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130-580: Braniewo is the second biggest city of Warmia after Olsztyn and one of the historical centers of the region. Braniewo lies on the Pasłęka River about 5 km from the Vistula Lagoon , about 35 km northeast of Elbląg and 55 km (34 mi) southwest of Kaliningrad ( Polish : Królewiec ). The Polish border with Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast lies 6 km north, and may be reached from Braniewo via National road 54 . According to

260-593: A European great power that exercised territorial control over much of the Baltic region . During this period it also held territories on the North Sea and some overseas colonies , including New Sweden . The beginning of the period is usually taken as the reign of Gustavus Adolphus , who ascended the throne in 1611, and its end as the loss of territories in 1721 following the Great Northern War . After

390-596: A Polish siege which was ended in an agreement in which the Polish king recognized von Tüngen as bishop and the right of the Cathedral Chapter to elect future bishops, which however would have to be accepted by the king, and the bishop as well as Cathedral Chapter swore an oath to the Polish king. Later in the Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December 1512), conceded to the king of Poland a limited right to determine

520-516: A certain amount per annum should revert to the Crown. The same Riksdag decided that the king was not bound by any particular constitution , but only by law and statutes, and not even obligated to consult the Privy Council , but was to be regarded as a sovereign lord. The Privy Council changed its official title from Riksråd (council of state) to kungligt råd (royal council); a visible sign that

650-564: A consequent application of the uniformity policy was hindered by the treaties by which they were gained. After its victories in the Thirty Years' War and the subsequent Peace of Westphalia Sweden was granted territories in northern Germany. Sweden reached the height of its power during the Second Northern War , when its primary adversary, Denmark–Norway , was neutralized by the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. Denmark–Norway

780-521: A feast he organized, he ordered turkey to be served, among other dishes. The tradition of producing Warmian smoked beef ham ( Warmińska szynka wołowa wędzona ) is cultivated by several meat-packing plants in Warmia. The officially protected traditional alcoholic beverages of Warmia are Okowita miodowa warmińska , a beverage of 42% alcohol by volume made from Warmian honey , and the Warmian porter ,

910-513: A final peace conference with Germany which eventually never took place. The German inhabitants either fled or were transferred to Germany by Soviet and communist authorities installed in Poland and the remaining Polish inhabitants were joined by Polish settlers, many of whom were displaced from former eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union . Olsztyn is the largest city in Warmia and

1040-415: A local type of Polish beer . The traditional cuisine of German Warmiaks include Königsberger Klopse , Heilsberger Keilchen, a form of potato dumplings, and Wruken (turnip), or Klunkersuppe (flour milk soup) mit Bratschukken (fried potatoes). The most accomplished sports team of Warmia is AZS Olsztyn , multiple times Polish volleyball champions and Polish Cup winners. The first several tournaments of

1170-546: A notable Nazi prison in the town of Barczewo (Wartenburg) with several forced labour subcamps in the region. The Polish resistance movement was active in the region and Polish underground press was distributed. Following Germany's defeat in World War II , and the Yalta Conference and Potsdam Conference of 1945, Warmia became again part of Poland as part of so-called Recovered Territories , pending

1300-462: A personal dislike of the French king and developed a strong anti-French bias. The remainder of the reign of Charles XI is remarkable for a revolution, in which the government of Sweden was transformed to a semi-absolute monarchy. The king emerged from the war convinced that if Sweden were to retain its position as a great power, it needed to reform its whole economic system radically and circumscribe

1430-487: A range of roughly 50 meters, and then to draw their swords before the battalion resumed their attack. The two foremost ranks then discharged at a range of roughly 20 meters before drawing their swords, and the charge began. At this range, the powerful muskets usually felled many enemy troops and was demoralising to them. Directly after the volley, the Swedes charged the enemy ranks with pikes , bayonets and sabres. Note that

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1560-461: A result of Sweden's intervention, Sweden helped secure religious liberty in Europe for Protestants, becoming a leading power of Continental Protestantism for 90 years. The elevation of Sweden to the rank of an imperial power required that it remain a military monarchy, armed for possible emergency. Sweden's poverty and sparse population meant the country was ill-suited for imperial status. However, in

1690-625: A result of acquiring territories seized from Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , as well as its involvement in the Thirty Years' War , Sweden found itself transformed into the leader of Protestantism . During the Thirty Years' War, Sweden managed to conquer approximately half of the member states of the Holy Roman Empire . The fortunes of war would shift back and forth several times. After its defeat in

1820-524: Is a popular regional pilgrimage site. Places of stay of Nicolaus Copernicus include the medieval castles in Olsztyn, Lidzbark Warmiński and Pieniężno , whereas the Frombork Cathedral contains his grave and epitaph . A typical feature of the Warmian landscape are the massive Gothic churches in the towns and the numerous historic wayside shrines in various towns and villages, a reminder of

1950-514: Is both a historical and an ethnographic region in northern Poland , forming part of historical Prussia . Its historic capitals were Frombork and Lidzbark Warmiński and the largest city is Olsztyn . Warmia is currently the core of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (province). The region covers an area of around 4,500 km (1,700 sq mi) and has approximately 350,000 inhabitants. Important landmarks include

2080-579: Is located in the town. The local football team is Zatoka Braniewo  [ pl ] , which competes in the lower leagues. Braniewo is twinned with: Former twin towns: In March 2022, Braniewo terminated its partnership with the Russian city of Zelenogradsk as a reaction to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . Warmia Warmia ( Polish : Warmia [ˈvarmja] ; Latin : Varmia , Warmia ; German : Ermland ; Warmian : Warńija ; Old Prussian : Wārmi )

2210-484: Is named after the legendary Prussian chief Warmo , and Ermland derives from his widow Erma. Warmia is bordered by Powiśle in the west, Masuria in the south and east, and Bartia and Natangia in the north. Warmia occupies a 100 kilometer long strip of land along the right bank of the Pasłęka River ( German : Passarge ), approximately 20 kilometers wide in the north and increasing to over 70 kilometers wide in

