Electors of Saxony
101-522: Lollardy was a proto-Protestant Christian religious movement that was active in England from the mid-14th century until the 16th-century English Reformation . It was initially led by John Wycliffe , a Catholic theologian who was dismissed from the University of Oxford in 1381 for heresy . The Lollards' demands were primarily for reform of Western Christianity . They formulated their beliefs in
202-518: A bishop of the Moravian Church , stated that Holy Communion is the "most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour". The Moravian Church adheres to a view known as the "sacramental presence", teaching that in the sacrament of Holy Communion : Christ gives his body and blood according to his promise to all who partake of the elements. When we eat and drink the bread and
303-587: A "change", "transelementation", "transformation", "transposing", "alteration" of the bread into the body of Christ. Augustine declares that the bread consecrated in the Eucharist actually "becomes" (in Latin, fit ) the Body of Christ: "The faithful know what I'm talking about; they know Christ in the breaking of bread. It isn't every loaf of bread, you see, but the one receiving Christ's blessing, that becomes
404-650: A central statement of belief of the Lollards, the Twelve Conclusions reveal certain basic Lollard ideas. Later, an expanded version the "Thirty Seven Conclusions" or "Remonstrances" was submitted in the late 1390s; the author is not known. Lollardy was a religion of vernacular scripture . Lollards opposed many practices of the Catholic church. Anne Hudson has written that a form of sola scriptura underpinned Wycliffe's beliefs, but distinguished it from
505-523: A different oath, which would have actually freed him; his denial of having taken that oath was taken as a re-canting by the bishop, preventing his attempted appeal to the Pope, so he was excommunicated, defrocked, imprisoned and eventually executed. Lollard teachings on the Eucharist are attested to in numerous primary source documents. It is the fourth of the Twelve Conclusions and the first of
606-531: A diverse category whose only commonality is a perceived anti-Catholicism rather than any adherence to the five solae ; the idea of successionism (or the hidden church) has further been criticized as lacking historical evidence, linking unrelated groups (e.g. the Manichaean Bogomil "Cathars" , the Albigensian "Cathars" , the semi-monastic Beguine movement , the antipapal fraticelli friars,
707-815: A flock of geese . These representations alluded to the story of the preaching fox found in popular medieval literature such as The History of Reynard the Fox and The Shifts of Raynardine . The fox lured the geese closer and closer with its eloquent words, until it was able to snatch a victim to devour. The moral of the story being that foolish people are seduced by false teachers. Proto-Protestantism Holy Roman Emperors Building Literature Theater Liturgies Hymnals Monuments Calendrical commemoration Proto-Protestantism , also called pre-Protestantism , refers to individuals and movements that propagated various ideas later associated with Protestantism before 1517, which historians usually regard as
808-637: A form of idolatry. Oaths, fasting and prayers for the dead were thought to have no scriptural basis . They had a poor opinion of the trappings of the Catholic Church, including holy water, bells, organs, and church buildings. They rejected the value of papal pardons . One group of Lollards petitioned Parliament with the Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards by posting them on the doors of Westminster Hall in February 1395. While by no means
909-434: A philosophical elaboration in line with that metaphysics was developed, which found classic formulation in the teaching of Saint Thomas Aquinas. It was only then that Scholasticism cast Christian theology in the terms of Aristotelianism . The metaphysical aspects of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist were firstly described since the time of the Latin juvenile treatise titled De venerabili sacramento altaris (On
1010-447: A priest named Richard Wyche was accused of false doctrine that corrupted the faith of Northumbrians, and left a letter detailing his version of the inquisitional proceedings, where a succession of theologians and others attempted to convince him of the Catholic position or to find some compromise wording that involved him not denying transubstantiation. When asked about transubstantiation during his questioning, he repeated only his belief in
1111-438: A servant girl found bacon in a pot of oatmeal on the first Saturday of Lent . Non-observance of dietary restrictions was used as evidence of heresy in another Norfolk case against Thomas Mone, where it was alleged that a piglet was eaten for Easter dinner when eating meat was forbidden. Special vows were considered to be in conflict with the divine order established by Christ and were regarded as anathema . Lollards had
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#17327662355441212-710: A tendency toward iconoclasm . Some Lollards believed work was permissible on Sundays. Sixteenth-century martyrologist John Foxe reduced the main beliefs of Lollardy to four, to an extent eliding the Wycliffite doctrine of dominium : Although Lollardy was denounced as a heresy by the Catholic Church, initially Wycliffe and the Lollards were sheltered by politically-influential nobleman John of Gaunt and other anti-clerical nobility, who may have wanted to use Lollard-advocated clerical reform to acquire new sources of revenue from England's monasteries. The University of Oxford also protected Wycliffe and similar academics on
