187-637: Second Sino-Japanese War The Borneo campaign or Second Battle of Borneo was the last major Allied campaign in the South West Pacific Area during World War II to liberate Japanese-held British Borneo and Dutch Borneo. Designated collectively as Operation Oboe , a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July 1945 were conducted by the Australian ;I Corps , under Lieutenant-General Leslie Morshead , against Imperial Japanese forces who had been occupying
374-636: A death sentence ; Baba was hanged on 7 August 1947. To honour the sacrifices of fallen liberators during operations for the recovery of Borneo, a cemetery named the Labuan War Cemetery was constructed and maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission . The cemetery holds the graves of 3,908 soldiers, including some POWs from Borneo and the Philippines. Most of the graves are unidentified,
561-730: A full-scale battle in which Beijing and its port city of Tianjin fell to invading Japanese forces (July–August 1937). , On 11 July, in accordance with the Goso conference, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff authorized the deployment of an infantry division from the Chōsen Army , two combined brigades from the Kwantung Army and an air regiment composed of 18 squadrons as reinforcements to Northern China. By 20 July, total Japanese military strength in
748-524: A "waste" of the lives of soldiers, especially following the first operation in Tarakan . In assessing the necessity of the campaign, historians such as Max Hastings have said that attacking these forces, already cut off from Japan, was a waste of resources. According to Hastings, "Any rational strategic judgment would have left them to their own devices screened by token allied forces until their nation's defeat enforced their surrender". It has been argued that
935-738: A campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare . In November 1939, Chinese nationalist forces launched a large scale winter offensive , and in August 1940, communist forces launched the Hundred Regiments Offensive in central China. In December 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States. The US increased its aid to China under the Lend-Lease Act , becoming its main financial and military supporter. With Burma cut off,
1122-585: A combination of Australian and American forces, the island of Borneo was liberated. The British Military Administration formally took over from the Japanese on 12 September 1945. The Japanese intention to gain control of Borneo was associated with the concept of a unified Greater East Asia. This was developed by General Hachirō Arita , an army ideologist who served as Minister for Foreign Affairs from 1936 to 1940. Japanese leaders envisioned an Asia guided by Tokyo with no western interference and likened
1309-540: A communist victory and the Proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. In China, the war is most commonly known as the "War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression" ( simplified Chinese : 抗日战争 ; traditional Chinese : 抗日戰爭 ), and shortened to "Resistance against Japanese Aggression" ( Chinese : 抗日 ) or the "War of Resistance" (simplified Chinese: 抗战 ; traditional Chinese: 抗戰 ). It
1496-719: A demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beijing-Tianjin region. Japan aimed to create another buffer zone between Manchukuo and the Chinese Nationalist government in Nanjing. Japan increasingly exploited China's internal conflicts to reduce the strength of its fractious opponents. Even years after the Northern Expedition, the political power of the Nationalist government was limited to just
1683-561: A landing on the small island of Tarakan, off the north-east coast on 1 May 1945. This operation was undertaken to capture the island's airstrip so that it could be used to support the subsequent landings on the mainland of Borneo. Using Australian-built MK III folboats , small parties of reconnaissance troops paddled into the Tarakan region to obtain useful information and observe the Djoeta oilfields prior to an invasion. The landing on Tarakan
1870-414: A large cross , but later replaced with a headstone . The headstones of those whose names were unknown are emboldened with the words "Known Unto God". The Petagas War Memorial garden is built on the site where hundreds of people, including women and children, were massacred by the Japanese. The memorial lists 324 members of Kinabalu guerrillas of various races and ethnic groups. Other memorials such as
2057-406: A preliminary landing was undertaken on Sadau Island by a group of commandos and an artillery battery . Naval assets assigned to provide fire support during the operation include three cruisers , seven destroyers and several landing craft fitted with rockets and mortars . Three days prior to the assault, a force of minesweepers worked to clear the area of naval mines . During the main landing,
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#17327797339802244-851: A prime target for Japan. It hoped to obtain resources as well to ending the Western colonialism period . The Japanese invasion plan called for the British territories to be taken and held by the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) and the Dutch territories to the south by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). The IJA allocated the 35th Infantry Brigade to northern Borneo. The Brigade was led by Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi and consisted of units previously stationed at Canton in southern China . On 13 December 1941,
2431-732: A result of Depression -era tariffs ), and a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia . As a result, the Japanese Army was widely prevalent in Manchuria immediately following the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, where Japan gained significant territory in Manchuria. As a result of their strengthened position, by 1915 Japan had negotiated a significant amount of economic privilege in
2618-536: A result of its victory at the end of the war. Japan had also attempted to annex the Liaodong Peninsula following the war, though was forced to return it to China following an intervention by France , Germany , and Russia . The Qing dynasty was on the brink of collapse due to internal revolts and the imposition of the unequal treaties , while Japan had emerged as a great power through its modernization measures. In 1905, Japan successfully defeated
2805-802: A series of road projects in North Borneo, with the roads linking Ranau with Keningau and Kota Belud with Tenghilan to be improved as well a new road linking Kudat and Kota Belud to be constructed. As these roads passed through mountainous areas, a large number of forced labourers were needed to realise the projects. In preparing for Allied retaliation Lieutenant general Masataka Yamawaki created an indigenous force consisting of around 1,300 men in 1944. Most of them were stationed in Kuching, with others in Miri, Api and Elopura; all were tasked to maintain peace and order, gather intelligence and to recruit. Brunei harbour
2992-779: A term used mainly in foreign and Chinese narratives. The origins of the Second Sino-Japanese War can be traced back to the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, in which China, then under the rule of the Qing dynasty, was defeated by Japan and forced to cede Taiwan and recognize the full and complete independence of Korea in the Treaty of Shimonoseki . Japan also annexed the Senkaku Islands , which Japan claims were uninhabited, in early 1895 as
3179-648: A testing zone for advanced biplane and new-generation monoplane combat-aircraft designs. The introduction of the advanced A5M "Claude" fighters into the Shanghai-Nanjing theater of operations, beginning on 18 September 1937, helped the Japanese achieve a certain level of air superiority . However the few experienced Chinese veteran pilots, as well as several Chinese-American volunteer fighter pilots, including Maj. Art Chin , Maj. John Wong Pan-yang , and Capt. Chan Kee-Wong, even in their older and slower biplanes, proved more than able to hold their own against
3366-520: Is a period of "total" war. This view of a fourteen-year war has political significance because it provides more recognition for the role of northeast China in the War of Resistance. On the night of 7 July 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops exchanged fire in the vicinity of the Marco Polo (or Lugou) Bridge , a crucial access-route to Beijing. What began as confused, sporadic skirmishing soon escalated into
3553-895: Is known in China as the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression ( simplified Chinese : 抗日战争 ; traditional Chinese : 抗日戰爭 ). On 18 September 1931, the Japanese staged the Mukden incident , a false flag event fabricated to justify their invasion of Manchuria and establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo . This is sometimes marked as the beginning of the war. From 1931 to 1937, China and Japan engaged in skirmishes, including in Shanghai and in Northern China. Chinese Nationalist and Communist forces, respectively led by Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong , had fought each other in
3740-621: Is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. When the invasion of China proper began in earnest in July 1937 near Beijing , the government of Japan used "The North China Incident" (Japanese: 北支事變/華北事變 , romanized: Hokushi Jihen/Kahoku Jihen ), and with the outbreak of the Battle of Shanghai the following month, it was changed to "The China Incident" (Japanese: 支那事變 , romanized: Shina Jihen ). The word "incident" (Japanese: 事變 , romanized: jihen )
3927-413: The 18th , 21st and 25th – fighting together as a formation for the first time during the war. Three beaches were chosen for the landing on the southern coast between Klandasan in the east and Stalkoedo in the west; the initial assault was undertaken by three infantry battalions: the 2/10th on the extreme left, the 2/12th in the centre and the 2/27th Battalion on the right. The troops were landed at
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#17327797339804114-601: The 6th Division . Prior to the main landings in British North Borneo the Allies undertook a series of reconnaissance operations, codenamed Agas (northern Borneo) and Semut (Sarawak); these operations also worked to arm, train and organise the local population to undertake guerilla warfare against the Japanese to support conventional operations. The Japanese military began to prepare for the defence of Borneo from mid-1944, as Allied forces rapidly advanced towards