2340-605: Is part of a larger historical region called Prussia , which was inhabited by the Old Prussians and later on was populated mainly by Germans and Poles . Warmia has traditionally strong connections with neighbouring Masuria , but it remained Catholic and belonged directly to Poland between 1454/1466 and 1772, whereas Masuria was a part of Poland as a fief held by the Teutonic Order and Ducal Prussia , which became predominantly Protestant. Warmia has been under

2470-659: The Archbishopric of Riga until 1512, when Prince-Bishop Lucas Watzenrode received exempt status, placing Warmia directly under the authority of the Pope (in terms of church jurisdiction), which remained until the resolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. By the First Partition of Poland in 1772, Warmia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia ; the properties of the Archbishopric of Warmia were secularized by

2600-734: The Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) , the infantry was almost entirely reliant on their firepower and saw very limited offensive use; but under the leadership of Johan Banér , who took command after the defeat at Nördlingen, the Gustavian brigade system was finally changed into the battalion system recognisable from the War of the Spanish Succession and the Great Northern War (the depth was lowered from six ranks to three or four when

2730-531: The Battle of Nördlingen (1634) , confidence in Sweden among the Swedish-controlled German states was damaged, and several of the provinces refused further Swedish military support, leaving Sweden with only a couple of northern German provinces. After France intervened on the same side as Sweden, fortunes shifted again. As the war continued, the civilian and military death toll grew, and when it

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2860-731: The Cathedral Hill in Frombork , the bishops' castles at Olsztyn and Lidzbark , the medieval town of Reszel and the sanctuary in Gietrzwałd , a site of Marian apparitions . Geographically, it is an area of many lakes and lies at the upper Łyna river and on the right bank of Pasłęka , stretching in the northwest to the Vistula Bay . Warmia has a number of architectural monuments ranging from Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque to Classicism , Historicism and Art Nouveau . Warmia

2990-756: The January Uprising who fled the Russian Partition of Poland, found shelter in Warmia. In 1871, along with the rest of East Prussia, Warmia became part of the German Empire . In 1873, according to a regulation of the Imperial German government, school lessons at public schools inside Germany had to be held in German, as a result the Polish language was forbidden in all schools in Warmia, including Polish schools already founded in

3120-617: The Jesuits and founded the Collegium Hosianum school . Among the students of the school were Polish Catholic Saint Andrew Bobola , Polish statesmen and high dignitaries Mikołaj Zebrzydowski and Piotr Gembicki , Europe's most prominent 17th-century Latin poet Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski , missionary, explorer, mathematician, astronomer and sinologist Jan Mikołaj Smogulecki , and Primate of Poland Gabriel Podoski . Prominent Hungarian Renaissance poet Bálint Balassi stayed in

3250-581: The Memorial of Hubert Jerzy Wagner , an international volleyball friendly competition, were held in Warmia. 53°48′N 20°30′E  /  53.8°N 20.5°E  / 53.8; 20.5 Swedish Empire The Swedish Empire or the Age of Greatness ( Swedish : stormaktstiden ) was the period in Swedish history spanning much of the 17th and early 18th centuries during which Sweden became

3380-497: The Ottoman Empire . Following the defeat at Poltava, Poland and Denmark re-entered the war, along with other countries wanting parts of the Swedish provinces. In the following years, most of them would fall, and Russia occupied the eastern half of Sweden (present-day Finland ). Despite these setbacks, Charles XII twice tried to invade Norway to force Denmark-Norway out of the war again. On 30 November 1718, King Charles XII

3510-617: The Polish Crown within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . At the same time, the territory continued to enjoy substantial autonomy, with many legal differences from neighbouring lands. For example, the bishops were by law members of Polish Senat and the land elected MP's to the Sejmik of Royal Prussia as well as MP's to the Sejm of Poland . Warmia was under the Church jurisdiction of

3640-691: The Prince-Bishops of Warmia, who were subjects of the popes. Additionally, it had to denounce all Lutheran teachings and hand over Lutheran writings. Thereafter Warmia remained predominantly Roman Catholic (even after the Partitions of Poland , when it became part of Prussia in 1772). Braniewo was occupied by Sweden for about three years during the Livonian War in the 16th century. In Warmia, Lutheran teachings again were suppressed when Prince-Bishop Stanislaus Hosius (1504–1579) brought in

3770-512: The Prussian Uprisings . It was rebuilt in a new location in 1273 and settled by colonists from Lübeck . In 1284, it was given a new town charter, again based on that of Lübeck. However, the next bishop, Heinrich Fleming (1278–1300), transferred the chapter from Braunsberg to Frauenburg (now Frombork ). In 1296, a Franciscan abbey was built, and in 1342, a "new town" was added. As the most important trading and harbor city in Warmia,

3900-824: The Reszel and Olsztyn castles, the Old Town of Barczewo with the museum of Polish composer Feliks Nowowiejski at his birthplace. There are also several palaces, including the Baroque Grabowski Palace in Lidzbark Warmiński and the palace in Smolajny , favorite summer residence of leading Polish Enlightenment poet Ignacy Krasicki . The Basilica of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Gietrzwałd

4030-814: The Spanish Netherlands . The anti-French faction prevailed; and in April 1668, Sweden acceded to the Triple Alliance , which ended the French acquisitions through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . For the next four years, Sweden remained true to the Triple Alliance; but, in 1672, Louis XIV succeeded in isolating the Dutch Republic and regaining Sweden as an ally. By the Treaty of Stockholm on 14 April 1672, Sweden entered an agreement with

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4160-460: The Treaties of Nijmegen on 7 February and of St. Germain on 29 June 1679, Sweden received almost full restitution of its German territory. By the Treaty of Fontainebleau confirmed by the subsequent Peace of Lund on 2 September, Denmark–Norway was to return all the land it had captured to Sweden on 4 October 1679. While Sweden could never have gained these concessions alone, Charles XI formed

4290-536: The Treaty of Copenhagen on 27 May 1660, Sweden kept the three formerly Danish Scanian provinces and the formerly Norwegian Bohuslän province, which Denmark-Norway had surrendered by the Treaty of Roskilde two years previously; but Sweden had to relinquish the Norwegian province of Trøndelag and the Danish island of Bornholm , which had been surrendered at Roskilde. Denmark–Norway was also compelled to recognize