1313-445: A term which is specifically rejected by most Lutheran churches and theologians since it creates confusion about the actual doctrine, and it subjects the doctrine to the control of an abiblical philosophical concept in the same manner as, in their view, does the term "transubstantiation". For Lutherans, there is no Sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christ's institution (consecration, distribution, and reception). This
1414-529: Is a partaking of the body of Christ, likewise the cup of blessing is a partaking of the blood of Christ. Transubstantiation (or the change of the substance of Bread and Wine) in the supper of the Lord, cannot be proved by Holy Writ; but is repugnant to the plain words of scripture, overthroweth the nature of the Sacrament and hath given occasion to many superstitions. The Body of Christ is given, taken and eaten in
1515-552: Is gathered with the vessel of faith". "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers", Calvin said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. By faith (not a mere mental apprehension), and in the Holy Spirit, the partaker beholds God incarnate, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's presence penetrates to
1616-613: Is incorruptible love and eternal life." Writing to the Christians of Smyrna in the same year, he warned them to "stand aloof from such heretics", because, among other reasons, "they abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer, because they confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of his goodness, raised up again." In about 150, Justin Martyr , referring to
1717-427: Is it that you assert that I receive the Body of Christ?" ... Let us prove that this is not what nature made, but what the blessing consecrated, and the power of blessing is greater than that of nature, because by blessing nature itself is changed. ... For that sacrament which you receive is made what it is by the word of Christ. But if the word of Elijah had such power as to bring down fire from heaven, shall not
1818-687: Is the 'Lollards Pit' in Thorpe Wood, now Thorpe Hamlet , Norwich, Norfolk, " where men are customablie burnt ", including Thomas Bilney . Despite the debate about the extent of Lollard influence there are ample records of the persecution of Lollards from this period. In the Diocese of London , there are records of about 310 Lollards being prosecuted or forced to abjure from 1510 to 1532. In Lincoln diocese, 45 cases against Lollardy were heard in 1506–1507. In 1521, there were 50 abjurations and 5 burnings of Lollards. In 1511, Archbishop Warham presided over
1919-468: Is the belief in the Real Presence (pneumatic) in the sacrament and that it is a Holy Mystery. Reformed theology has traditionally taught that Jesus' body is seated in heaven at the right hand of God; therefore his body is not physically present in the elements, nor do the elements turn into his body in a physical or any objective sense. However, Reformed theology has also historically taught that when
2020-631: Is usually named as the translator of most of the Old Testament of the Wycliffean Middle English Bible . Lollards first faced serious persecution after the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. While Wycliffe and other Lollards opposed the revolt, one of the peasants' leaders, John Ball , preached Lollardy. Prior to 1382, Wycliffite beliefs were tolerated in government as they endorsed in royal superiority to bishops. However,
2121-455: Is usually not practiced by most Lutherans except for bowing , genuflecting , and kneeling to receive the Eucharist from the Words of Institution and elevation to reception of the holy meal. The reliquæ traditionally are consumed by the celebrant after the people have communed, except that a small amount may be reserved for delivery to those too ill or infirm to attend the service. In this case,
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#17327662355442222-708: The Sixteen Points on which the Bishops accuse Lollards . It is discussed in The Testimony of William Thorpe , the Apology for Lollard Doctrines , Jack Upland , and Opus Arduum . The Lollards did not believe that the church practices of baptism and confession were necessary for salvation . Believing in a universal priesthood , the Lollards challenged the Church's authority to invest or to deny
2323-898: The Christian era , many Christian sects , cults and movements foreshadowed the teachings of what later became the Non-conformist Protestant movements. Baptist successionism postulates an unbroken lineage of churches which have held beliefs similar to those of current Baptists. Groups often included in this lineage include the Montanists , Novationists , Donatists , Paulicians , Albigenses , Waldenses , Petrobrusians , Arnoldists , Henricians , Hussites (partly), Lollards (partly) and Anabaptists . Baptist successionism proposes that groups such as Bogomils or Paulicians were Baptist in doctrine instead of Gnostic. The idea of proto-protestants has been criticized as
2424-506: The Church of the East , the Moravian Church , Lutheranism , Anglicanism , Methodism , and Reformed Christianity . The differences in the teachings of these Churches primarily concern "the mode of Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper". Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of beliefs by these Churches led in the 1980s to consultations on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry by
