decision review system for players to review decisions has been introduced and used in ICC -run tournaments, and optionally in other matches. Depending on
21945-503: The reigns of Edward III , Richard II and other monarchs. Even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The discredit attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in 1455, probably encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many of the alleys were connected with taverns frequented by the dissolute and gamesters. Erasmus referred to
22110-455: The relationship between the King and de Vere was of a homosexual nature, due to a resentment Walsingham had toward the King. Tensions came to a head over the approach to the war in France. While the court party preferred negotiations, Gaunt and Buckingham urged a large-scale campaign to protect English possessions. Instead, a so-called crusade led by Henry le Despenser , Bishop of Norwich ,
22275-404: The remains of his wife Anne were already entombed. Contemporary writers, even those less sympathetic to the King, agreed that Richard was a "most beautiful king", though with an unmanly "face which was white, rounded and feminine." He was athletic and tall; when his tomb was opened in 1871, he was found to be six feet (1.82 m) tall. He was also intelligent and well read, and when agitated he had
22440-412: The result may be objective or subjective, and corrected with "handicaps" or penalties. In a race, for example, the time to complete the course is an objective measurement. In gymnastics or diving the result is decided by a panel of judges, and therefore subjective. There are many shades of judging between boxing and mixed martial arts, where victory is assigned by judges if neither competitor has lost at
22605-596: The result of sports events can affect the results. A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences showed that when the home team wins the game before the election, the incumbent candidates can increase their share of the vote by 1.5 per cent. A loss had the opposite effect, and the effect is greater for higher-profile teams or unexpected wins and losses. Also, when Washington Redskins win their final game before an election, then
22770-450: The results of sports events creates a motivation for match fixing , where a participant or participants deliberately work to ensure a given outcome rather than simply playing to win. The competitive nature of sport encourages some participants to attempt to enhance their performance through the use of medicines, or through other means such as increasing the volume of blood in their bodies through artificial means . All sports recognised by
22935-437: The royal image. Unlike any other English king before him, he had himself portrayed in panel paintings of elevated majesty, of which two survive: an over life-size Westminster Abbey portrait (c. 1390), and the Wilton Diptych (1394–1399), a portable work probably intended to accompany Richard on his Irish campaign. It is one of the few surviving English examples of the courtly International Gothic style of painting that
23100-417: The same time, he developed his own private military retinue, larger than that of any English king before him, and gave them livery badges with his White Hart . He was then free to develop a courtly atmosphere in which the king was a distant, venerated figure, and art and culture, rather than warfare, were at the centre. As part of Richard's programme of asserting his authority, he also tried to cultivate
23265-466: The second has delivered his bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first player meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own; the third player is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century manuscript, Book of Prayers , in the Francis Douce collection in
23430-558: The specific phenomenon of spectator sport. Both amateur and professional sports attract spectators, both in person at the sport venue, and through broadcast media including radio , television and internet broadcast. Both attendance in person and viewing remotely can incur a sometimes substantial charge, such as an entrance ticket, or pay-per-view television broadcast. Sports league and tournament are two common arrangements to organise sport teams or individual athletes into competing against each other continuously or periodically. It
23595-509: The sport with 51 medals. Sport Sport is a form of physical activity or game . Often competitive and organized , sports use, maintain, or improve physical ability and skills . They also provide enjoyment to participants and, in some cases, entertainment to spectators. Many sports exist, with different participant numbers, some are done by a single person with others being done by hundreds. Most sports take place either in teams or competing as individuals. Some sports allow
23760-658: The sporting venue, as in the Football War . These trends are seen by many as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake and for the enjoyment of its participants. Sport and politics collided in the 1972 Olympics in Munich. Masked men entered the hotel of the Israeli Olympic team and killed many of their men. This was known as the Munich massacre . A study of US elections has shown that
23925-442: The support of Gloucester and Arundel. The King famously responded that he would not dismiss as much as a scullion from his kitchen at parliament's request. Only when threatened with deposition was Richard forced to give in and let de la Pole go. A commission was set up to review and control royal finances for a year. Richard was deeply perturbed by this affront to his royal prerogative, and from February to November 1387 went on
24090-416: The throne of Castile in 1386 amid rumours of a plot against his person. With Gaunt gone, the unofficial leadership of the growing dissent against the King and his courtiers passed to Buckingham – who had by now been created Duke of Gloucester – and Richard Fitzalan, 4th Earl of Arundel . The threat of a French invasion did not subside, but instead grew stronger into 1386. At
24255-543: The throne of England for many years. Although Richard sought peace with France, he took a different approach to the situation in Ireland. The English lordships in Ireland were in danger of being overrun by the Gaelic Irish kingdoms, and the Anglo-Irish lords were pleading for the King to intervene. In the autumn of 1394, Richard left for Ireland, where he remained until May 1395. His army of more than 8,000 men
24420-629: The throne of England, had distinguished himself as a military commander in the early phases of the Hundred Years' War , particularly in the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. After further military adventures, however, he contracted dysentery in Spain in 1370. He never fully recovered and had to return to England the next year. Richard was born at the Archbishop's Palace of Bordeaux , in the English principality of Aquitaine , on 6 January 1367. According to contemporary sources, three kings, "the King of Castile ,
24585-575: The time of Ancient Greece and the military culture and the development of sport in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sport became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the Olympic Games , which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia . Sports have been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of