4420-552: The perilous voyage westward . Braunsberg was captured by Soviet troops on March 20, 1945. Heavy fighting and wanton destruction afterwards had left the town about 80 percent destroyed, including much of its historic town center, largely consumed by fire. Under the Soviet Union's re-drawing of borders within the Potsdam Agreement , the town became again part of Poland, and was partially repopulated by Polish settlers, many of whom came from areas of eastern Poland annexed by

4550-463: The treaty of Oliva in 1660. Gustav II Adolph inherited the Polish war together with the Kalmar War against Denmark–Norway when Charles IX died in 1611. The war against Denmark–Norway was a terrible loss that forced Sweden to pay a ransom of 1 million silverdaler to regain Älvsborg (final payment, 1619). The Polish war was interrupted by a series of truces caused by Sweden's weakness along with

4680-425: The wheellock pistol as the primary weapon of the cavalry . Horsemen rode knee-by-knee in a tight formation. When in range, they switched to gallop and charged, and at a range of ten yards, shot both their pistols. A standard regiment numbered 250 simultaneous shots that would blast a hole in the enemy ranks. They then continued the charge with sabres ( värjor ), aiming to break the enemy formation. The infantry

4810-640: The "indelningsverk" — a system of military tenure in which national forces were bound to the soil. This tied to the "rust hail tenure", under which the tenants, instead of paying rent, were obliged to equip and maintain a cavalry soldier and horse; while the knekthållare supplied duly equipped foot soldiers. Soldiers were provided with holdings on which they lived in times of peace. Formerly, ordinary conscription had existed alongside this indelning, or distribution system, but it had proved inadequate as well as highly unpopular, and in 1682, Charles XI ended it in favor of an extended distribution system. The Swedish Royal Navy

4940-481: The 1580s to counter the growing Protestant movement. The Polish, and mainly Catholic town was annexed by the mostly Protestant Kingdom of Prussia in 1772 during the First Partition of Poland and made part of the newly formed province of East Prussia the following year. Braunsberg obtained its first railway connection with the rest of the kingdom via the Prussian Eastern Railway in 1852. In

5070-516: The Baltic shore, but left little room for mistakes. The extravagance of Gustavus Adolphus's two immediate successors, Christina and Charles X Gustav , caused great difficulties for the new empire. Christina's financial extravagance brought the state to the verge of bankruptcy, and the financial difficulties caused public unrest before her abdication. The Swedish people feared that the external, artificial greatness of their country might be purchased with

5200-462: The Cathedral Chapter elected Nicolas von Tüngen against the wish of the Polish king. The Estates of Royal Prussia did not take the side of the Cathedral Chapter. Nicholas von Tüngen allied himself with the Teutonic Order and with King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary . The feud, known as the War of the Priests , was a low scale affair, affecting mainly Warmia. In 1478 Braniewo (Braunsberg) withstood

5330-401: The Crown, and the burden of proof of ownership lay with the actual owner of the property, not the Crown. The amount of revenue accruing to the Crown from the whole "Reduktion" is impossible to estimate; but by these means, combined with careful management and rigid economy, Charles XI reduced the national debt by three quarters. Charles XI re-established on a broader basis the reorganization of

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5460-468: The Dutch system for fighting in caracole among the cavalry, with unfortunate results. His partially reformed army suffered a disastrous defeat at Kircholm against a Polish-Lithuanian army led by Jan Karol Chodkiewicz . Charles IX's revolt against his nephew Sigismund of Poland and subsequent rise to the throne of Sweden caused a dynastic struggle for the throne of Sweden that would not finally end until

5590-585: The French to protect its sphere of interest containing the Dutch Republic from hostile German claims in return for 400,000 Riksdaler per annum in peace and 600,000 in wartime. In 1674, Louis XIV called upon Sweden to invade the Electorate of Brandenburg . In May 1675, a Swedish army advanced into the Mark but was defeated on 18 June at Fehrbellin and retreated to Swedish Demmin . The Fehrbellin affair

5720-554: The German geographer Johann Friedrich Goldbeck (1748–1812), the town originally was named Brunsberg after Bruno von Schauenburg (1205–1281), bishop of Olomouc in Moravia , who accompanied King Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1254 and 1267 when the latter participated in the crusade of the Teutonic Knights against the Old Prussians . It has also been suggested that the name Braunsberg might stem from Brusebergue ("camp of

5850-466: The German police compiled files and lists of Poles who were supposed to be either executed or imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps . Nazi militants carried out attacks on Polish schools, organizations, printshops, shops. The persecution of Poles further intensified in 1939. In early 1939, many Polish activists were expelled. Afterwards, in an attempt to rig the results of an upcoming census and understate

5980-631: The Great Northern War put an end to Sweden's time as a great power. As a result of eighteen years of war, Sweden gained small and scattered possessions, but had secured control of three principal rivers in northern Germany—the Oder , the Elbe and the Weser —and gained toll-collection rights for those important commercial arteries, benefitting the Swedish economy. Two principal reasons for the small reparations were France 's envy and Queen Christina 's impatience. As

6110-462: The King and much of the Swedish army was shipped to the Baltic provinces, where Russian and Polish armies were laying siege to several towns. The Russian army was soundly defeated in the Battle of Narva , after which Charles took the army into Poland with the intent of dethroning the Polish king Augustus II . This took several years, but in 1706, with the Treaty of Altranstädt , he reached his goal. In

6240-724: The Order to rule Prussia. Later, the Knights were accused of forging these land grants. By the end of the 13th century the Teutonic Order had conquered and Christianized most of the Prussian region , including Warmia. The Teutonic Order recruited mostly German-speaking settlers to develop the land . The new régime reduced many of the native Prussians to the status of serfs and gradually Germanized them. . Native Prussians were also reported as holders of estates. Over several centuries

6370-446: The Order, sought to unite Warmia with Ducal Prussia (a nearby vassal state of Poland), causing the Catholics of the town to swear allegiance to the king of Poland in return for aid against Protestant Prussia. In 1526 a Polish royal commission released Braunsberg burghers from the oath to the Polish king and handed the town back to Prince-Bishop Mauritius Ferber . However, just like the entire area of Warmia, Braunsberg swore allegiance to