2525-538: The Crown of Castile . Paul Strohm has asked: "Was the Lollard a genuine threat or a political pawn, agent of destabilising challenge, or a hapless threat of self-legitimizing Lancastrian discourse?" A group of gentry active during the reign of Richard II (1377–99) were known as "Lollard Knights" either during or after their lives due to their acceptance of Wycliffe's claims. Henry Knighton , in his Chronicle, identifies
2626-759: The Revival of the Heresy Acts under the Catholic Mary I , which specifically suppressed heresy and Lollardy. The similarity between Lollards and later English Protestant groups, such as the Baptists , Puritans , and Quakers , also suggests some continuation of Lollard ideas through the Reformation. The Roman Catholic Church used art as an anti-Lollard weapon. Lollards were represented on misericords as foxes dressed as monks or priests preaching to
2727-463: The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards . Early it became associated with uprisings and assassinations of high government officials, and was suppressed. Lollard , Lollardi , or Loller was the popular derogatory nickname given to those without an academic background, educated, if at all, only in English , who were reputed to follow the teachings of John Wycliffe in particular, and were energized by
2828-723: The World Council of Churches . The Real Presence is rejected or interpreted in light of "remembrance" (per certain translations of the New Testament) by other Christians, including General Baptists , Anabaptists , the Plymouth Brethren , some non-denominational Christian churches , as well as those identifying with liberal Christianity , segments of the Restoration Movement , and Jehovah's Witnesses . The Real Presence of Christ in
2929-557: The reality of the change" from bread and wine into the body and the blood of Christ at the consecration of the elements, the Orthodox have "never attempted to explain the manner of the change ." —Brad Harper and Paul Louis Metzger The Greek term metousiosis ( μετουσίωσις ) is sometimes used by Eastern Orthodox Christians to describe the change since this term "is not bound up with the scholastic theory of substance and accidents", but it does not have official status as "a dogma of
3030-492: The "foster-child" of the Wycliffite heresy. Scholars debate whether Protestants actually drew influence from Lollardy, or whether they referred to it to create a sense of tradition. Other martyrs for the Lollard cause were executed during the next century, including the Amersham Martyrs in the early 1500s and Thomas Harding in 1532, one of the last Lollards to be persecuted. A gruesome reminder of this persecution
3131-553: The Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics in 1526. Saying that "bread and body are two distinct substances", he declared that "out of two kinds of objects a union has taken place, which I shall call a 'sacramental union ' ". Thus, the main theological division in this question, turned out to be not between Catholicism and Protestantism, but within Protestantism, especially between Luther and Zwingli , who discussed
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3232-408: The Church, " Ave Verum Corpus ", greets Christ in the Eucharist as follows (in translation from the original Latin): "Hail, true body, born of Mary Virgin, and which truly suffered and was immolated on the cross for mankind!" The Catholic Church also holds that the presence of Christ in the Eucharist is entire: it does not see what is really in the Eucharist as a lifeless corpse and mere blood, but as
3333-705: The Congregationalist belief regarding the pneumatic presence in The Holy Catholic Church from the Congregational Point of View : He is really present at the Lord's Supper without any such limitation to the element unless we are prepared to maintain that the material is more real than the spiritual. It is the whole Christ who presents Himself to faith, so that the believer has communion with Him. The 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith , in which Reformed Baptists believe, affirms
3434-528: The English church." It was associated with Lollard missionary William White. Lollards were effectively absorbed into Protestantism during the English Reformation , in which Lollardy played a role. Since Lollards had been underground for more than a hundred years, the extent of Lollardy and its ideas at the time of the Reformation is uncertain and a point of debate. Ancestors of Blanche Parry ,
3535-528: The Eucharist The real presence of Christ in the Eucharist is the Christian doctrine that Jesus Christ is present in the Eucharist , not merely symbolically or metaphorically , but in a true, real and substantial way. There are a number of Christian denominations that teach that Christ is truly present in the Eucharist, including Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , Oriental Orthodoxy ,
3636-417: The Eucharist as substantial, that is, involving the underlying substance, not the appearances of bread and wine. These maintain all their physical properties as before: unlike what happens when the appearance of something or somebody is altered but the basic reality remains the same, it is the teaching of the Catholic Church that in the Eucharist the appearance is quite unchanged, but the basic reality has become
3737-652: The Eucharist has been believed since very ancient times. Early Christian writers referred to the Eucharistic elements as Jesus's body and the blood. The short document known as the Teachings of the Apostles or Didache , which may be the earliest Christian document outside of the New Testament to speak of the Eucharist, says, "Let no one eat or drink of your Eucharist, unless they have been baptized into
3838-486: The Eucharist, wrote in his First Apology : "Not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of his word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who
