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105-407: Warmia ( Polish : Warmia [ˈvarmja] ; Latin : Varmia , Warmia ; German : Ermland ; Warmian : Warńija ; Old Prussian : Wārmi ) is both a historical and an ethnographic region in northern Poland , forming part of historical Prussia . Its historic capitals were Frombork and Lidzbark Warmiński and the largest city is Olsztyn . Warmia is currently the core of

210-499: A / (spelled a ), / ɔ / (spelled o ) and / u / (spelled u and ó as separate letters). The nasal vowels are / ɛ w̃ / (spelled ę ) and / ɔ w̃ / (spelled ą ). Unlike Czech or Slovak, Polish does not retain phonemic vowel length — the letter ó , which formerly represented lengthened /ɔː/ in older forms of the language, is now vestigial and instead corresponds to /u/. The Polish consonant system shows more complexity: its characteristic features include

315-771: A dialect of Polish. Many Silesians consider themselves a separate ethnicity and have been advocating for the recognition of Silesian as a regional language in Poland . The law recognizing it as such was passed by the Sejm and Senate in April 2024, but has been vetoed by President Andrzej Duda in late May of 2024. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, over half a million people declared Silesian as their native language. Many sociolinguists (e.g. Tomasz Kamusella , Agnieszka Pianka, Alfred F. Majewicz, Tomasz Wicherkiewicz ) assume that extralinguistic criteria decide whether

420-519: A feast he organized, he ordered turkey to be served, among other dishes. The tradition of producing Warmian smoked beef ham ( Warmińska szynka wołowa wędzona ) is cultivated by several meat-packing plants in Warmia. The officially protected traditional alcoholic beverages of Warmia are Okowita miodowa warmińska , a beverage of 42% alcohol by volume made from Warmian honey , and the Warmian porter ,

525-669: A few culturally and linguistically related tribes from the basins of the Vistula and Oder before eventually accepting baptism in 966. With Western Christianity , Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet , which made it possible to write down Polish, which until then had existed only as a spoken language . The closest relatives of Polish are the Elbe and Baltic Sea Lechitic dialects ( Polabian and Pomeranian varieties). All of them, except Kashubian , are extinct. The precursor to modern Polish

630-473: A final peace conference with Germany which eventually never took place. The German inhabitants either fled or were transferred to Germany by Soviet and communist authorities installed in Poland and the remaining Polish inhabitants were joined by Polish settlers, many of whom were displaced from former eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union . Olsztyn is the largest city in Warmia and the capital of

735-520: A large number of branches in all of these areas) offers services available in Polish at all of their cash machines in addition to English and Spanish . According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England and Wales who consider Polish to be their "main" language. In Canada , there is a significant Polish Canadian population : There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to

840-543: A lect is an independent language or a dialect: speakers of the speech variety or/and political decisions, and this is dynamic (i.e. it changes over time). Also, research organizations such as SIL International and resources for the academic field of linguistics such as Ethnologue , Linguist List and others, for example the Ministry of Administration and Digitization recognized the Silesian language. In July 2007,

945-412: A local type of Polish beer . The traditional cuisine of German Warmiaks include Königsberger Klopse , Heilsberger Keilchen, a form of potato dumplings, and Wruken (turnip), or Klunkersuppe (flour milk soup) mit Bratschukken (fried potatoes). The most accomplished sports team of Warmia is AZS Olsztyn , multiple times Polish volleyball champions and Polish Cup winners. The first several tournaments of

1050-454: A nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, ą in dąb ("oak") is pronounced [ɔm] , and ę in tęcza ("rainbow") is pronounced [ɛn] (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by l or ł (for example przyjęli , przyjęły ), ę is pronounced as just e . When ę is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just [ɛ] . Depending on

1155-544: A notable Nazi prison in the town of Barczewo (Wartenburg) with several forced labour subcamps in the region. The Polish resistance movement was active in the region and Polish underground press was distributed. Following Germany's defeat in World War II , and the Yalta Conference and Potsdam Conference of 1945, Warmia became again part of Poland as part of so-called Recovered Territories , pending

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1260-591: A part of Poland, with the western part forming part of the Polish provinces of Royal Prussia and Greater Poland , and the eastern part being a Polish fief , held by the Teutonic Knights and Ducal Prussia . The surrounding area was inhabited by Poles , Germans and Kursenieki . Following the First Partition of Poland , the territory formed part of the Kingdom of Prussia , which became part of

1365-527: A pool or lake or sea and " recens " - fresh) in contrast to the contemporaneous name for the Baltic Sea - Mare Salsum (Salty Sea). Then in 1251 there is a reference to Mare Recens et Neriam and finally in 1288 Recenti Mari Hab , which evidently corresponds with the German "Frisches Haff". The modern German name, Frisches Haff , is derived from an earlier form, Friesisches Haff . The Russian name of

1470-402: A reversed diacritic hook called an ogonek . Polish is a synthetic and fusional language which has seven grammatical cases . It has fixed penultimate stress and an abundance of palatal consonants . Contemporary Polish developed in the 1700s as the successor to the medieval Old Polish (10th–16th centuries) and Middle Polish (16th–18th centuries). Among the major languages, it