6500-438: The Polish king at the Polish camp during the siege of Marienburg Castle (Malbork) . After the Polish army moved out of Warmia, the new Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, Heinrich von Plauen the Elder , accused the bishop of treachery and reconquered the region. In February 1440 the nobility of Warmia and the town of Braniewo (Braunsberg) co-founded the Prussian Confederation , which opposed Teutonic rule, and most towns of

6630-407: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, known as the Deluge . By the time of the Swedish Intervention in the Thirty Years' War in 1630, Gustav II Adolph had transformed the Swedish (Gustavian) army into an army in which the cavalry fought with aggressive shock tactics, closer to the Polish tactics than the Western European . The Caracole and heavy armor were mostly abandoned, and the saber replaced

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6760-439: The Prince-Bishopric came again under the overlordship of the Polish King. In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) the Teutonic Knights renounced any claims to Warmia, and recognized Polish sovereignty over the region, which was confirmed to be part of Poland. It was administratively remained a Prince-Bishopric with several privileges, part of the larger provinces of Royal Prussia and Greater Poland Province . Soon after, in 1467,

6890-492: The Prussian state. In 1773 Warmia was merged with the surrounding areas into the newly established province of East Prussia . Ignacy Krasicki , the last prince-bishop of Warmia as well as Enlightenment Polish poet, friend of Frederick the Great (whom he did not give homage as his new king), was nominated to the Archbishopric of Gniezno (and thus Primate of Poland) in 1795. After the last partition of Poland and during his tenure as Primate of Poland and Prussian subject he

7020-410: The Prussians"), but this notion is not documented. In 1243, the settlement and the surrounding region of Warmia was given by the Teutonic Order to the newly created Bishopric of Warmia , whose bishop built his cathedral in the town and made it his chief residence. The city was granted town privileges based on those of Lübeck in 1254, but in 1261 was destroyed and depopulated during the second of

7150-401: The Prussians, with the assumption that conquered territories would become part of Masovia. The Order waited until they received official authorisation from the Empire, which Emperor Frederick II granted by issuing the Golden Bull of Rimini (March 1226). The papal Golden Bull of Rieti from Pope Gregory IX in 1234 confirmed the grant, although Konrad of Masovia never recognized the rights of

7280-406: The Soviet Union . In 2001 the St. Catherine Church, built in 1346, destroyed in 1945, and rebuilt after 1979, was declared a Basilica Minor. This Gothic Hall church was built on a site which had held a previous wooden Church of St. Catherine since 1280. Prince-Bishop Lucas Watzenrode of Warmia (1447–1512) had added extensively to the original building. The Browar Braniewo ("Braniewo Brewery")

7410-512: The Swedish Empire between 1617 and 1721. Relative to the contemporary population of Finland, this was equivalent to over a million of them dying in 20th-century Finland. Throughout the Thirty Years' War, the infantry's shock ability was continuously improved. The static nature of the infantry that served well against the cavalry-dominated Polish-Lithuanian army was enhanced during the war to produce infantry capable of both providing devastating firepower and executing offensive maneuvers. Initially, at

7540-456: The Warmia joined the organization in May 1440. In February 1454, the organization asked Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon to incorporate the region to the Kingdom of Poland, to which the king agreed and signed the act of incorporation in Kraków on 6 March 1454, and the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) broke out. During the war Warmia was recaptured by the Teutonic Knights, however, in 1464 Bishop Paweł Legendorf vel Mgowski sided with Poland and

7670-443: The architecture of its villages and towns, as well as in folk customs. The unofficial anthem of Warmia is O Warmio moja miła from 1920, with music by local Polish composer Feliks Nowowiejski and lyrics by Maria Paruszewska. It is also the bugle call of the region's largest city of Olsztyn . Three landmarks in Warmia are listed as Historic Monuments of Poland : Other sights include the old towns of Olsztyn and Reszel with

7800-443: The area. In the 13th century the area became a battleground in the Northern Crusades . Having failed to gather an expedition against Palestine, Pope Innocent III resolved in 1207 to organize a new crusade; beginning in 1209, he called for crusades against the Albigenses , against the Almohad dynasty of Spain (1213), and, also around that time, against the pagans of Prussia . The first Bishop of Prussia , Christian of Oliva ,

7930-562: The army but had effectively failed to do so. Charles IX, like most other rulers, had tried to implement the Dutch system into the army but with limited success. The lack of a strict organisation in the infantry caused the proportion of pikemen to musketeers to be far lower than the preferred ratio of 1 to 1. This, combined with the lack of funds to provide the soldiers with armour, caused the Swedish infantry to be dangerously lightly equipped and unable to deal with cavalry or heavier infantry in open terrain. Charles IX was, however, able to implement

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8060-432: The basis for his heliocentric model of the universe. After the war of 1519–1521, he coordinated the reconstruction and resettlement of the devastated southern Warmia. In 1565, Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius founded the Collegium Hosianum in Braniewo, which became the leading institution of higher learning in the region. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia was integrated more directly into

8190-406: The bayonet was introduced at the end of the 17th century). Swedish tactics once again greatly diverged from the continental tactics during the second half of the 17th century. The continental tactics increasingly emphasized the firepower of the battalion, while the Swedish ( Carolean ) tactics almost exclusively relied on the shock factor as the infantry and cavalry charged the enemy. As the bayonet

8320-469: The capital of the Warmian-Masurian Voivedeship. During 1945–46, Warmia was part of the Okreg Mazurski (Masurian District). In 1946 a new voivodeship was created and named the Olsztyn Voivodeship , which encompassed both Warmia and Masurian counties. From 1975 to 1998, Warmia was divided between the Olsztyn and Elbląg Voivodeships , and in 1999 it was entirely included with the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. The Catholic character of Warmia has been preserved in

8450-452: The capital, lay in the very centre of the empire, whose second greatest city was Riga , on the other side of the sea. This empire contained about a quarter of the population of modern Sweden, at only 2,500,000 people, or about 2.3 people per square kilometer. However, Sweden's expansion had been possible partly due to turmoil and weakness in countries in its vicinity, and when they became more stable, they began to look for chances to regain what