3939-472: The Eucharistic and the historical body of the Lord without more precisely explaining the Eucharistic species, his teaching could and probably did promote a grossly materialistic 'Capharnaitic' interpretation". The question of the nature of the Eucharist became virulent for a second time in the Western Church in the 11th century, when Berengar of Tours denied that any material change in the elements
4040-654: The Holy Communion is received, not only the Spirit, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ are received through the Spirit, but these are only received by those partakers who eat worthily (i.e., repentantly) with faith. The Holy Spirit unites the Christian with Jesus though they are separated by a great distance. See, e.g., Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 29 ; Belgic Confession, Article 35 . The Congregationalist theologian Alfred Ernest Garvie explicated
4141-464: The Lollard movement was small with little appeal to the upper classes, who liked the anti-clerical politics but not the religious doctrines. "Notices of Lollardy after the death of Wycliffe are scattered and meagre. Sixteenth century Protestantism invested the Lollards with a posthumous renown, but there can be little doubt that, when their first energy had spent itself, they speedily became an obscure sect, destitute of living leaders, and vaguely re-echoing
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4242-640: The Lord Jesus Christ to be present, not typically, nor figuratively, nor by superabundant grace, as in the other Mysteries, ... but truly and really, so that after the consecration of the bread and of the wine, the bread is transmuted, transubstantiated, converted and transformed into the true Body Itself of the Lord, Which was born in Bethlehem of the ever-Virgin Mary, was baptised in the Jordan, suffered,
4343-600: The Orthodox Communion." Similarly, Coptic Orthodox Christians , a denomination of Oriental Orthodox Christianity, "are fearful of using philosophical terms concerning the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, preferring uncritical appeals to biblical passages like 1 Cor. 10.16; 11.23–29 or the discourse in John 6.26–58." While the Roman Catholic Church believes that the change "takes place at
4444-629: The Protestant Reformation were Peter Waldo , John Wycliffe and Jan Hus . Martin Luther himself saw it important to have forerunners of his views, and thus he praised people like Girolamo Savonarola , Lorenzo Valla , Wessel Gansfort and other groups as prefiguring some of his views. Pre-reformation movements that have been argued, with differing degrees of anachronism and accuracy, as having individual ideas later espoused by some Protestant groups include: John Foxe (c. 1563)
4545-463: The Real Presence. When asked if the host was still bread even after consecration, he answered only: "I believe that the host is the real body of Christ in the form of bread". Throughout his questioning he insisted that he was "not bound to believe otherwise than Holy Scripture says" and resorted to various loopholes. Following the questioning, he claimed he had been allowed to swear an oath on his heart; later his inquisitors denied this, saying he had sworn
4646-538: The Supper, only after an Heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the Body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is Faith. The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up or worshipped. The Council of Trent , held 1545–1563 in reaction to the Protestant Reformation and initiating the Catholic Counter-Reformation , promulgated
4747-735: The Trinitarian and eucharistic Waldenses , and the Lollards ) and as fabricated to serve a polemical need. For the Catholic denial of the antiquity of the Waldensians and assertion of Petrine apostolicity, "the ideal parry to Rome would have been to identify apostolic origins for the Waldenses, but the evidence for such a claim was thin to nonexistent, a factor often necessarily limiting arguments in favor of apostolic origins to rather vague assertions." Real presence of Christ in
4848-582: The Wycliffite/Lollard teaching. He advocated closing of all monasteries, and notably provided economic estimates of the revenues of various monastic and church institutions. The extent of Lollardy in the general populace at this time is unknown. The prevalence of Protestant iconoclasm in England suggests Lollard ideas may still have had some popular influence if Huldrych Zwingli was not the source, as Lutheranism did not advocate iconoclasm. Lollards were persecuted again between 1554 and 1559 during
4949-569: The abjuration of 41 Lollards from Kent and the burning of 5. In 1529, Simon Fish wrote an incendiary pamphlet Supplication for the Beggars , including his denial of purgatory and teachings that priestly celibacy was an invention of the Antichrist . He argued that earthly rulers have the right to strip Church properties, and that tithing was against the Gospel , Protestant views that echo
5050-694: The beginning of the 14th century who were akin to the Fraticelli , Beghards , and other sectaries similar to the recusant Franciscans . Originally the Dutch word was a colloquial name for a group of buriers of the dead during the Black Death , in the 14th century, known as Alexians , Alexian Brothers or Cellites. These were known colloquially as lollebroeders (Middle Dutch for "mumbling brothers"), or Lollhorden , from Old High German : lollon ("to sing softly"), from their chants for