4301-636: The Australian I Corps , the Australian Army's main striking force, had not engaged in combat for over a year. The corps had been assigned to MacArthur, but he had chosen to not use it in the Philippines despite the Australian Government pressing for this. The initial Allied plan comprised six stages: Operation Oboe 1 was to be an attack on Tarakan; Oboe 2 against Balikpapan; Oboe 3 against Banjarmasin; Oboe 4 against Surabaya or
4488-550: The Battle of Beaufort , during which more than 100 Japanese defenders were killed. After this engagement the 24th Brigade undertook limited further advances in order to push the Japanese forces into the hills; the brigade's limit of exploitation was the Beaufort–Tenom railway and during this period the Australian commanders adopted a cautious approach to limit casualties. Nevertheless, clashes continued into August; on 3 August,
4675-666: The Celebes Island , carrying news on behalf of the Japanese government . Following their occupation, the Japanese began a process of assimilation of the local people. Propaganda was displayed throughout the Bornean territories and slogans such as "Asia for Asians" and "Japan, the light of Asia" were widely displayed. Ethnocentrism was central to this plan with Japanese values , world view , culture, spirit, emperor worship and racial superiority being promulgated. As part of
4862-657: The Central Plains War broke out across China, involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition, and the Nanjing government under Chiang. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) previously fought openly against the Nanjing government after the Shanghai massacre of 1927 , and they continued to expand during this protracted civil war. The Kuomintang government in Nanjing decided to focus their efforts on suppressing
5049-667: The Chinese Civil War since 1927. In late 1933, Chiang Kai-shek encircled the Chinese Communists in an attempt to finally destroy them, forcing the Communists into the Long March , resulting in the Communists losing around 90% of their men. As a Japanese invasion became imminent, Chiang still refused to form a united front before he was placed under house arrest by his subordinates who forced him to form
5236-550: The Eighth Army , which was controlling operations in the Philippines. Allied naval and air forces, centred on the U.S. 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid , the Australian First Tactical Air Force , and the U.S. Thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign. A small number of Dutch personnel also took part in the operations. Over 74,000 Allied troops were assigned to
5423-818: The German Empire 's sphere of influence in Shandong province, leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests and mass demonstrations in China. The country remained fragmented under the Beiyang Government and was unable to resist foreign incursions. For the purpose of unifying China and defeating the regional warlords, the Kuomintang (KMT) in Guangzhou launched the Northern Expedition from 1926 to 1928 with limited assistance from
5610-705: The Japanese Empire to an Asian equivalent of the Monroe Doctrine . The island was seen by Japan as strategically important, being located on the main sea routes between Java , Sumatra , Malaya and the Celebes . Control of these routes was vital to securing the territory. With the Anglo-Japanese Alliance , Japanese immigrants had been welcomed since the 1900s. Companies such as Mitsubishi and Nissan were involved in trade with
5797-432: The Japanese flag before marching to their classrooms. This was done to make the population "think, feel and act like Japanese East Asians". Their treatment of the local indigenous people and Chinese immigrants differed. Attempting to ensure the indigenous local were not their enemies an administrative directive on 14 March 1942 declared that: Local customs, practices and religions shall not be interfered with for
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5984-484: The Japanese language and customs. The Japanese divided North Borneo into five provincial administrations ( shus ) and constructed airfields. Several prisoner of war camps were operated by the Japanese. Allied soldiers and most colonial officials were detained in them, together with members of underground movements who opposed the Japanese occupation. Meanwhile, local Malay leaders were maintained in position with Japanese surveillance and many foreign workers were brought to
6171-585: The Japanese navy landed unopposed in Labuan. The next day, 2 January 1942, the Japanese landed at Mempakul on North Borneo territory. After negotiations as to the surrender of Jesselton with the Officers-in-charge of Jesselton and waiting for troop reinforcements, Jesselton was occupied by the Japanese on 8 January. However, it took the Japanese until the end of the month to conquer the entire territory of British Borneo. The Japanese subsequently renamed
6358-519: The Jesselton revolt which was violently suppressed with hundreds being executed. In the aftermath, many more died from diseases and starvation as Japanese policies became even more restrictive on the local population. Japanese forces conducted a number of other massacres during their occupation of Borneo. The plans for the Allied attacks were known collectively as Operation Oboe. The invasion of Borneo
6545-667: The Kundasang War Memorial , the Last POW Camp Memorial and Quailey's Hill Memorial are dedicated to Australian and British soldiers who died in the death marches as well to honouring the sacrifices of the native population. Sandakan Memorial Park is built on the site of Sandakan Camp to honour POWs and internees. The Cho Huan Lai Memorial is dedicated to the Chinese Consulate General and several colleagues who were executed by
6732-855: The Mukden incident in September 1931. Japanese soldiers set off a bomb on the Southern Manchurian Railroad in order to provoke an opportunity to act in "self defense" and invade outright. Japan charged that its rights in Manchuria, which had been established as a result of its victory in 1905 at the end of the Russo-Japanese War , had been systematically violated and there were "more than 120 cases of infringement of rights and interests, interference with business, boycott of Japanese goods, unreasonable taxation, detention of individuals, confiscation of properties, eviction, demand for cessation of business, assault and battery, and
6919-578: The Neutrality Acts of the 1930s . In addition, due to China's fractured political status, Japan often claimed that China was no longer a recognizable political entity on which war could be declared. In Japanese propaganda , the invasion of China became a crusade (Japanese: 聖戦 , romanized: seisen ), the first step of the "eight corners of the world under one roof" slogan (Japanese: 八紘一宇 , romanized: Hakkō ichiu ). In 1940, Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe launched
7106-531: The Russian Empire in the Russo-Japanese War , gaining Tailen and southern Sakhalin and establishing a protectorate over Korea. In 1911, factions of the Qing Army uprose against the government, staging a revolution that swept across China's southern provinces. The Qing responded by appointing Yuan Shikai , commander of the loyalist Beiyang Army , as temporary prime minister in order to subdue
7293-647: The Second United Front in late 1936 in order to resist the Japanese invasion together. The full-scale war began on 7 July 1937 with the Marco Polo Bridge incident near Beijing , which prompted a full-scale Japanese invasion of the rest of China. The Japanese captured the capital of Nanjing in 1937 and perpetrated the Nanjing Massacre . After failing to stop the Japanese capture of Wuhan in 1938, then China's de facto capital at
7480-668: The Shanghai French Concession , areas which were outside of China's control due to the treaty port system. Japan moved into these areas after its 1941 declaration of war against the United States and the United Kingdom. Building on the hard-won victory in Shanghai, the IJA advanced on and captured the KMT capital city of Nanjing (December 1937) and Northern Shanxi (September – November 1937). Upon
7667-422: The Solomon Islands were under their authority. Australian forces also supervised the destruction of Japanese weapons and ammunition and the evacuation of internees and Allied POWs from Japanese camps. The British Military Administration (BMA) took over the task of management from the Australians on 12 September 1945 and summarised the situation towards the end of October: In North Borneo and Labuan
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7854-435: The Soviet Union . The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) formed by the Kuomintang swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928, during which time the Japanese military killed several Chinese officials and fired artillery shells into Jinan. According to
8041-556: The Taisei Yokusankai . When both sides formally declared war in December 1941, the name was replaced by " Greater East Asia War " (Japanese: 大東亞戰爭 , romanized: Daitōa Sensō ). Although the Japanese government still uses the term "China Incident" in formal documents, the word Shina is considered derogatory by China and therefore the media in Japan often paraphrase with other expressions like "The Japan–China Incident" (Japanese: 日華事變/日支事變 , romanized: Nikka Jiken/Nisshi Jiken ), which were used by media as early as
8228-516: The United States Army Air Forces airlifted material over the Himalayas . In 1944, Japan launched Operation Ichi-Go , the invasion of Henan and Changsha . In 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. China launched large counteroffensives in South China and repulsed a failed Japanese invasion of West Hunan and recaptured Japanese occupied regions of Guangxi . Japan formally surrendered on 2 September 1945, following
8415-442: The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Soviet declaration of war and subsequent invasions of Manchukuo and Korea . The war resulted in the deaths of around 20 million people, mostly Chinese civilians. China was recognized as one of the Big Four Allies , regained all territories lost, and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . The Chinese Civil War resumed in 1946, ending with
8602-400: The 1,752 identified graves lists 1,523 soldiers, 220 airmen, five sailors and four civilians; 858 Australians , 814 British , 43 Indians , 36 Malayans and 1 New Zealander as well as members of the local forces from North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak. 34 Indian soldiers, whose remains were cremated, are commemorated on a memorial in the Indian army plot. Each grave was originally marked with