8580-544: The centre of intense fighting between Swedes and Danes, with a large scale confrontation between the main armies near Lund in December 1676. After that, Scania was divided into Danish and Swedish enclaves centering around the main cities for the rest of the war. The remaining territories in Scania were mainly a no man's land where a fierce "little war" took place, with Swedish troops on the one side and Danish official and semi-official troops (freeshooters etc.) in conjunction with armed locals. Through homeland military successes of

8710-425: The cities of Olsztyn ( German : Allenstein ) and Lidzbark Warmiński ( German : Heilsberg ) as it takes in numerous tributaries on its journey north. This southern portion of Warmia is more heavily forested and historically had many towns with Polish-speaking majorities, while the rest of the region was almost entirely German-speaking. By the early Middle Ages the Warmians, an Old Prussian tribe, inhabited

8840-421: The colonists, native Prussians and immigrants gradually intermingled. Until the early 13th century, also the southern parts of Warmia were German-speaking. Polish settlers arrived later, particularly after 1410, mainly to southern Warmia, so that German was replaced by Polish in this area. In 1242 the papal legate William of Modena set up four dioceses , including the Archbishopric of Warmia . The bishopric

8970-411: The consul and employees of the Polish Consulate in Olsztyn, and shut down or seized Polish newspapers and libraries. Arrested Poles were mostly deported to concentration camps, incl. Hohenbruch  [ de ] , Soldau , Stutthof , Sachsenhausen , Gusen and Ravensbrück . During World War II , many Poles from the region were forcibly conscripted into the Wehrmacht . The Germans operated

9100-450: The continent, was lost on 5 November. A defensive alliance with John III of Poland was rendered inoperative on 4 August 1677, by the annihilation of Sweden's sea-power; the Battle of Öland , 17 June 1676; the Battle of Fehmarn , June 1677, and most notable on 1–2 July the Battle of Køge Bay . The difficulties concerning the Polish king continued. The Scanian provinces (Scania, Halland and Blegind/ Blekinge ), once eastern Denmark, became

9230-424: The councilors were no longer the king's colleagues, but rather his servants. Thus, Sweden had become an absolute monarchy but enacted the right of the Swedish people, in parliament , to be consulted on all important matters. The Riksdag, completely overshadowed by the Crown, did little more than register the royal decrees during the reign of Charles XI of Sweden ; but it continued to exist as an essential part of

9360-480: The day of Gustavus Adolphus's death, should be the limit to which retrospective taxes could be collected, and that there should be no further restitution of alienated crown property. Against this, the over-taxed lower estates protested, and the Diet had to be suspended. The king intervened, not to quell the commons, as the senate insisted, but to compel the nobility to give way. He proposed a special committee to investigate

9490-467: The death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, the empire was controlled for lengthy periods by part of the high nobility , such as the Oxenstierna family, acting as regents for minor monarchs. The interests of the high nobility contrasted with the uniformity policy (i.e., upholding the traditional equality in status of the Swedish estates favoured by the kings and peasantry). In territories acquired during

9620-501: The dominion of various states over the course of its history, most notably the Old Prussians , the Teutonic Knights , the Kingdom of Poland and the Kingdom of Prussia . The history of the region is closely connected to that of the Archbishopric of Warmia (formerly Prince-Bishopric of Warmia ). The region is associated with the Prussian tribe, the Warmians , who settled in an approximate area. According to folk etymology , Warmia

9750-520: The early 20th century, the town was the leading academic center of East Prussia next to Königsberg . In 1912 the Jesuit college became the State Academy of Braunsberg (German: Staatliche Akademie Braunsberg ). Prior to World War II, the population of Braunsberg had grown to more than 21,000, of whom 59 percent were listed as Catholic and 29 percent Protestant. The Second World War turned much of

9880-718: The efforts of Johan Oxenstierna and Johan Adler Salvius it obtained: These German possessions were to be held as fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire. This allowed Sweden a vote in the Imperial Diet and enabled it to "direct" the Lower Saxon Circle alternately with Brandenburg . France and Sweden, moreover, became joint guarantors of the treaty with the Holy Roman Emperor and were entrusted with carrying out its provisions, as enacted by

10010-821: The election of bishops by choosing four candidates from Royal Prussia. The region retained autonomy, governing itself and maintaining its own laws, customs, rights and German language. Warmia was invaded by the Teutonic Knights during the Polish–Teutonic War of 1519–1521 , however, the Poles, led by renown astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus , repulsed the Teutonic siege of Olsztyn in 1521. Copernicus spent more than half of his life in Warmia, where he wrote many of his groundbreaking works and conducted astronomical observations and mathematical calculations, which became

10140-516: The exception that the people of Warmia remained largely Catholic . Most of the population of Warmia spoke High Prussian German , while a small area in the north spoke Low Prussian German ; southern Warmia was populated by both Germans and Polish Warmiaks . The Polish population was subjected to intense Germanisation policies. Warmia was divided into four districts ( Kreise ) - Allenstein (Olsztyn) , Rössel ( Reszel ), Heilsberg ( Lidzbark Warmiński ) and Braunsberg ( Braniewo ). The city of Allenstein

10270-529: The executive congress of Nuremberg in 1650. After the peaces of Brömsebro and Westphalia, Sweden was the third-largest area of control in Europe by land area, only surpassed by Russia and Spain. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent during this time under the rule of Charles X Gustav (1654–1660) after the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. For the moment, Sweden held a tenuous position of leadership. Careful statesmanship might mean permanent dominion on

10400-443: The finest arsenals in the world. After Charles XI's death, the throne was inherited by his underage son, Charles XII . After a brief regency, he was declared to be of age to rule. Three years later, in 1700, Denmark–Norway, Poland and Russia, the countries that had lost the most territory to Sweden, jointly declared war. Denmark–Norway was soon forced to peace after a joint intervention of Swedish, English and Dutch armies, whereafter

10530-544: The foremost model of many later Swedish kings . At the time Finns were an essential part of the Swedish military. Roughly 2/5 of the infantry and 3/7 of the cavalry in the army were from Finland . They served in their own units which used Finnish as their main language. Commands were also given in Finnish. The Finnish cavalry in the Swedish army was called Hakkapeliitat after their battle cry " Hakkaa päälle! ". Approximately 110,000 soldiers from Finland died serving