5151-481: The belief that the reliquæ (what remains of the consecrated elements after all have communed in the worship service) are still sacramentally united to the Body and Blood of Christ. This interpretation is not universal among Lutherans. The consecrated elements are treated with reverence; and, in some Lutheran churches, are reserved as in Orthodox , Catholic , and Anglican practice. The external Eucharistic adoration
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#17327662355445252-561: The body and blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants orally eat and drink the holy body and blood of Christ Himself as well as the bread and wine (cf. Augsburg Confession , Article 10) in this Sacrament . The Lutheran doctrine of the real presence is more accurately and formally known as "the Sacramental Union ." It has been inaccurately called " consubstantiation ",
5353-414: The body and blood of Christ. The change from bread and wine to a presence of Christ that is true, real, and substantial is called transubstantiation . The Catholic Church does not consider the term "transubstantiation" an explanation of the change: it declares that the change by which the signs of bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ occurs "in a way surpassing understanding". One hymn of
5454-478: The body of Christ." In the 9th century, Charles the Bald posed two unclearly formulated questions: whether the faithful receive the body of Christ in mystery or in truth and whether the body is the same that was born of Mary and suffered on the cross. Ratramnus understood "in truth" to mean simply "what is perceptible to the senses", "plain unvarnished reality" ( rei manifestae demonstratio ), and declared that
5555-568: The change that occurs in the elements during the Divine Liturgy: While the Orthodox Church has often employed the term transubstantiation , Kallistos Ware claims the term "enjoys no unique or decisive authority" in the Orthodox Church. Nor does its use in the Orthodox Church "commit theologians to the acceptance of Aristotelian philosophical concepts". ...Ware also notes that while the Orthodox have always "insisted on
5656-403: The closest person to Elizabeth I for 56 years, and of Blanche Milborne , who raised Edward VI and Elizabeth I, had Lollard associations. Many critics of the Reformation, including Thomas More , equated Protestants with Lollards. Leaders of the English Reformation , including Archbishop Thomas Cranmer , referred to Lollardy as well, and Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall of London called Lutheranism
5757-424: The consecrated elements are to be delivered quickly, preserving the connection between the communion of the ill person and that of the congregation gathered in public Divine Service . Lutherans use the terms "in, with and under the forms of consecrated bread and wine" and "Sacramental Union" to distinguish their understanding of the Eucharist from those of the Reformed and other traditions. Nicolaus Zinzendorf ,
5858-466: The consecration leaves the bread and wine unchanged in their outward appearance and thus, insofar as these are signs of the body and blood of Christ hidden under the veil of the signs, the faithful receive the body of Christ not in veritate , but in figura, in mysterio, in virtute (figure, mystery, power). Ratramnus opposed Capharnaitic tendencies but in no way betrayed a symbolist understanding such as that of 11th-century Berengarius. Radbertus, on
5959-487: The dead. Middle English loller (akin to the verb loll , lull , the English cognate of Dutch lollen "to mutter, mumble") is recorded as an alternative spelling of Lollard , while its generic meaning "a lazy vagabond, an idler, a fraudulent beggar" is not recorded before 1582. Two other possibilities for the derivation of Lollard are mentioned by the Oxford English Dictionary : According to scholar Margaret Aston, as Wycliffe's academic theology percolated to
6060-591: The divine authority to make a man a priest. Denying any special status to the priesthood, Lollards thought confession to a priest was unnecessary since according to them priests did not have the ability to forgive sins. However, while it is beneficial to confess to a good priest, it is perilous to confess to a bad one. Lollards challenged the practice of clerical celibacy and believed priests should not hold government positions as such temporal matters would likely interfere with their spiritual mission. They considered praying to saints and honouring of their images to be
6161-476: The exact time in which the change takes place, and this is left to mystery." The words of the Coptic liturgy are representative of the faith of Oriental Orthodoxy : "I believe, I believe, I believe and profess to the last breath that this is the body and the blood of our Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ, which he took from our Lady, the holy and immaculate Virgin Mary, the Mother of God." The Eastern Orthodox Church 's Synod of Jerusalem declared: "We believe
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#17327662355446262-426: The forme of brede Howe it is there/ it nedeth not stryve Whether it be subgette or accydent But as Christ was/ when he was on-lyve So is he there verament. [In modern English:] I say the truth through true understanding: His flesh and blood, through his subtle works, Is there in the form of bread. In what manner it is present need not be debated, Whether as subject or accident , But as Christ
6363-502: The formulation of transubstantiation , which the Roman Catholic Church required the faithful not to deny. Wycliffite teachings on the Eucharist were declared heresy at the Blackfriars Council of 1382, and later by the Pope and the Council of Constance . " The Plowman's Tale ", a 16th-century Lollard poem, argues that theological debate about orthodox doctrine is less important than the Real Presence : I say sothe thorowe trewe rede His flesh and blode, through his mastry Is there/ in