8789-430: The 18 September 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria marks the start of the War of Resistance. Although not the conventional Western view, British historian Rana Mitter describes this Chinese trend of historical analysis as "perfectly reasonable". In 2017, the Chinese government officially announced that it would adopt this view. Under this interpretation, the 1931–1937 period is viewed as the "partial" war, while 1937–1945
8976-417: The 1921 and 1927 Imperial Eastern Region Conferences reconfirmed Japan's commitment to be the dominant power in the Northeast. The 1929 Red Army victory shook that policy to the core and reopened the Manchurian problem. By 1930, the Kwantung Army realized they faced a Red Army that was only growing stronger. The time to act was drawing near and Japanese plans to conquer the Northeast were accelerated. In 1930,
9163-401: The 1930s. The name "Second Sino-Japanese War" is not commonly used in Japan as the China it fought a war against in 1894 to 1895 was led by the Qing dynasty , and thus is called the Qing-Japanese War (Japanese: 日清戦争 , romanized: Nisshin–Sensō ), rather than the First Sino-Japanese War . Another term for the second war between Japan and China is the "Japanese invasion of China",
9350-454: The 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria . According to historian Rana Mitter , historians in China are unhappy with the blanket revision, and (despite sustained tensions) the Republic of China did not consider itself to be in an ongoing war with Japan over these six years. It is also referred to as part of the "Global Anti-Fascist War". In Japan, nowadays, the name "Japan–China War" ( Japanese : 日中戦争 , romanized : Nitchū Sensō )
9537-399: The 1937 " Sword March ", which—with slightly reworked lyrics—became the National Revolutionary Army's standard marching cadence and popularized the racial epithet guizi to describe the Japanese invaders. The Imperial General Headquarters (GHQ) in Tokyo, content with the gains acquired in northern China following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, initially showed reluctance to escalate
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#17327797339809724-408: The 21st Brigade landed on the right, tasked with advancing east towards several Japanese airfields at Sepinggang and Manggar, along the main coastal road. The 25th Brigade was held in reserve, but after landing on 2 July, pushed inland towards Batuchampar, 10 miles (16 km) from the initial landing site. Balikpapan town and the port were captured on 3 July, but mopping up continued into 4 July. Along
9911-411: The 26th Brigade had a strength of just under 12,000 troops. The Australian assault was preceded by a heavy aerial bombardment commencing 12 April, and undertaken by RAAF and US aircraft operating from Morotai Island and the Philippines; these aircraft interdicted Japanese shipping, attacked airfields, reduced obstacles around the landing beaches and suppressed artillery and defensive positions; in addition,
10098-480: The 727th Amphibian Tractor Battalion. As Japanese forces were holding positions away from the coast, these landings were unopposed. The 20th Brigade encountered little resistance. After the town of Brunei was secured on 13 June, the brigade continued its advance along the coast towards the south-west. Its objective was the Miri – Lutong area, with the 2/17th Battalion moving by land while the 2/13th Battalion made an amphibious landing at Lutong on 20 June in LVT-4s of
10285-405: The American 727th Amph Trac Bn. The Japanese forces withdrew as the Australians advanced, and there was little fighting during these operations. Patrols into the interior made by the 20th Brigade with the assistance of local Dayaks into the interior were involved in several sharp engagements. While the 24th Brigade rapidly captured Labuan's airfield and town, it encountered sustained resistance from
10472-459: The Americans and British had placed an embargo on exports of raw materials to Japan because of its continuing aggression in China and the Japanese invasion of French Indochina . Chronically short of natural resources, Japan needed an assured supply, particularly of oil , in order to achieve its long-term goal of becoming the major power in the Pacific region. Southeast Asia , which mostly consisted of European colonies , subsequently became
10659-434: The Australian Military Forces, General Thomas Blamey recommended against the landing at Balikpapan, believing that it would serve no strategic purpose. After much consideration, the Australian Government agreed to provide forces for this operation at MacArthur's urging. Blamey was able to frustrate MacArthur's plans for Australian troops to make follow-on landings in Java by convincing Prime Minister John Curtin to withhold
10846-401: The Australians in tunnels and on high features across the island. The final major objective, Hill 90, was secured on 20 June, but small scale clashes continued after this. Ultimately, the airfield was so heavily damaged that it took eight weeks to repair, by which time the war was essentially over. As a result, most historians, including the Australian official historian Gavin Long , believe that
11033-432: The Australians undertaking pre-landing operations and spreading disinformation. US underwater demolition teams cleared obstacles along the landing beach, as well as off Manggar, as part of the deception plan. For the landing operation, a total of 33,000 personnel were assigned, 21,000 of which were from the Australian 7th Division, under the command of Major General Edward Milford . This formation consisted of three brigades –
11220-461: The Australians undertook during the war. They required vast amounts of naval and air support, as well as complex planning and co-operation between air, land and naval forces from several nations. A significant amount of time and resources were invested prior to the operation to train the forces assigned. The historian Peter Dennis assesses that the operations were of "doubtful value strategically...[but]...they were skillfully conducted". Casualties during
11407-418: The Batu Lintang camp administration, believing that his entire family had been killed during the US atomic bombing of Hiroshima committed suicide before his trial's conclusion. Captain Susumi Hoshijima, who was responsible for the administration of Sandakan camp, was found guilty of war crimes and hanged in Rabaul , New Guinea in 1946. Many Korean and Taiwanese who had been prison guards were tried in
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#173277973398011594-422: The Beijing-Tianjin area exceeded 180,000 personnel. The Japanese gave Sung and his troops "free passage" before moving in to pacify resistance in areas surrounding Beijing (then Beiping) and Tianjin. After 24 days of combat, the Chinese 29th Army was forced to withdraw. The Japanese captured Beijing and the Taku Forts at Tianjin on 29 and 30 July respectively, thus concluding the Beijing-Tianjin campaign. However,
11781-407: The Brunei Bay area went more easily. The prediction of strong Japanese resistance proved inaccurate, with only few air raids against the Allied forces. The 24th Infantry Brigade , part of the 9th Division, landed at the southern end of Labuan, near the entrance of Brunei Bay, and commanding the approach to northern Borneo. The 20th Infantry Brigade landed near Brooketon , on a small peninsula at
11968-416: The Brunei Sultan, Ahmad Tajuddin , was retained by the Japanese with no reduction in salary. Malay government officials were usually retained in their posts. Under the Japanese occupation British Borneo were divided into five provinces ( shūs ): Each of the five shūs had a Japanese provincial governor, or the administration remained in the hands of the local people with Japanese surveillance. Each of
12155-400: The Chinese Communists through the Encirclement Campaigns , following the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance" (Chinese: 攘外必先安內 ). The internecine warfare in China provided excellent opportunities for Japan, which saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials, a market for its manufactured goods (now excluded from the markets of many Western countries as
12342-414: The Chinese and the indigenous peoples . In response to a directive from Singapore in 1942, the poor treatment of indigenous people began to be alleviated as they were not perceived to be the main enemies of Japan. With the sparse and widely dispersed local population in northern Borneo, the Japanese military administration had little choice but to rely on forced labour from abroad, mainly from elsewhere in
12529-469: The Chinese to deploy troops in their own city. In Manchukuo there was an ongoing campaign to pacify the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies that arose from widespread outrage over the policy of non-resistance to Japan. On 15 April 1932, the Chinese Soviet Republic led by the Communists declared war on Japan. In 1933, the Japanese attacked the Great Wall region. The Tanggu Truce established in its aftermath, gave Japan control of Rehe Province , as well as
12716-408: The Dutch East Indies and occupied China, under the management of the North Borneo Labour Business Society ( Kita Boruneo Romukyokai ). Chinese skilled workers were brought from Shanghai , Guangzhou and Shantou , and Indonesians from Java . Although all workers were provided with board and lodging, the Chinese received better treatment as they were considered to be the more skilled workers. Most of
12903-408: The IJN. The greatest concentrations of Japanese troops were in the interior. There were some Japanese who refused to surrender and moved further inland. After calls from Lieutenant general Baba they also surrendered. The Japanese repatriation following the surrender took several months, delayed due to lack of shipping. It was supervised by the Australians as Borneo along with New Guinea , Papua and
13090-489: The Japanese Army had been given orders not to advance further than the Yongding River. In a sudden volte-face , the Konoe government's foreign minister opened negotiations with Chiang Kai-shek's government in Nanjing and stated: "Japan wants Chinese cooperation, not Chinese land." Nevertheless, negotiations failed to move further. The Ōyama Incident on 9 August escalated the skirmishes and battles into full scale warfare. The 29th Army's resistance (and poor equipment) inspired