10660-583: The future of Warmia. In February 1920, Poland opened a consulate in Olsztyn in 1920, however, due to the German persecution of Poles and the advances of the Red Army towards Warsaw in the Polish–Soviet War in 1920 , the plebiscite resulted in a German victory, and the region remained within Germany in the interbellum. Despite German hostility, the Poles founded numerous Polish organizations in Warmia in

10790-481: The government. Moreover, this transfer of authority was a voluntary act. The people, knowing the king to be their ally, trusted and cooperated with him. The Riksdag of 1682 declared that the king was empowered to bestow fiefs and take them back again, making the king the disposer of his subjects' temporal property. Presently, this new principle of autocracy was extended to the king's legislative authority, when on 9 December 1682, all four estates not only confirmed that

10920-498: The independence of the dukes of Holstein-Gottorp . The Russo-Swedish War (1656–1658) was terminated by the Treaty of Cardis on 2 July 1661, through which the Tsar surrendered the Baltic provinces to Sweden — Ingria , Estonia and Kexholm . Thus, Sweden emerged from the war not only a military power, but also one of the largest states of Europe, possessing more than twice as much territory as modern Sweden. The land area of Sweden

11050-593: The interbellum. Persecution of Poles intensified after the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany. Due to severe persecution, from 1936 Polish organizations carried out their activities partly in conspiracy. Polish organizations were heavily invigilated by the Sicherheitspolizei (German security police) through its undercover agents, known as the Vertrauensmänner . Based on their information,

11180-481: The king held the legislative powers enjoyed by his predecessors, but even gave him the right of interpreting and amending the common law. The recovery of the alienated crown lands occupied Charles XI for the rest of his life. He created a commission, which was ultimately converted into a permanent department of state. It acted on the principle that the titles of all private landed estates might be called in question, because at some time or other they must have belonged to

11310-451: The latter half of the 17th century, the major difference between the Swedish army and those common on the continent was the relative lack of firepower and the use of pikes and sabres. Sweden and Russia were the only countries at the time using pikes. In contemporary Europe, infantry were equipped with a musket, while in the Swedish army, every third man had a pike. The pikemen were normally deployed four men deep with musketeers of equal depth on

11440-446: The loss of their civil and political liberties. The Swedish people looked to a new king to address the problem of too much power vested in the nobility. Charles X Gustav was a strong arbiter between the people and the nobility. Primarily a soldier, he directed his ambition towards military glory; but he was also an unusually sharp-sighted politician. While placing great emphasis on military strength, he also understood that domestic unity

11570-405: The matter before the meeting of the next Riksdag and that a proportional contribution should be levied on all classes in the meantime. Both groups accepted this arrangement. Charles X Gustav had done his best to recover from the financial extravagance of Christina. However, his own desire for military glory may have caused problems for his country. In three days, he persuaded the Swedish estates of

11700-500: The meantime, Russia had managed to take possession of several towns by the Baltic Sea. Instead of trying to retake these, Charles chose to march directly on Moscow, but due to extreme weather, difficulties with his supply lines and the Russian scorched earth strategy, he was forced to turn towards Ukraine . In 1709, the Swedish army was defeated and captured in the Battle of Poltava ; Charles managed to escape south to Bender in

11830-466: The middle of the 17th century, with France as a firm ally, the incompatibility between its powers and its pretensions was not so obvious. A major reason why Sweden could be so successful in wars with such a scarce number of soldiers was its advanced military tactics. Sweden was able to reform its military tactics continuously throughout the period. Prior to Gustavus Adolphus's reforms, both his father, Charles IX, and his uncle Erik XIV had tried to reform

11960-561: The minority of his only son and successor, Charles XI of Sweden , who was four years old. The regency council moved quickly to end the war with Sweden's numerous enemies, which now included the Tsardom of Russia , the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Electorate of Brandenburg and Denmark-Norway . The Peace of Oliva on 3 May 1660, put an end to the long feud with Poland . French mediation of this treaty also ended

12090-616: The number of Poles in the region, the Germans terrorized the Polish population, attacked Polish schools and organizations, and confiscated Polish pre-census information leaflets. In summer 1939 the German terror against the Poles even exceeded the terror from the period of the 1920 plebiscite. Poles were subjected to expulsions and arrests, there were terrorist attacks on Polish organizations and schools, Polish libraries were looted or destroyed, and entire volumes of Polish press were confiscated. In August 1939, Germany introduced martial law in

12220-531: The periods of de facto noble rule, serfdom was not abolished, and there was also a trend to set up respective estates in Sweden proper . The Great Reduction of 1680 put an end to these efforts of the nobility and required them to return estates once gained from the crown to the king. Serfdom, however, remained in force in the dominions acquired in the Holy Roman Empire and in Swedish Estonia , where

12350-549: The pikes were used as an offensive weapon: in close combat, they had the advantage over their foes' weapons thanks to their range. After the bayonet was introduced in the Carolean army (1700–1706), the final volley was delayed until the soldiers were inside bayonet range. Every infantry battalion had grenadiers attached. They supported the infantry attack by lobbing grenades from the flanks. They also formed units of their own. They were otherwise equipped like infantry. Thus, in

12480-477: The potential of his attack on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . However, when he left Stockholm for Warsaw on 10 July 1654, he gained more personal glory than advantage for his country. The Polish-Swedish War expanded into a general European war. He achieved passage over the Belts and emerged triumphant, only to die of sheer exhaustion. Immediately after his death, a regency was appointed to govern Sweden during

12610-591: The power of the aristocracy. Charles XI felt that he could do it now that he had allies in the lower orders to support him. The Riksdag of Stockholm, October 1680, began a new era of Swedish history. On the motion of the Estate of Peasants, the question of the recovery of the alienated crown lands was brought before the Riksdag, and a resolution of the Diet directed that all countships , baronies , domains, manors and other estates producing an annual rent of more than