6464-477: The government and royals were hesitant, as they did not want to encourage subjects to criticize religious powers. After 1382, royalty and nobility found Lollardy to be a threat not only to the Church, but to English society in general. The Lollards' small measure of protection evaporated. This change in status was also affected by the departure of John of Gaunt (Duke of Lancaster, patron of Chaucer and protector of John Wycliffe ) who left England in 1386 to pursue
6565-422: The grounds of academic freedom and, initially, allowed such persons to retain their positions despite their controversial views. Two primary religious opponents of the Wycliffites were Archbishop of Canterbury William Courtenay and his successor Thomas Arundel , assisted by bishops like Henry le Despenser of Norwich , whom the chronicler Thomas Walsingham praised for his zeal. Historian T. Waugh suggests
6666-446: The heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in. This view holds that the elements may be disposed of without ceremony, as they are not changed in an objective physical sense and, as such, the meal directs attention toward Christ's "bodily" resurrection and return. Actual practices of disposing of leftover elements vary widely. The Reformed doctrine of Holy Communion (The Lord's Supper, The Eucharist)
6767-411: The heavenly words another nature is spoken of, after the consecration the Body is signified . He Himself speaks of His Blood. Before the consecration it has another name, after it is called Blood. And you say, Amen, that is, It is true. Let the heart within confess what the mouth utters, let the soul feel what the voice speaks. Other fourth-century Christian writers say that in the Eucharist there occurs
6868-497: The masses, it changed measureably, some parts strengthening and others weakening. Historian John Thomson is paraphrased "Rather than a specific creed of well thought out theological doctrine, Lollard beliefs are more aptly described as a set of consistent attitudes." With regard to the Eucharist , Lollards such as John Wycliffe , William Thorpe and John Oldcastle taught a view of the mystical real presence of Christ in Holy Communion known as " consubstantiation " but did not accept
6969-433: The more radical ideology that anything not permitted by scripture is forbidden. Instead, Hudson notes that Wycliffe's sola scriptura held the Bible to be "the only valid source of doctrine and the only pertinent measure of legitimacy." Later Lollards believed that people deserved access to a copy of their own Bible. Many attempted to distribute English copies. Due to the lack of a printing press and low literacy levels, it
7070-413: The name in England occurs in 1387 in a mandate of the Bishop of Worcester against five "poor preachers", nomine seu ritu Lollardorum confoederatos . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , it most likely derives from Middle Dutch lollaerd ("mumbler, mutterer"), from a verb lollen ("to mutter, mumble"). The word is much older than its English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at
7171-424: The name of the Lord; for concerning this also the Lord has said, 'Give not that which is holy to the dogs'." Ignatius of Antioch , writing in about AD 106 to the Roman Christians, says: "I desire the bread of God, the heavenly bread, the bread of life, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who became afterwards of the seed of David and Abraham ; and I desire the drink of God, namely his blood, which
7272-588: The other hand, developed the realism of the Gallican and Roman liturgy and the Ambrosian theology of the identity of the sacramental and historical body of the Lord. The dispute ended with Radbertus's letter to Frudiger, in which he stressed further the identity of the sacramental and historical body of Christ, but met the opposing view to the extent of emphasizing the spiritual nature of the sacramental body. Friedrich Kempf comments: "Since Paschasius had identified
7373-635: The other sacraments he is present by his power rather than by the reality of his body and blood, the basis of the description of his presence as "real". The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Oriental Orthodox Churches , as well as the Churches of the East , believe that in the Eucharist the bread and wine are objectively changed and become in a real sense the Body and Blood of Christ . Orthodoxy rejects philosophical explanations of
7474-420: The presence as merely that of a sign or figure. By stating that his presence in the Eucharist is real, it defines it as objective and independent of the thoughts and feelings of the participants, whether they have faith or not: lack of faith may make reception of the sacrament fruitless for holiness, but it does not make his presence unreal. In the third place, the Catholic Church describes the presence of Christ in
7575-516: The principal Lollard Knights as Thomas Latimer, John Trussell, Lewis Clifford, Sir John Peche (son of John Peche of Wormleighton), Richard Storey, and Reginald Hilton. Thomas Walsingham 's Chronicle adds William Nevil and John Clanvowe to the list, and other potential members of this circle have been identified by their wills, which contain Lollard-inspired language about how their bodies are to be plainly buried and permitted to return to