13277-413: The Japanese administration to issue banknotes of larger denominations and increase the amount of money in circulation. From January 1942 the Japanese set the military notes at par with the national yen . Effects of the occupation among the local population varied widely. The Japanese allowed Malay officials to maintain their positions in the civil service, but generally Malays were abused together with
13464-469: The Japanese army in northern Borneo, Masao Baba , was charged on 8 March 1947 with command responsibility for the Sandakan death marches that caused the death of over 2,000 Allied POWs and brought to Rabaul for trial. During the trial he confessed to being aware of the weakened condition of the prisoners but still issuing direct orders for a second march. The trial concluded on 5 June with
13651-513: The Japanese attempted to counterattack a position held by the 2/28th Battalion. At least 11 Japanese were killed in the fighting, for the loss of one Australian. The operations in North Borneo also involved a substantial civil affairs effort to assist the liberated civilian population; this was the largest such task undertaken by Australian forces during World War II. The 9th Division was heavily involved in providing aid to civilians and rebuilding houses and infrastructure which had been destroyed by
13838-521: The Japanese began to retaliate, Kwok's force retreated to their hide-out. The Japanese launched ruthless counter-measures, bombing coastal settlements and machine-gunning local people. Almost all villages in the area were burnt down and 2,000–4,000 civilians were executed. The Japanese threatened further mass civilian killings and so Kwok surrendered with several of his senior aides. They were executed on 21 January 1944 in Petagas, Putatan . After
14025-583: The Japanese from the rear. Fighting its way through numerous Japanese positions, the company killed at least 100 Japanese soldiers and one of its members, Private Tom Starcevich was later awarded the Victoria Cross for his efforts. Following this, the Japanese withdrew from Beaufort and the Australians began a slow, cautious advance, using indirect fire to limit casualties. By 12 July they occupied Papar , and from there sent out patrols to
14212-518: The Japanese garrison which was located in a well-defended stronghold. After heavy casualties were sustained during the 2/28th Battalion's initial attack against this position on 16 June it was decided to subject the area to a sustained bombardment. The battalion attacked again on 21 June with the support of tanks and rapidly defeated the Japanese forces. The fighting on Labuan cost the 24th Brigade 34 killed and 93 wounded. The Australian soldiers counted 389 Japanese dead and took 11 prisoners. A week after
14399-520: The Japanese intercepted most of the attack with A2N and A4N fighters from the aircraft carriers Hosho and Ryujo , shooting down several of the Chinese planes while losing a single A4N in the dogfight with Lt. Huang Xinrui in his P-26/281; the Japanese Army reinforcements succeeded in landing in northern Shanghai. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) ultimately committed over 300,000 troops, along with numerous naval vessels and aircraft, to capture
14586-501: The Japanese invasion convoy left Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina , with an escort of the cruiser Yura , the destroyers of the 12th Destroyer Division, Murakumo , Shinonome , Shirakumo and Usugumo , submarine-chaser CH-7 , and the aircraft depot ship Kamikawa Maru . Ten transport ships carried the advance party of the invasion force. The Support Force—commanded by Rear Admiral Takeo Kurita —consisted of
14773-511: The Japanese occupation, there were only three airfields: in Kuching; Miri; and Bintulu in Sarawak, while in North Borneo there were none. Due to this, the Japanese planned to construct a total of twelve airfields in different parts of northern Borneo to strengthen its defence, of which seven were to be located in Api, Elopura, Keningau, Kudat , Tawau, Labuan and Lahad Datu. The Japanese also launched
14960-556: The Japanese strongholds in Shanghai, leading to bitter street fighting. In an attack on the Japanese cruiser Izumo , Kuomintang planes accidentally bombed the Shanghai International Settlement , which led to more than 3,000 civilian deaths. In the three days from 14 August through 16, 1937, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) sent many sorties of the then-advanced long-ranged G3M medium-heavy land-based bombers and assorted carrier-based aircraft with
15147-644: The Japanese-backed East Hebei Autonomous Council and the Hebei–Chahar Political Council were established. There in the empty space of Chahar the Mongol military government was formed on 12 May 1936. Japan provided all the necessary military and economic aid. Afterwards Chinese volunteer forces continued to resist Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan . Some Chinese historians believe
15334-604: The Javanese workers were sent to Brunei, while the more skilled Chinese workers were employed in boat-building in Kuching and Elopura. Young Chinese males attempted to avoid being captured for forced labour, while young Chinese females were terrified of being taken as comfort women . Many coastal inhabitants fled to avoid these threats. A search for Chinese agitators on the Mantanani Islands in February 1944 led to
15521-645: The League of Nations. No country took action against Japan beyond tepid censure. From 1931 until summer 1937, the Nationalist Army under Chiang Kai-shek did little to oppose Japanese encroachment into China. Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident. In 1932, Chinese and Japanese troops fought the January 28 Incident battle. This resulted in the demilitarization of Shanghai , which forbade
15708-778: The Mitsubishi's Tawau Sangyo. Stealing and smuggling were punishable by death. The IJA and the IJN attempted to rebuild the oil industry to contribute to Japan's war effort. The Japanese particularly exploited the Chinese community, mainly due to their support for the Kuomintang and contributions to the China Relief Fund and British war efforts. The elites in major towns bore the heaviest burden and those with lesser resources went bankrupt. The military government strictly controlled Chinese businesses, those who were unwilling were forcibly encouraged. Japanese policy in this area
15895-644: The Nakahata Regiment was reorganised into two 500-man battalions, the 40th and 41st Independent Garrison Infantry Battalions. Maeda was killed along with Major Hataichi Usui and Pilot-Captain Katsutaro Ano in an air crash while flying to Labuan Island on 5 September 1942. The Japanese then renamed the island Maeda Island ( 前田島 , Maeda-shima ) in remembrance to him. Maeda was replaced by Lieutenant General Masataka Yamawaki from 5 September 1942 to 22 September 1944. By 1943
16082-481: The Nakahata Unit, under Colonel Nakahata Joichi took over the tasks of mopping up operations, maintaining law and order, and establishing a military government. On 6 April 1942, the unit came under Lieutenant General Marquess Toshinari Maeda 's Borneo Defence Army who became responsible for the area. His headquarters was initially at Miri, but Maeda considered it unsuitable and moved to Kuching. In July
16269-524: The Operation Oboe Six to reconquer the northern part of Borneo. This followed their success with Operations Oboe One and Oboe Two . Under the cover of a naval and aerial bombardment, the 9th Australian Division landed on Borneo and Labuan on 10 June with a force of around 14,000 personnel. With narrow roads and swampy conditions near the island beaches, the unloading operations by Royal Australian Engineers were hampered. Landings in
16456-528: The Philippines Kwok travelled to Tawi-Tawi for training. He returned with three pistols, a box of hand grenades and a promise of further weapons. However, the promised weapons were not delivered and Kwok had to launch a revolt with his locals armed with only knives and spears. Though they were poorly equipped, the attack still managed to kill at least 50 Japanese soldiers and temporarily capture Api, Tuaran and Kota Belud in early November. As
16643-474: The Singkawang area. After the Japanese secured Singkawang on 29 December, the rest of the British and Dutch troops retreated further into the jungle, moving south to Sampit and Pangkalanbun, where a Dutch airfield was located at Kotawaringin. On 31 December a force under Lieutenant Colonel Genzo Watanabe moved northward to occupy the remainder of Brunei , Beaufort and Jesselton. Jesselton
16830-457: The aftermath of the campaign, Australian personnel remained in Borneo until late 1945 to restore civilian administration, oversee reconstruction efforts, supervising the surrender of Japanese troops, and liberating former Allied prisoners of war held in camps around Borneo. It has been claimed that Australian forces near Beaufort encouraged local fighters to massacre surrendered Japanese troops after
17017-564: The airstrip also received a small weekly salary, typically enough to purchase an egg. Together with the rest of Southeast Asia , Japan exploited Borneo as a source of raw materials . The Japanese authorities enforced a food self-sufficiency policy. Priority for all resources including foodstuffs was given to Japanese troops with only a limited ration available for the local population. Through Mitsui Morin and Mitsui Bussan, foodstuffs such as rice, maize, tapioca, sweet potatoes and coconut oil were monopolised. Sago supplies were controlled by
17204-431: The area for 15 days, establishing safe lanes for the invasion fleet to pass and clearing proposed anchorages. These operations were undertaken inside the range of Japanese coastal guns; to protect the minesweepers, naval gunfire and aerial bombardment was used to suppress and neutralise the Japanese guns. Due to the unavailability of the Tarakan airfield, air support for the operation was provided by RAAF and US units based in
17391-722: The area of the Yangtze River Delta . Other sections of China were essentially in the hands of local Chinese warlords. Japan sought various Chinese collaborators and helped them establish governments friendly to Japan. This policy was called the Specialization of North China ( 華北特殊化 ; huáběitèshūhùa ), more commonly known as the North China Autonomous Movement. The northern provinces affected by this policy were Chahar , Suiyuan , Hebei , Shanxi , and Shandong. This Japanese policy