12740-458: The quarrel between Sweden, the Holy Roman emperor and the elector of Brandenburg . This treaty confirmed both Sweden's possession of Livonia and the elector of Brandenburg's sovereignty over Prussia ; and the king of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth renounced to all claims to the Swedish crown. The treaty compelled Denmark–Norway to reopen direct negotiations with Sweden. Eventually, under

12870-575: The region's strong Catholic traditions. In addition to traditional nationwide Polish cuisine , Warmia has its own regional and local traditional foods and beverages, as designated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland . Unique local dishes include the Lord-style turkey wings ( Skrzydła indycze po pańsku ). Ignacy Krasicki is considered one of the pioneers of turkey meat consumption in Warmia, as already in 1791, during

13000-510: The region, the Pasłęka constitutes its western border. That river flows into the Vistula Lagoon ( German : Frisches Haff ) just after passing the town of Braniewo ( German : Braunsberg ). The historically important port town of Frombork ( German : Frauenberg ) lies west of the Pasłęka, near the mouth of the Bauda River  [ pl ] . Further south, the Pasłęka is joined by

13130-588: The region, which allowed for even more blatant persecution of Poles. Germany co-formed the Einsatzgruppe V in Olsztyn, which then committed various atrocities against Poles during the German invasion of Poland that began World War II in September 1939. In August and September 1939, the Germans carried out mass arrests of Poles, including activists, teachers, school principals, bank employees, newspaper editors, entrepreneurs, priests, scout leaders, and

13260-481: The sixteenth century. In 1900 Warmia's population was 240,000. In the jingoistic climate after World War I , Warmian Poles were subject to persecution by the German government. Polish children speaking their language were punished in schools and often had to wear signs with insulting names, such as "Pollack". After the First World War , Poland regained independence, and a plebiscite was held to determine

13390-461: The south. The Łyna River ( German : Alle ) drains the southern portion of the region, flowing to the northeast to join with the Pregolya ( German : Pregel ). The terrain is composed of gentle hills and wide plains, and has a humid continental climate , with milder temperatures found at lower elevations in the north near the coast. With the exception of the far northern and southern ends of

13520-670: The subsequent Thirteen Years' War , the Teutonic Knights renounced any claims to the town in the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466. Administratively, it was part of the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia in the new autonomous province of Royal Prussia , later on also in the Greater Poland Province . After the secularization of the Teutonic Order in 1525, a large part of its residents converted to Lutheran Protestantism . Duke Albert , who had been grand master of

13650-464: The surrounding states for its lack of defence of Protestantism. Charles X Gustav's attempt to gain the favour of Brandenburg by dividing Poland not only reversed his original policy, but also created a new southern rival almost as dangerous as Denmark–Norway in the west. In 1660, after five years of warfare, Sweden had obtained peace and the opportunity to organize and develop the new vast realm. The fifteen-year regency that followed Charles X Gustav

13780-519: The time of Charles XII's death in 1718 the Empire had been severely diminished both territorially and militarily. The last traces of occupied continental territory vanished during the Napoleonic Wars , and Finland was ceded to Russia in 1809 , marking the end of Sweden’s period as a great power. Sweden emerged as a great European power under Axel Oxenstierna and King Gustavus Adolphus . As

13910-564: The town in 1590–1591. A priestly seminary was added in 1564. Pope Gregory XIII later added a papal mission seminary for northern and eastern European countries. Regina Protmann (1552–1613), a native of Braunsberg (Braniewo), founded the Saint Catherine Order of Sisters in the town, recognized by the church in 1583. The Jesuit theologian Antonius Possevinus was instrumental in enlarging the Collegium Hosianum in

14040-611: The town into ruins. After three and a half years of savage warfare, Soviet forces began their assault on German land by attacking East Prussia on Jan. 13, 1945. Red Army formations reached the Vistula Lagoon north of Braunsberg on Jan. 26. In early February, German civilians began fleeing from Braunsberg across the ice of the frozen lagoon to the Vistula Spit , from which many journeyed to either Danzig (Gdańsk) or Pillau (Baltiysk), and managed to board German ships that made

14170-727: The town prospered as member of the Hanseatic League , which it remained until 1608. In 1440, the town was one of the founding members of the Prussian Confederation , which opposed Teutonic rule, and upon the request of which King Casimir IV Jagiellon incorporated the territory to the Kingdom of Poland in 1454. The town pledged allegiance to the Polish King and recognized his rule in March 1454 in Kraków . After

14300-492: The tributaries Wałsza  [ pl ] ( German : Walsch ) and Drwęca Warmińska ( German : Drewenz ), with the headwaters of the river located near the southern end of Warmia. The source of the Łyna river is found just south of the southern tip of the region, near the eponymous town of Łyna . The river flows through several lakes on the western end of the Masurian Lake District , passing through

14430-538: The unwillingness of the Polish nobility to fight a war considered only to be in Sigismund III's personal interest. The costly peace with Denmark and Poland–Lithuania's inability to mount a seaborne attack on the Swedish mainland gave time for Gustavus Adolphus to reform his armies. The continuation of the Polish war in 1625–1629 ended with a ceasefire in Stary Targ ( Truce of Altmark ) on 26 September 1629 that

14560-471: The young Swedish king and the diplomatic activity of Louis XIV, a peace congress began sessions at Nijmegen in March 1677. In the beginning of April 1678, the French king dictated the terms of a peace. One of his chief conditions was the complete restitution of Sweden, as he needed a strong Swedish ally. However, Charles XI refused to go along with ceding territories to its enemies, which led the French king to negotiate on behalf of Sweden without its consent. By

14690-409: Was 1,100,000 km . While modern Sweden is bounded by the Baltic, during the 17th century the Baltic formed a bond between various widely dispersed dominions . All the islands in the Baltic, except the Danish group, belonged to Sweden. The estuaries of all the great German rivers lay within Swedish territory, which also included two-thirds of Lake Ladoga and one-half of Lake Peipus . Stockholm ,

14820-657: Was a mere skirmish , with actual casualties numbering fewer than 600 men, but it made Sweden appear vulnerable and enabled neighbouring countries to attack in the Scanian War . At this point, the empire began to crumble. In 1675, Swedish Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen were taken by the Brandenburgers, Austrians , and Danes. In December 1677, the elector of Brandenburg captured Stettin . Stralsund fell on 15 October 1678. Greifswald , Sweden's last possession on