24750-465: The total participation in US interscholastic athletics. Certain sports are mixed-gender , allowing (or even requiring) men and women to play on the same team. One example of this is Baseball5 , which is the first mixed-gender sport to have been admitted into an Olympic event. Youth sport presents children with opportunities for fun, socialisation, forming peer relationships, physical fitness , and athletic scholarships . Activists for education and
24915-403: The traditional Iranian martial art of Zoorkhaneh had a close connection to warfare skills. Among other sports that originated in ancient Persia are polo and jousting . Various traditional games of India such as Kho kho and Kabbadi have been played for thousands of years. The kabaddi was played potentially as a preparation for hunting. A wide range of sports were already established by
25080-500: The two should settle the matter by battle, but at the last moment Richard exiled the two dukes instead: Thomas for life, Henry for ten years. In 1398 Richard summoned the Parliament of Shrewsbury, which declared all the acts of the Merciless Parliament to be null and void, and announced that no restraint could legally be put on the King. It delegated all parliamentary power to a committee of twelve lords and six commoners chosen from
25245-460: The use of video analysis to fine-tune technique, or to equipment, such as improved running shoes or competitive swimwear . Sports engineering emerged as a discipline in 1998 with an increasing focus not just on materials design but also the use of technology in sport, from analytics and big data to wearable technology . In order to control the impact of technology on fair play, governing bodies frequently have specific rules that are set to control
25410-431: The winner. Pairs allows both people on a team to play Skip and Lead. The lead throws two bowls, the skip delivers two, then the lead delivers his remaining two, the skip then delivers his remaining two bowls. Each end, the leads and skips switch positions. This is played over 21 ends or sets play. Triples is with three players while Fours is with four players in each team and is played over 21 ends. Another pairs variation
25575-413: The yearly value of £100 might obtain licences to play on their own private greens. In 1864, William Wallace Mitchell (1803–1884), a Glasgow Cotton Merchant, published his "Manual of Bowls Playing" following his work as the secretary formed in 1849 by Scottish bowling clubs which became the basis of the rules of the modern game. Young Mitchell was only 11 years old when he played on Kilmarnock bowling green,
25740-554: Was developed in the courts of the Continent, especially Prague and Paris. Richard's expenditure on jewellery, rich textiles and metalwork was far higher than on paintings, but as with his illuminated manuscripts , there are hardly any surviving works that can be connected with him, except for a crown, "one of the finest achievements of the Gothic goldsmith", that probably belonged to his wife Anne. Among Richard's grandest projects in
25905-738: Was dispatched, which failed miserably. Faced with this setback on the continent, Richard turned his attention instead towards France's ally, the Kingdom of Scotland . In 1385, the King himself led a punitive expedition to the north , but the effort came to nothing, and the army had to return without ever engaging the Scots in battle. Meanwhile, only an uprising in Ghent prevented a French invasion of southern England. The relationship between Richard and his uncle John of Gaunt deteriorated further with military failure, and Gaunt left England to pursue his claim to
26070-477: Was formally deposed. On 13 October, the feast day of Edward the Confessor , Henry was crowned king. Henry had agreed to let Richard live after his abdication. This changed when it was revealed that the earls of Huntingdon, Kent, and Salisbury, and Lord Despenser, and possibly also the Earl of Rutland – all now demoted from the ranks they had been given by Richard – were planning to murder
26235-456: Was formerly owned by the pub (now demolished) but was purchased in 2007 by The Panel who paid the brewery £12,000 for the renowned green and its surrounds. Singles, triples and fours and Australian pairs are some ways the game can be played. In singles, two people play against each other and the first to reach 21, 25, or 31 shots (as decided by the controlling body) is the winner. In one variation of singles play, each player uses two bowls only and
26400-549: Was founded to uniform the local differing rules and to organise a match calendar. Meanwhile, they also organise championships and tournaments. There are various bowls competitions held around the world (see - World Bowls Events ). Bowls is one of the "core sports" that must be included at each edition of the Commonwealth Games . With the exception of the 1966 Games, the sport has been included in all Games since their inception in 1930. England has so far dominated
26565-508: Was held in the crypt of the Agricola Tower. On the journey to London, the indignant king had to ride all the way behind Henry. On arrival, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London on 1 September. Henry was by now fully determined to take the throne, but presenting a rationale for this action proved a dilemma. It was argued that Richard, through his tyranny and misgovernment, had rendered himself unworthy of being king. However, Henry
26730-431: Was not next in line to the throne; the heir presumptive was Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March , great-grandson of Edward III's second surviving son, Lionel, Duke of Clarence . Henry's father, John of Gaunt, was Edward's third son to survive to adulthood. The problem was solved by emphasising Henry's descent in a direct male line, whereas March's descent was through his grandmother, Philippa of Clarence . According to
26895-503: Was still alive persisted, but never gained much credence in England; in Scotland, however, a man identified as Richard came into the hands of Regent Albany , lodged in Stirling Castle , and serving as the notional – and perhaps reluctant – figurehead of various anti-Lancastrian and Lollard intrigues in England. Henry IV's government dismissed him as an impostor, and several sources from both sides of
27060-414: Was the first of the three to be brought to trial, at the parliament of September 1397. After a heated quarrel with the King, he was condemned and executed. Gloucester was being held prisoner by the Earl of Nottingham at Calais while awaiting his trial. As the time for the trial drew near, Nottingham brought news that Gloucester was dead. It is thought likely that the King had ordered him to be killed to avoid
27225-405: Was the largest force brought to the island during the late Middle Ages. The invasion was a success, and a number of Irish chieftains submitted to English overlordship. It was one of the most successful achievements of Richard's reign, and strengthened his support at home, although the consolidation of the English position in Ireland proved to be short-lived. The period that historians refer to as
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