17578-564: The battalions combined strength had reduced to 500 men. The military government moved its headquarters again in April 1944 to Jesselton. Yamawaki was formerly Director of the Resources Mobilisation Bureau; his appointment in 1942 was interpreted by the Allies as part of a drive to establish Borneo as a significant location for storage of supplies and the development of supporting industry. Law enforcement in Borneo fell to
17765-418: The battery on Sadau Island provided fire support to the Australian engineers who were landed at Lingkas to clear obstacles on the landing beaches. Assault troops from the 2/23rd and 2/48th Infantry Battalions came ashore under the cover of a strong naval barrage. Initially, they encountered no opposition before they began to advance north towards Tarakan town. Opposition around Lingkas Hill was overcome and by
17952-687: The buildings. Japanese occupation of British Borneo Before the outbreak of World War II in the Pacific, the island of Borneo was divided into five territories. Four of the territories were in the north and under British control – Sarawak , Brunei , Labuan , an island, and British North Borneo ; while the remainder, and bulk, of the island, was under the jurisdiction of the Dutch East Indies . On 16 December 1941, Japanese forces landed at Miri , Sarawak having sailed from Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina . On 1 January 1942,
18139-735: The campaign did, however, achieve a number of objectives, such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the NEI, capturing major oil supplies, and freeing Allied prisoners of war, who were being held in increasingly worse conditions in the Sandakan camp and Batu Lintang camp . Second Sino-Japanese War [REDACTED] China [REDACTED] Japan [REDACTED] 14,000,000 total [REDACTED] 4,100,000 total Second Sino-Japanese War Taishō period Shōwa period Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups The Second Sino-Japanese War
18326-504: The campaign on the Allied side amounted to about 2,100, while the Japanese suffered about 4,700 casualties. A considerable number of civilians were killed or wounded; for instance, the pre-invasion bombardment of Tarakan resulted in least 100 civilian casualties. Despite the success of the Allied landings, because of the strategic situation, the Borneo campaign was criticised in Australia at the time and in subsequent years, as pointless or
18513-408: The capital of the NEI, Batavia (modern-day Jakarta); Oboe 5 against the eastern NEI; and Oboe 6 against British North Borneo (Sabah). In the end only the operations against Tarakan, Balikpapan and British North Borneo – at Labuan and Brunei Bay – took place. These operations ultimately constituted the last campaigns of Australian forces in the war against Japan. In the planning phase the commander of
18700-404: The capture of Nanjing, Japanese committed massive war atrocities including mass murder and rape of Chinese civilians after 13 December 1937, which has been referred to as the Nanjing Massacre . Over the next several weeks, Japanese troops perpetrated numerous mass executions and tens of thousands of rapes. The army looted and burned the surrounding towns and the city, destroying more than a third of
18887-464: The city's large foreign community and increase China's foreign support. On 13 August 1937, Kuomintang soldiers attacked Japanese Marine positions in Shanghai, with Japanese army troops and marines in turn crossing into the city with naval gunfire support at Zhabei , leading to the Battle of Shanghai. On 14 August, Chinese forces under the command of Zhang Zhizhong were ordered to capture or destroy
19074-601: The city. After more than three months of intense fighting, their casualties far exceeded initial expectations. On 26 October, the IJA captured Dachang, a key strong-point within Shanghai, and on 5 November, additional reinforcements from Japan landed in Hangzhou Bay. Finally, on 9 November, the NRA began a general retreat. Japan did not immediately occupy the Shanghai International Settlement or
19261-593: The coast, the 21st Brigade crossed the Batakan Ketjil River, where it was held up on 3 July by strong Japanese resistance, which was overcome with naval gunfire support. The following day, after crossing the Manggar Besar, the brigade came up against even stronger Japanese opposition, supported by coastal artillery and mortars defending the airfield; despite landing tanks around the river, the Australians were held up for several more days until some of
19448-508: The conflict into a full-scale war. Following the shooting of two Japanese officers who were attempting to enter the Hongqiao military airport on 9 August 1937, the Japanese demanded that all Chinese forces withdraw from Shanghai; the Chinese outright refused to meet this demand. In response, both the Chinese and the Japanese marched reinforcements into the Shanghai area. Chiang concentrated his best troops north of Shanghai in an effort to impress
19635-568: The country. China was reduced to a fractured state. As a result, China's prosperity began to wither and its economy declined. This instability presented an opportunity for nationalistic politicians in Japan to press for territorial expansion. In 1915, Japan issued the Twenty-One Demands to extort further political and commercial privilege from China, which was accepted by the regime of Yuan Shikai. Following World War I , Japan acquired
19822-618: The country. Yuan's attempts at restoring the monarchy triggered the National Protection War , and Yuan Shikai was overthrown after only a few months. In the aftermath of Shikai's death in June 1916, control of China fell into the hands of the Beiyang Army leadership. The Beiyang government was a civilian government in name, but in practice it was a military dictatorship with a different warlord controlling each province of
20009-407: The cruisers Kumano and Suzuya and the destroyers Fubuki and Sagiri . The Japanese forces intended to capture Miri and Seria , then move on Kuching and the nearby airfields. The convoy proceeded without being detected and, at dawn on 16 December, two landing units secured Miri and Seria with little resistance from British forces. Kuala Belait and Lutong were captured on
20196-475: The destruction of coastal townships was almost total, and in Brunei the shop quarter and many Government buildings were completely destroyed. The oilfields at Seria in Brunei were also heavily damaged, the last well fire there having been extinguished on the 27th September.... Brunei and Labuan, Miri , Beaufort and Weston which were focal points in the attack suffered heavily from preliminary bombardments. Bintulu
20383-710: The east coast of Borneo, and achieved little. The Agas 3 party investigated the Ranau area on the request of I Corps. The results of Operation Agas were mixed; its parties established control over their areas of operation, provided intelligence of variable quality and killed less than 100 Japanese. As part of Operation Semut over 100 Allied personnel organised into four parties were inserted by air into Sarawak from March 1945. Most of these personnel were Australian. The Semut parties were tasked with collecting intelligence and establishing guerilla forces. The inhabitants of Sarawak's interior, who were known as Dayaks, enthusiastically joined
20570-495: The end of the first day a strong beachhead had been established. The brigade reserve, the 2/24th Infantry Battalion , was landed the next day as the advance towards the airfield continued. Japanese resistance grew, and the advance was hindered by large numbers of mines and booby traps, which had to be cleared by engineers and pioneers; however, finally, on 5 May the airfield was captured by the Australians. Meanwhile, operations continued into June as isolated pockets of Japanese resisted
20757-408: The end of the war in August. Initially intended to secure vital airfields and port facilities to support future operations, preparatory bombardment resulted in heavy damage to the island's infrastructure, including its oil production facilities. As a result, the strategic benefits the Allies gained from the campaign were negligible. Prior to World War II, Borneo was divided between British Borneo , in
20944-545: The expectation of destroying the Chinese Air Force . However, the Imperial Japanese Navy encountered unexpected resistance from the defending Chinese Curtiss Hawk II / Hawk III and P-26/281 Peashooter fighter squadrons; suffering heavy (50%) losses from the defending Chinese pilots (14 August was subsequently commemorated by the KMT as China's Air Force Day ). The skies of China had become
21131-740: The failed uprising the Japanese conducted regular reprisals. The inhabitants of North Borneo were unable to organise a further uprising due to the level of Japanese surveillance. As part of the Borneo Campaign Australian commandos were landed using US submarines . The Allied Z Special Unit began to train Dayak people from the Kapit Division in guerrilla warfare. This army of tribesmen killed or captured some 1,500 Japanese soldiers. They also provided intelligence vital to securing Japanese-held oil fields and to facilitating
21318-554: The first branch of Yokohama Specie Bank opened in Kuching in the former building of Chartered Bank . The Japanese Southern Development Treasury also opened an office to oversee investment throughout northern Borneo. Two Japanese insurance companies, Tokyo Kaijo Kasai and Mitsubishi Kaijo Kasai, began operations. All motor vehicles were confiscated by Japan Transport Co. for limited compensation. The Japanese recruited labours to construct airfields for extra food and payment, while detainees were forced to work. The POWs who worked to build
21505-573: The guerilla groups and SOA personnel led small private armies . No. 200 Flight RAAF and the Royal Australian Navy 's Snake-class junks played important roles in this campaign by inserting SOA personnel and supplies. The guerilla forces launched attacks to gain control of the interior of Sarawak while the 9th Division focused on the coastal area, the oilfields, plantations and the ports in North Borneo. The guerillas operated from patrol bases around Balai, Ridan and Marudi, as well as in
21692-460: The guns were captured, and heavy air strikes overwhelmed the defenders. On 5 July, one of the 18th Brigade's infantry battalions – the 2/9th – along with the 2/1st Pioneer Battalion , was landed at Panadjam to clear the western shore of Japanese artillery, prior to the Allies opening the port. Against only limited opposition, the area around Panadjam was cleared within two days. Meanwhile, the airfields were secured by 9 July, but Japanese resistance