14950-460: Was commissioned in 1209 to convert the Prussians, at the request of Konrad I of Masovia (duke from 1194 to 1247). In 1226 Duke Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to Christianize the pagan Prussians. He supplied the Teutonic Order and allowed the usage of Chełmno Land ( Culmerland ) as a base for the knights. They had the task of establishing secure borders between Masovia and

15080-454: Was constructed along the coast of West Africa as well, but these were not designed for Swedish settlers. At the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 granted Sweden territories as war reparations . Sweden demanded Silesia , Pomerania (which had been in its possession since the Treaty of Stettin (1630) , and a war indemnity of 20,000,000 Riksdaler . Through

15210-411: Was entirely remodeled; and, the recent war having demonstrated the unsuitability of Stockholm as a naval station, the construction of a new arsenal was begun at Karlskrona . After seventeen years of financial difficulties, the twofold enterprise was completed. At the death of Charles XI, Sweden could boast of a fleet of forty-three three-deckers, manned by 11,000 men and armed with 2,648 guns, and one of

15340-432: Was exempt and was governed by a prince-bishop , confirmed by Emperor Charles IV . The Bishops of Warmia were usually Germans or Poles, although Enea Silvio Piccolomini, the later Pope Pius II , served as an Italian bishop of the diocese. After the 1410 Battle of Grunwald , Bishop Heinrich Vogelsang of Warmia surrendered to King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland, and later with Bishop Henry of Sambia paid homage to

15470-462: Was forced to give up a third of its territory to save the rest. Although the reign of Charles XII would see initial Swedish victories in the Peace of Travendal (1700) and the Treaty of Altranstädt (1706) , he would go on to lead a campaign in Russia that would end in a staggering defeat for the Swedes. The Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava put an end to Sweden's eastbound expansion, and by

15600-453: Was in favour of the Swedes, to whom Poland ceded the larger part of Livonia together with its important port of Riga . The Swedes also got the right to tax Poland's trade on the Baltic (3.5% on the value of goods), and kept control of many of the cities in Royal and Ducal Prussia (including Piława ( Pillau ), Memel and Elbląg (Elbing). The Swedes later conducted a series of invasions into

15730-453: Was introduced, the pike was discarded in all armies except the Swedish and Russian by 1700. In the Swedish army tactics of that time, retreat was never covered, and they were obliged to attack or fight where they stood. This was a military doctrine that (with the advantage of hindsight) might have proven a bit rash. The infantry shock attack operated as follows. The two rear ranks of musketeers were ordered to shoot when "you could not miss,"

15860-439: Was lost. Sweden had now won considerable political influence, which was lessened by the loss of moral prestige. On Charles X Gustav 's accession in 1655, Sweden's neighbours may have become allies; however, territorial loss combined with the loss of religious liberty lessened their ties to Sweden. At Charles X Gustav's death, five years later, Sweden had not only damaged its newly claimed territories but also had become hated by

15990-452: Was meanwhile employed in a defensive manner, relying on their superior firepower to break enemy attacks. Smaller musketeer detachments (~200 men) were used during the Polish war to support the cavalry against the superior Polish-Lithuanian cavalry. Gustavus Adolphus earned the title "father of modern warfare" because of his revolutionary tactics during the Thirty Years' War, which later inspired other nations and became standard tactics. He became

16120-461: Was mortally wounded during the siege of Fredriksten Fortress in Fredrikshald, today's Halden . With his death, Swedish war efforts mostly came to a halt, although Russia continued to harass the civilian population of the Swedish coastal areas until the concluding Treaty of Nystad was finally signed in 1721. Sweden would remain a regional power of varying success until the 19th century, but

16250-607: Was necessary for a powerful foreign policy. The most pressing domestic question was the reduction , or restitution of alienated crown lands. At the Riksdag of the Estates of 1655, the king proposed that noble holders of crown property should either: 1) pay an annual sum of 200,000 Riksdaler out of the lands they would receive, or 2) surrender a fourth of the property itself, worth approximately 800,000 Riksdaler. The nobility wished to avoid taxation and stipulated that 6 November 1632,

16380-433: Was noted for sloth and carelessness leading to a general neglect of business. Additionally, government corruption led Sweden to be hired by foreign powers. This "subsidy policy" dates from the Treaty of Fontainebleau of 1661, through which Sweden, in exchange for a considerable sum of money, supported the French candidate for the Polish throne. Sweden was torn between Louis XIV of France and his adversaries in plans to control

16510-440: Was ordered by Pope Pius VI to teach his Catholic Poles to 'stay obedient, faithful, and loving to their new kings', Papal brief of 1795. The Prussian census in 1772 showed a total population of 96,547, including an urban population of 24,612 in 12 towns. 17,749 houses were listed and the biggest city was Braunsberg (Braniewo) . Between 1773 and 1945 Warmia was part of the predominantly Lutheran province of East Prussia , with

16640-591: Was over, it had led to severe depopulation in the German states. Although exact population estimates do not exist, historians estimate that the population of the Holy Roman Empire fell by one-third as a result of the war. Sweden founded overseas colonies , principally in the New World. New Sweden was founded in the valley of the Delaware River in 1638, and Sweden later laid claim to a number of Caribbean islands. A string of Swedish forts and trading posts

16770-494: Was separated from the Allenstein district in 1910 and became an independent city. On 6 May 1863, the village of Bredynki was the site of a massacre of Polish inhabitants. Local farmers protested the taking of the lake from the village and handing it over to a local miller. Prussian troops fired on the crowd, killing more than a dozen people, including women, and wounding 30. In the winter of 1863–1864, Polish insurgents of

16900-457: Was unable to manoeuvre through the situation it faced. The administration was internally divided and hindered by the lack of unity and talent among its statesmen. The two major rivals were the military-aristocratic party headed by Magnus de la Gardie and the party of peace and economy led by Johan Gyllenstierna . The aristocratic group prevailed and brought with it a decline of morality which made it notorious to its neighbours. The administration

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