7676-590: The question at the Marburg Colloquy of 1529 but who failed to come to an agreement. Zwingli's view became associated with the term Memorialism , suggesting an understanding of the Eucharist held purely "in memory of" Christ. While this accurately describes the position of the Anabaptists and derived traditions, it is not the position held by Zwingli himself, who affirmed that Christ is truly (in substance), though not naturally (physically) present in
7777-463: The reality of Christ's body and blood do not come corporally (physically) to the elements, but that "the Spirit truly unites things separated in space" (Calvin). This view is known as the real spiritual presence, spiritual presence, or pneumatic presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper. Following a phrase of Saint Augustine , the Calvinist view is that "no one bears away from this Sacrament more than
7878-661: The reverend sacrament of the altar). During the later medieval period, the question was debated within the Western Church. Following the Protestant Reformation , it became a central topic of division amongst the various emerging confessions. The Lutheran doctrine of the real presence, known as the " sacramental union ", was formulated in the Augsburg Confession of 1530. Luther decidedly supported this doctrine, publishing The Sacrament of
7979-402: The revolting Lollards, the law De heretico comburendo was enacted in 1401 during the reign of Henry IV ; traditionally heresy had been defined as an error in theological belief, but this statute equated theological heresy with sedition against political rulers. By the early 15th century, stern measures were undertaken by Church and state which drove Lollardy underground. One such measure
8080-489: The sacrament. The position of the Church of England on this matter (the real presence) is clear and highlighted in the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion : The supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves; but rather is a Sacrament of our redemption by Christ's death: insomuch that to those who rightly and with faith, receive the same, the bread that we break
8181-569: The soil whence they came. There is little indication that the Lollard Knights were specifically known as such during their lifetimes. They were men of discretion, and unlike Sir John Oldcastle years later, rarely gave any hint of open rebellion. However, they displayed a remarkable ability to retain important positions, without falling victim to the prosecutions of Wycliffe's followers during their lifetimes. Religious and secular authorities strongly opposed Lollardy. In eventual response to
8282-500: The starting year for the Reformation era. The relationship between medieval sects and Protestantism is an issue that has been debated by historians. Successionism is the further idea that these proto-Protestants are evidence of a continuous hidden church of true believers, despite their manifest differences in belief. Before Martin Luther and John Calvin , some leaders tried to reform Christianity . The main forerunners of
8383-521: The teaching of a deceased founder whom they only half understood." The initial Lollards were a small group of scholars, particularly at Merton College , Oxford University, some with important positions, who came under the influence of Wycliffe in the 1360s and 1370s. After Wycliffe's natural death, all of them eventually submitted to Archbishop of Canterbury William Courtenay to renounce Wycliffe's contentious doctrines, and none suffered long-term consequences. These notably included Nicholas Hereford , who
8484-533: The translation of the Bible into the English language. By the mid-15th century, "lollard" had come to mean a heretic in general. The alternative, "Wycliffite", is generally accepted to be a more neutral term covering those of similar opinions, but having an academic background. The term is said to have been coined by the Anglo-Irish cleric Henry Crumpe , but its origin is uncertain. The earliest official use of
8585-507: The view of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist as true, real, and substantial, and declared that, "by the consecration of the bread and of the wine, a conversion is made of the whole substance of the bread into the substance ( substantia ) of the body of Christ our Lord, and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood; which conversion is, by the holy Catholic Church, suitably and properly called Transubstantiation". The Scholastic , Aristotelian philosophy of substance
8686-410: The whole Christ, body and blood, soul and divinity; nor does it see the persisting outward appearances of bread and wine and their properties (such as weight and nutritional value) as a mere illusion, but objectively existing as before and unchanged. In the view of the Catholic Church, the presence of Christ in the Eucharist is of an order different from the presence of Christ in the other sacraments: in
8787-573: The wine of the Supper with expectant faith, we thereby have communion with the body and blood of our Lord and receive the forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation. In this sense, the bread and wine are rightly said to be Christ's body and blood which he gives to his disciples. Those in the Reformed tradition (inclusive of Continental Reformed , Presbyterian , Congregationalist , Reformed Anglican / Reformed Episcopal and Reformed Baptist churches), particularly those following John Calvin , hold that
8888-471: The word of Christ have power to change the nature of the elements? ... Why do you seek the order of nature in the Body of Christ, seeing that the Lord Jesus Himself was born of a Virgin, not according to nature? It is the true Flesh of Christ which was crucified and buried, this is then truly the Sacrament of His Body. The Lord Jesus Himself proclaims: "This Is My Body." Before the blessing of