21879-438: The initial landing on Labuan, the Australians followed up with attacks on Japanese positions around Weston on the north-eastern part of Brunei Bay. The Australians then pushed inland along the single track railway that ran from Weston towards the junction at Beaufort, 23 kilometres (14 mi) north-east of Brunei Bay, and then on to Jesselton. The heaviest fighting of the operations on the mainland took place on 27/28 June during
22066-579: The initial landings of the campaign. The bulk of the logistic support was provided by the US, particularly provision of the shipping that was required to transport the vast amounts of troops, stores and equipment required for the operation. Allied forces were resisted by IJN and IJA forces in southern and eastern Borneo, under Vice-Admiral Michiaki Kamada , and in the north-west by the Thirty-Seventh Army , led by Lieutenant-General Masao Baba , which
22253-489: The invasion of Tarakan did not justify the casualties suffered by the Allied forces; these included 225 Australians killed and 669 wounded. Japanese casualties were even heavier, with 1,540 being killed and 252 captured. The landings in north-west Borneo had several goals. These included securing the Brunei Bay area for use as a naval base and capturing oil and rubber facilities. A total of 29,000 personnel were assigned to
22440-709: The investigation results of the Association of the Families of the Victims of the Jinan massacre, it showed that 6,123 Chinese civilians were killed and 1,701 injured. Relations between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan severely worsened as a result of the Jinan incident. As the National Revolutionary Army approached Beijing, Zhang Zuolin decided to retreat back to Manchuria, before he
22627-436: The island of Tarakan , while parachute troops carried out a drop on the Celebes the following day; the small Dutch garrison managed to destroy some of the infrastructure before eventually being overwhelmed. The destruction of these facilities led to harsh reprisals against civilians, particularly at Balikpapan where between 80 and 100 Europeans were executed. In the aftermath, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) administered
22814-403: The island since late 1941 – early 1942. The main Japanese formation on the island was the Thirty-Seventh Army under Lieutenant-General Masao Baba , while the naval garrison was commanded by Vice-Admiral Michiaki Kamada . The Australian ground forces were supported by US and other Allied air and naval forces, with the US providing the bulk of the shipping and logistic support necessary to conduct
23001-414: The island. IJA reinforcements were allocated to Borneo, but did not arrive until between September and November that year. In late 1944 the Japanese command judged that Australian forces were likely to attack the Brunei area and then capture the west coast of Borneo as part of a campaign aimed at liberating Singapore . Accordingly, most of the IJA units in north-eastern Borneo were ordered to move overland to
23188-424: The landing, a reconnaissance party including Sergeant Jack Wong Sue , was inserted into Kimanis Bay , British North Borneo, for close reconnaissance work using a Hoehn military folboat deployed from a Catalina aircraft. Oboe 6 began on 10 June with simultaneous assaults by the 24th Brigade on the island of Labuan and the 20th Brigade on the coast of Brunei in the north-west of Borneo, bought from ships to shore by
23375-428: The landings of Australian forces in June 1945. Most of the Allied activities were conducted under two intelligence and guerrilla warfare operations: Operation Agas in North Borneo; and Operation Semut in Sarawak. Tom Harrisson , a British anthropologist , journalist and co-founder of Mass-Observation was among those parachuted in to work with the resistance. The Allies organised a liberation mission known as
23562-437: The mass killing of 60 Suluk and several Chinese civilians. As both Korea and Taiwan had been under the domination of Japan for decades, many citizens of both territories were forced to work for the Japanese military under harsh conditions. A number were sent to Borneo to work as prison guards , replacing the existing Japanese guards. They received no training for the treatment of POWs and many were involved in brutalising
23749-541: The minor war crimes trials. In Sandakan 129 Taiwanese guards were found guilty of brutalising POWs and 14 were sentenced to death. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East concluded that during the resistance movement in North Borneo the military police were involved in torturing and killing hundreds of Chinese in an apparently systematic attempt to exterminate the Suluk coastal population. The last commander of
23936-467: The mountains, along several key waterways including the Pandaruan and Limbang Rivers, and along the railway that ran between Beaufort and Tenom. They sought to disrupt the Japanese troops' freedom of movement and interdicted forces as they withdrew from the main combat zone. The RAAF flew air strikes to support the lightly armed guerillas, who at times had to evade better-armed Japanese units. The campaign
24123-470: The next morning. The 2nd Battalion of the 15th Punjab Regiment , which was stationed in Kuching, was the sole Allied infantry unit on the island. Although they resisted the Japanese attack on the airfield, they were soon outnumbered and retreated up the Santubong River. On 25 December, Japanese troops successfully captured Kuching airfield. The Punjab Regiment retreated through the jungle to
24310-449: The north and along the river until the cessation of hostilities. In August the fighting came to an end. The division's total casualties in the operation were 114 killed and 221 wounded, while the Japanese losses were at least 1,234. After the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945 Lieutenant General Masao Baba , commander of Japanese forces in northern Borneo , surrendered at Layang-layang beach of Labuan on 9 September. He
24497-518: The north of the island and Dutch Borneo in the south; the latter formed part of the Netherlands East Indies (NEI). As of 1941, the island's population was estimated to be 3 million. The great majority lived in small villages, with Borneo having less than a dozen towns. Borneo has a tropical climate and was mainly covered by dense jungle at the time of World War II. Most of the coastline was lined with mangroves or swamps. Borneo
24684-506: The northern part as North Borneo ( 北ボルネオ , Kita Boruneo ) , Labuan as Maida Island ( 前田島 , Maeda-shima ) and the neighbouring Dutch territories as South Borneo ( 南ボルネオ , Minami Boruneo ) . For the first time in modern history all of Borneo was under a single rule. British Borneo was occupied by the Japanese for over three years. They actively promoted the Japanisation of the local population by requiring them to learn
24871-616: The notorious Kenpeitai , the Japanese military police, who were directly responsible to the military commander and the Japanese War Ministry . They had virtually unlimited power and frequently used torture and brutality. The Kenpeitai headquarters were in a two-storey bungalow on Java Street (Jalan Jawa), Kuching. From April 1944 it was relocated to the Sports Club Building in Api. Japanese justice became synonymous with punishment out of all proportion to
25058-483: The occupied British North Borneo and the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was responsible for Dutch Borneo. The garrison forces on the island were very small until mid-1944. During the occupation , the local population was subjected to harsh treatment. For example, on Tarakan large numbers of people were conscripted as labourers, the economy was disrupted, and food became increasingly scarce. In October 1943, an open revolt by local Dayak tribesmen and ethnic Chinese initiated
25245-630: The offence. They revived the pre-war civil court system from November 1942, with local magistrates applying the Sarawak Penal Code. With the Allied advance in the Pacific, the Japanese realised that Borneo was likely to be retaken. The Borneo Defence Army was strengthened with additional units and renamed 37th Army . Command passed to Lieutenant General Masao Baba from 26 December 1944. Airfields were constructed by prisoners of war and conscripted labour from various locations, including from Brunei, Labuan, Ranau and Elopura. Before
25432-635: The only community which could offer a serious challenge to Japanese authority: The main objective, where the local Chinese are concerned, shall be to utilise their existing commercial organisations and practices to the advantage of our policies ... and measures shall be taken to sever political ties among the Chinese residents of the various areas as well as between them and mainland China. Attempts were also made to inculcate anti-Western feeling with local government officers required to attend Japanese night classes. Unlike his counterparts in North Borneo and Sarawak which were previously ruled by European officials,
25619-562: The operation, just over 1,000 of these were US and British personnel, while the rest were Australian. Almost 6,000 were air force personnel, while 18,000 were ground troops and 4,700 were base area personnel. Major General George Wootten 's 9th Division was the main element of this force, and consisted of two infantry brigades – the 20th and 24th ; the division's third brigade – the 26th Brigade – had been detached for operations on Tarakan. The troops were supported by large number of American and Australian warships and air units. In preparation for
25806-429: The operation. The campaign was initially planned to involve six stages, but eventually landings were undertaken at four locations: Tarakan , Labuan , North Borneo and Balikpapan . Guerilla operations were also carried out by Dayak tribesmen and small numbers of Allied personnel in the interior of the island. While major combat operations were concluded by mid-July, localised fighting continued throughout Borneo until
25993-570: The oppression of Korean residents". After five months of fighting, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932, and installed the last Emperor of China, Puyi , as its puppet ruler. Militarily too weak to challenge Japan directly, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. The League's investigation led to the publication of the Lytton Report , condemning Japan for its incursion into Manchuria, causing Japan to withdraw from
26180-561: The population was caused by acute food shortages. In response the BMA provided food and medical supplies and reconstructed the public infrastructure, including roads, bridges, the rail network, sewerage and water supplies. The Australians held war crime trials on Labuan from 3 December 1945 to 31 January 1946. There were 16 trials involving 145 alleged war criminals, and these resulted in 128 convictions and 17 acquittals. Lieutenant Colonel Tatsuji Suga , who had been responsible for
26367-514: The position; this was not fully achieved and by the evening of 21/22 July, the remaining defenders withdrew further inland. Opposition in these areas was largely overcome by the end of July, but mopping-up operations around Balikpapan continued until the end of the war in August as Japanese troops withdrew to the rough high ground further inland. Operations to secure Balikpapan cost the Australians 229 killed and 634 wounded, while Japanese losses were placed at 2,032 killed. A further 63 were captured. In
26554-652: The pre-invasion bombardments and subsequent fighting. The conventional operations on British North Borneo were accompanied by a guerilla warfare campaign organised by Special Operations Australia (SOA). This involved two operations; Operation Agas in British North Borneo and Operation Semut in Sarawak. These operations succeeded the unsuccessful Operation Python which had been undertaken between October 1943 and January 1944. Five SOA parties were inserted in North Borneo between March and July 1945. The Agas 1 and 2 parties established networks of agents and guerrillas in north-western Borneo. The Agas 4 and 5 parties were landed on
26741-607: The prisoners, whose treatment deteriorated after the replacement of Japanese guards in Elopura by the Taiwanese in April 1943. On the west coast of North Borneo, a resistance movement developed led by Albert Kwok , a Chinese from Kuching, who after working with the China Red Cross moved to Jesselton in 1940. He collaborated with local indigenous groups in North Borneo. After establishing contact with American forces in
26928-428: The process of Japanisation ( Nipponisation ), schoolchildren and adults were instructed to go to nihon-go classes to learn the Japanese language . Students had to wear uniforms and a peaked cap with a blue sakura (cherry blossom) emblem, which was replaced by a red one as the students attained higher grades. Each morning students were required to sing the Japanese national anthem with gusto followed by bowing to
27115-478: The provinces constituted prefectures or ken ( 県 ) . Jesselton and Sandakan were renamed Api and Elopura respectively. Once Sarawak was secured, control of the rest of British Borneo fell to the Kawaguchi Detachment , while neighbouring Dutch Borneo was administered by the IJN. In mid-March 1942, the navy detachment was redeployed to Cebu . The 4th Independent Mixed Regiment, also known as
27302-477: The region by pressuring Yuan Shikai , the president of the Republic of China at the time. With a widened range of economic privileges in Manchuria, Japan began focusing on developing and protecting matters of economic interests. This included railroads, businesses, natural resources, and a general control of the territory. With its influence growing, the Japanese Army began to justify its presence by stating that it
27489-472: The region, while Brunei Bay was intended to be used as naval base. Planning for the operation began in late 1944 and early 1945 through the General Headquarters of General Douglas MacArthur 's South West Pacific Area . As a result of the commitment of US forces to the recapture of the Philippines , the task of recapturing Borneo was allocated primarily to Australian ground forces. By this time
27676-458: The revolution. Yuan, wanting to remain in power, compromised with the revolutionaries, and agreed to abolish the monarchy and establish a new republican government, under the condition he be appointed president of China. The new Beiyang government of China was proclaimed in March 1912, after which Yuan Shikai began to amass power for himself. In 1913, the parliamentary political leader Song Jiaoren
27863-599: The same day with around 10,000 Japanese soldiers ashore. On 22 December, Brunei Town was captured and the main Japanese force moved westwards towards Kuching after securing the oilfields in northern Sarawak. The Japanese air force bombed Singkawang airfield to deter any Dutch attack. After escorts drove off a lone Dutch submarine, the Japanese task force entered the mouth of the Santubong River on 23 December. The convoy, including twenty transports carrying Japanese troops commanded by Colonel Akinosuke Oka , arrived off Cape Sipang and had completed disembarkation by
28050-519: The sleek A5Ms in dogfights , and it also proved to be a battle of attrition against the Chinese Air Force. At the start of the battle, the local strength of the NRA was around five divisions, or about 70,000 troops, while local Japanese forces comprised about 6,300 marines. On 23 August, the Chinese Air Force attacked Japanese troop landings at Wusongkou in northern Shanghai with Hawk III fighter-attack planes and P-26/281 fighter escorts, and
28237-406: The southern Philippines. Three minesweepers were lost during the clearance operations. The invasion fleet sailed from Morotai Island on 26 June, arriving off Balikpapan on 29 June. The landing area was then subjected to over 45,000 rounds of preparatory fire from the Australian, US and Dutch warships supporting the landing. A deception plan was enacted to draw Japanese attention towards Manggar, with
28424-440: The southern end of the bay. The 20th Infantry Brigade rapidly secured Brunei Town against relatively light opposition, suffering only 40 casualties in the campaign. The 24th Infantry Brigade encountered stronger opposition in taking Labuan, where the defenders withdrew to an inland stronghold and held out among dense jungle-covered ridges and muddy swamps. To subdue the Japanese resistance an intense naval and artillery bombardment
28611-608: The tensions in the Northeast that led to the Mukden Incident and eventually the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Soviet Red Army victory over Xueliang's forces not only reasserted Soviet control over the CER in Manchuria but revealed Chinese military weaknesses that Japanese Kwantung Army officers were quick to note. The Soviet Red Army performance also stunned the Japanese. Manchuria was central to Japan's East Asia policy. Both
28798-406: The territory they held and not expect reinforcements. The main Allied ground forces assigned to the campaign came from the Australian I Corps, under Lieutenant-General Leslie Morshead . The main elements of this force consisted of two infantry divisions: the 7th and 9th . For the operation, the Australian corps was assigned as a task force directly under MacArthur's command rather than as part of
28985-469: The territory. Japanese immigrants had also been in the Raj of Sarawak since 1915, with some of them working as hawkers and some Japanese women working in the red-light district . This presented opportunities for espionage, which were taken up by the Japanese military, especially from 1930. Secret telegrams revealed that the Japanese ships docking regularly at Jesselton were engaged in espionage. In 1940
29172-566: The territory. Towards the end of 1945, Australian commandos were deployed to the island by US submarines with the Allied Z Special Unit conducting intelligence operations and training thousands of indigenous people to fight the Japanese in guerrilla warfare in the Borneo Campaign in preparation for the arrival of the main Allied liberation missions. Following landings in North Borneo and Labuan on 10 June 1945 by
29359-418: The time being. The impact of the war on native livelihood should be alleviated where possible and within the limits set by the need for rendering occupational forces self-sufficient and securing resources vital to national defence. However, no measures shall be taken for the sole purpose of placating the natives . [Emphasis added.] A different principle applied to the local Chinese as they were considered to be
29546-727: The time, the Nationalist government relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior. After the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact , Soviet aid bolstered the National Revolutionary Army and Air Force . By 1939, after Chinese victories at Changsha and with Japan's lines of communications stretched deep into the interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were unable to defeat Chinese Communist Party forces in Shaanxi , who waged
29733-411: The town and another marched to the flanks, to take up ambush positions along the route that the Japanese were expected to withdraw along. The 2/28th Battalion secured the lines of communication north of the river. On the night of 27/28 June, the Japanese launched six counter-attacks. Amid appalling conditions, one Australian company became isolated and the next morning another was sent to attack
29920-469: The town of Weston before sending out patrols towards Beaufort , 23 kilometres (14 mi) inland. The town was held by around 800–1,000 Japanese soldiers and on 27 June an attack was carried out by the 2/43rd Battalion . Amid a torrential downpour and in difficult terrain, the 2/32nd Battalion secured the south bank of the Padas River. Meanwhile, one company from the 2/43rd was sent to take
30107-478: The units which had been ordered from north-eastern Borneo to the west coast were still in transit when the Australian landings began and had been greatly weakened by the difficult conditions experienced during their cross-island march. The transfers left only single battalions and Balikpapan. Japanese air power in the region, except in Java and Sumatra, was ineffective. The campaign opened with Oboe 1, which consisted of
30294-494: The war in revenge for the Sandakan Death Marches , with almost 6,000 Japanese being killed. The historian Ooi Keat Gin states though that no documentary evidence supports these claims. The amphibious operations undertaken by Australian forces throughout the Borneo campaign were, according to the historian Eustace Keogh the "outstanding feature" of the campaign, and represented the largest such operations that
30481-412: The west coast; this required them to undertake gruelling marches over rugged terrain. Two other battalions were transferred from north-eastern Borneo by sea to south Borneo between February and March 1945. After United States forces liberated key areas of the Philippines, which cut the rest of South-East Asia off from Japan, on 27 January 1945 the IJA's General Staff ordered the forces in this area to defend