8989-663: The words of institution or consecration", the Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that the "change takes place anywhere between the Proskomedia (the Liturgy of Preparation)" and "the Epiklesis ('calling down'), or invocation of the Holy Spirit 'upon us and upon these gifts here set forth ' ". Therefore, it teaches that "the gifts should be treated with reverence throughout the entirety of the service. We don't know
9090-553: Was approved by all the Greek-speaking Patriarchs (those of Constantinople , Alexandria , Antioch , and Jerusalem ) in 1643, and again by the 1672 Synod of Jerusalem (also referred to as the Council of Bethlehem). The Catholic Church declares that the presence of Christ in the Eucharist is true, real, and substantial. By saying Christ is truly present in the Eucharist, it excludes any understanding of
9191-500: Was buried, rose again, was received up, sitteth at the right hand of the God and Father, and is to come again in the clouds of Heaven; and the wine is converted and transubstantiated into the true Blood Itself of the Lord, Which, as He hung upon the Cross, was poured out for the life of the world." Lutherans believe in the real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, that
9292-402: Was difficult to accomplish this goal. However, a notable feature of some Lollard inquisitions was the common claim of illiteracy, or vision impairment, as a defence against the suspicion of Lollardy raised by possession of vernacular texts. Lollards did not observe fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church . In heresy proceedings against Margery Baxter it was presented as evidence that
9393-472: Was first articulated in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 in the formula: Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum ("Nothing has the character of a sacrament apart from the use instituted by Christ"). Some Lutherans use this formula as their rationale for opposing in the church the reservation of the consecrated elements, private Masses, the practice of Corpus Christi , and
9494-515: Was his body, because He lacked the truth of bodily substance, it follows that He must have given bread for us." The Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 380 ) says: "Let the bishop give the oblation, saying, The body of Christ ; and let him that receiveth say, Amen. And let the deacon take the cup; and when he gives it, say, The blood of Christ , the cup of life; and let him that drinketh say, Amen." Ambrose of Milan (died 397) wrote: Perhaps you will say, "I see something else, how
9595-399: Was made flesh." In about AD 200, Tertullian wrote: "Having taken the bread and given it to his disciples, He made it his own body, by saying, This is my body, that is, the figure of my body. A figure, however, there could not have been, unless there were first a veritable body. An empty thing, or phantom, is incapable of a figure. If, however, (as Marcion might say) He pretended the bread
9696-485: Was needed to explain the Eucharistic presence. This caused a controversy which led to the explicit clarification of the Catholic doctrine of the Eucharist. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council used the word transubstantiated in its profession of faith, when speaking of the change that takes place in the Eucharist. It was only later in the 13th century that Aristotelian metaphysics was accepted and
9797-597: Was not included in the Council's definitive teaching, but rather the more general idea of "substance" that had predated Thomas Aquinas . Eastern Orthodoxy did not become involved in the dispute prior to the 17th century. It became virulent in 1629, when Cyril Lucaris denied the doctrine of transubstantiation, using the Greek translation metousiosis for the concept. To counter the teaching of Lucaris, Metropolitan Petro Mohyla of Kiev drew up in Latin an Orthodox Confession in defense of transubstantiation. This Confession
9898-472: Was the 1410 burning at the stake of John Badby , a layman and craftsman who refused to renounce his Lollardy. He was the first layman to suffer capital punishment in England for the crime of heresy. John Oldcastle , a close friend of Henry V of England and the basis for Falstaff in the Shakespearean history Henry IV, Part 1 , was brought to trial in 1413 after evidence of his Lollard beliefs
9999-520: Was the first English Protestant author to defend Protestantism from charges of novelty by claiming, in S.J. Barnett's words, "the continuity of a proto-Protestant piety since apostolic times": in England's case this included a national first-century conversion to Christianity from a visiting Joseph of Arimathea . This has no historical basis. According to Brethren missionary Edmund Hamer Broadbent in The Pilgrim Church (1531), over much of
10100-483: Was uncovered. Oldcastle escaped from the Tower of London and organized an insurrection, which included an attempted kidnapping of the king. The rebellion failed, and Oldcastle was executed. Oldcastle's revolt made Lollardy seem even more threatening to the state, and persecution of Lollards became more severe. An insurrection was nipped in the bud in 1428, feared to involve several thousand Lollards, intent on "destroying
10201-401: Was when he was alive, So He is truly there. William Sawtry , a priest, was reportedly burned in 1401 for his preaching that "bread remains in the same nature as before" after consecration by a priest. A suspect in 1517 summed up the Lollards' position: "Summe folys cummyn to churche thynckyng to see the good Lorde – what shulde they see there but bredde and wyne?" In the mid 15th century
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