30668-474: The wrong location as smoke from the pre-landing bombardment made navigation difficult, but the landing was unopposed and a beachhead was quickly established as follow on forces arrived. Operating on the left, the 18th Brigade fought to capture several high features around Klandasan and to gain control of the town and secure the harbour and port facilities in Balikpapan north-west of the landing beaches, while
30855-422: Was assassinated by the Kwantung Army in 1928. His son, Zhang Xueliang , took over as the leader of the Fengtian clique in Manchuria. Later in the same year, Zhang declared his allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanjing under Chiang Kai-shek , and consequently, China was nominally reunified under one government. The July–November 1929 conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) further increased
31042-447: Was rapidly conquered by the Japanese in the opening weeks of the Pacific War . The purpose of this operation was to capture the oilfields and guard the flanks of advances into Malaya and the NEI. Japanese troops landed at Sarawak on 16 December 1941, where a single battalion of British Indian troops fought a delaying action over several weeks, damaging vital oil installations. Meanwhile, on 11 January 1942, Japanese troops landed on
31229-414: Was also called the "Eight Years' War of Resistance" (simplified Chinese: 八年抗战 ; traditional Chinese: 八年抗戰 ), but in 2017 the Chinese Ministry of Education issued a directive stating that textbooks were to refer to the war as the "Fourteen Years' War of Resistance" (simplified Chinese: 十四年抗战 ; traditional Chinese: 十四年抗戰 ), reflecting a focus on the broader conflict with Japan going back to
31416-444: Was also used by the IJN as a refuelling depot and as a staging post for the Battle of Leyte Gulf . The Japanese had major POW camps at Kuching, Ranau, and Sandakan, plus smaller ones at Dahan and other locations. Batu Lintang camp held both military and civilian prisoners. The camp was finally liberated on 11 September 1945 by elements of the Australian 9th Division under the command of Brigadier Tom Eastick . Sandakan camp
31603-406: Was assassinated ; it is generally believed Yuan Shikai ordered the assassination. Yuan Shikai then forced the parliament to pass a bill to strengthen the power of the president and sought to restore the imperial system , becoming the new emperor of China. However, there was little support for an imperial restoration among the general population, and protests and demonstrations soon broke out across
31790-491: Was assigned to the heavily reinforced 26th Brigade , under the command of Brigadier David Whitehead . This brigade's three infantry battalions were augmented with two battalions of pioneers as well as commandos and engineers . American amphibious engineers, an American amphibian tractor battalion (727th Amphibian Tractor Battalion), and a Dutch infantry company (made up of soldiers from Ambon Island ) and civil affairs unit were also placed under Whitehead's command. Overall,
31977-488: Was closed by the Japanese prior to the Allied invasion; most of its occupants died as a result of forced marches from Sandakan to Ranau. In total the Japanese are believed to have held an estimated 4,660 prisoners and internees at all camps in northern Borneo, with only 1,393 surviving to end of the war. Following the occupation government offices re-opened on 26 December 1941. Japanese companies were brought in and granted monopolies in essential goods. In early 1942
32164-436: Was defended by the North Borneo Armed Constabulary with 650 men. They provided little resistance and the town was taken on 9 January. On 3 January 1942 the IJA invaded Labuan Island. On 18 January, using small fishing boats, the Japanese landed at Sandakan , the seat of government of British North Borneo. On the morning of 19 January Governor Charles Robert Smith surrendered British North Borneo and
32351-438: Was deserted and the airstrip there had been entirely destroyed. Kuching , apart from minor damage in the bazaar area was practically untouched. In Sibu the town area was severely damaged.... Both Jesselton and Sandakan in particular were heavily damaged... The observation revealed that despite the destruction caused by the Allied bombardments, there were few Japanese casualties. Widespread malnutrition and disease amongst
32538-453: Was fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to Manchuria that started in 1931. It is considered part of World War II , and often regarded as the beginning of World War II in Asia. It was the largest Asian war in the 20th century and has been described as "the Asian Holocaust ", in reference to the scale of Japanese war crimes against Chinese civilians. It
32725-532: Was headquartered in Jesselton . The main elements of the Thirty-Seventh Army were the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade (northern Borneo), 71st Independent Mixed Brigade (southern Borneo) and 25th Independent Mixed Regiment ; these units had been raised in Japan during the second half of 1944 and arrived in Borneo late that year. The IJN's 2nd Naval Guard Force was also stationed in Borneo. Allied intelligence assessed that there were about 32,000 Japanese troops in Borneo, with 15,000 of these being combat troops. Most of
32912-412: Was highly successful, and it is estimated that over 1,800 Japanese were killed in north Borneo through guerilla actions. The attention of the Allies then switched back to the central east coast, with Oboe 2. The last major amphibious assault of World War II was at Balikpapan on 1 July 1945. The landing was preceded by a heavy aerial bombardment over the course of 20 days, while minesweepers worked to clear
33099-419: Was interned with his staff. The occupation of British Borneo was thus completed. The Dutch southern and central Borneo were also taken by the IJN, following its attacks from east and west. After ten weeks in the jungle-covered mountains, Allied troops surrendered on 1 April. The Tokyo-based Asahi Shimbun newspaper and the Osaka-based Mainichi Shimbun began publication in Malay in both Borneo and
33286-449: Was laid down over the course of a week before an assault was put in by two companies of infantry supported by tanks and flamethrowers . After securing Labuan, the 24th Infantry Brigade was landed on the northern shore of Brunei Bay on 16 June, while the 20th Infantry Brigade continued to consolidate the southern lodgement by advancing south-west along the coast towards Kuching. The 2/32nd Battalion landed at Padas Bay and seized
33473-399: Was most effective in the area of what is now Inner Mongolia and Hebei. In 1935, under Japanese pressure, China signed the He–Umezu Agreement , which forbade the KMT to conduct party operations in Hebei. In the same year, the Chin–Doihara Agreement was signed expelling the KMT from Chahar. Thus, by the end of 1935 the Chinese government had essentially abandoned northern China. In its place,
33660-461: Was secured, the 21st Brigade continued their advance towards Sambodja. Moving inland along a north-east road dubbed the "Milford Highway" by the Australians, the 25th Brigade advanced to contact with the Japanese rearguard, which was reduced with artillery support and then outflanked, triggering a withdrawal to a secondary position 3 miles (4.8 km) back on 9 July. Air strikes and artillery helped reduce this position, while infantry worked to surround
33847-453: Was simply protecting its own economic interests. However militarists in the Japanese Army began pushing for an expansion of influence, leading to the Japanese Army assassinating the warlord of Manchuria, Zhang Zuolin . This was done with hopes that it would start a crisis that would allow Japan to expand their power and influence in the region. When this was not as successful as they desired, Japan then decided to invade Manchuria outright after
34034-512: Was strategically important during World War II. The European colonisers had developed oil fields and their holdings exported other raw materials. The island's location was also significant, as it sat across the main sea routes between north Asia, Malaya and the NEI. Despite this, Borneo was under-developed, and had few roads and only a single railroad. Most travel was by watercraft or narrow paths. The British and Dutch also stationed only small military forces in Borneo to protect their holdings. Borneo
34221-416: Was strong, utilising delaying tactics including booby traps, mines, sniping and small-scale raids. Strong resistance was met around Batuchampar where a Japanese battalion had established a stronghold, while others fought resolutely in tunnels around Manggar. Australian engineers were heavily tasked, working to clear over 8,000 mines and booby traps, as well as destroying over 100 tunnels. Once Manggar airfield
34408-420: Was summarised in Principles Governing the Implementation of Measures Relative to the Chinese [ Kakyō Kōsaku Jisshi Yōryō ] issued by the Japanese headquarters in Singapore in April 1942. Before the invasion, the Japanese government had printed unnumbered military yen notes for use in all occupied territories in Southeast Asia. Increasing inflation coupled with Allied disruption of Japan's economy forced
34595-440: Was the second stage of Operation Montclair , which was aimed at destroying Imperial Japanese forces in, and re-occupying the NEI, Raj of Sarawak , Brunei , the colonies of Labuan and British North Borneo , and the southern Philippines . Borneo in particular was considered at the time a strategic location for its natural resource; oil and rubber . Tarakan was also seen to offer a forward airbase to support future operations in
34782-406: Was then brought to the headquarters of Australian 9th Division, where at the official surrender ceremony on 10 September he signed the surrender document and handed over his sword to the divisional commander, Major General George Wootten . The location became known as Surrender Point. It was estimated that around 29,500 Japanese remained on the island. 18,600 belonged to the IJA, 10,900 to
34969-425: Was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war . From the Japanese perspective, localizing these conflicts was beneficial in preventing intervention from other countries, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, which were its primary source of petroleum and steel respectively. A formal expression of these conflicts would potentially lead to an American embargo in accordance with
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