1575-491: A single word. This applies in particular to many combinations of preposition plus a personal pronoun, such as do niej ('to her'), na nas ('on us'), prze ze mnie ('because of me'), all stressed on the bolded syllable. The Polish alphabet derives from the Latin script but includes certain additional letters formed using diacritics . The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages,

1680-537: A small area in the north spoke Low Prussian German ; southern Warmia was populated by both Germans and Polish Warmiaks . The Polish population was subjected to intense Germanisation policies. Warmia was divided into four districts ( Kreise ) - Allenstein (Olsztyn) , Rössel ( Reszel ), Heilsberg ( Lidzbark Warmiński ) and Braunsberg ( Braniewo ). The city of Allenstein was separated from the Allenstein district in 1910 and became an independent city. On 6 May 1863,

1785-401: A total population of 96,547, including an urban population of 24,612 in 12 towns. 17,749 houses were listed and the biggest city was Braunsberg (Braniewo) . Between 1773 and 1945 Warmia was part of the predominantly Lutheran province of East Prussia , with the exception that the people of Warmia remained largely Catholic . Most of the population of Warmia spoke High Prussian German , while

1890-405: A verse by Jan Brzechwa ) is W Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie [fʂt͡ʂɛbʐɛˈʂɨɲɛ ˈxʂɔw̃ʂt͡ʂ ˈbʐmi fˈtʂt͡ɕiɲɛ] ('In Szczebrzeszyn a beetle buzzes in the reed'). Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have syllabic consonants – the nucleus of a syllable is always a vowel. The consonant /j/ is restricted to positions adjacent to a vowel. It also cannot precede

1995-478: A vowel when it precedes another vowel (it represents /j/ , palatalization of the preceding consonant, or both depending on analysis). Also the letters u and i sometimes represent only semivowels when they follow another vowel, as in autor /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native nauka /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized Mateusz /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). Some loanwords , particularly from

2100-711: Is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group within the Indo-European language family written in the Latin script . It is primarily spoken in Poland and serves as the official language of the country, as well as the language of the Polish diaspora around the world. In 2024, there were over 39.7 million Polish native speakers. It ranks as the sixth most-spoken among languages of the European Union . Polish

2205-524: Is a popular regional pilgrimage site. Places of stay of Nicolaus Copernicus include the medieval castles in Olsztyn, Lidzbark Warmiński and Pieniężno , whereas the Frombork Cathedral contains his grave and epitaph . A typical feature of the Warmian landscape are the massive Gothic churches in the towns and the numerous historic wayside shrines in various towns and villages, a reminder of

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2310-419: Is also spoken as a second language in eastern Germany , northern Czech Republic and Slovakia , western parts of Belarus and Ukraine as well as in southeast Lithuania and Latvia . Because of the emigration from Poland during different time periods, most notably after World War II , millions of Polish speakers can also be found in countries such as Canada , Argentina , Brazil , Israel , Australia ,

2415-515: Is associated with the Prussian tribe, the Warmians , who settled in an approximate area. According to folk etymology , Warmia is named after the legendary Prussian chief Warmo , and Ermland derives from his widow Erma. Warmia is bordered by Powiśle in the west, Masuria in the south and east, and Bartia and Natangia in the north. Warmia occupies a 100 kilometer long strip of land along

2520-427: Is most closely related to Slovak and Czech but differs in terms of pronunciation and general grammar. Additionally, Polish was profoundly influenced by Latin and other Romance languages like Italian and French as well as Germanic languages (most notably German ), which contributed to a large number of loanwords and similar grammatical structures. Extensive usage of nonstandard dialects has also shaped

2625-447: Is possible to say ko goście zoba czy li? – here kogo retains its usual stress (first syllable) in spite of the attachment of the clitic. Reanalysis of the endings as inflections when attached to verbs causes the different colloquial stress patterns. These stress patterns are considered part of a "usable" norm of standard Polish - in contrast to the "model" ("high") norm. Some common word combinations are stressed as if they were

2730-595: Is subdivided into regional dialects and maintains strict T–V distinction pronouns, honorifics , and various forms of formalities when addressing individuals. The traditional 32-letter Polish alphabet has nine additions ( ą , ć , ę , ł , ń , ó , ś , ź , ż ) to the letters of the basic 26-letter Latin alphabet , while removing three (x, q, v). Those three letters are at times included in an extended 35-letter alphabet. The traditional set comprises 23 consonants and 9 written vowels , including two nasal vowels ( ę , ą ) defined by

2835-524: Is the Old Polish language . Ultimately, Polish descends from the unattested Proto-Slavic language. The Book of Henryków (Polish: Księga henrykowska , Latin : Liber fundationis claustri Sanctae Mariae Virginis in Heinrichau ), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (in modern orthography: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj ;

2940-529: Is the most widely-used minority language in Lithuania's Vilnius County , by 26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results, as Vilnius was part of Poland from 1922 until 1939. Polish is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. In Ukraine, it is most common in the western parts of Lviv and Volyn Oblasts , while in West Belarus it is used by the significant Polish minority, especially in

3045-430: The kropka (superior dot) over the letter ż , and the ogonek ("little tail") under the letters ą, ę . The letters q, v, x are used only in foreign words and names. Polish orthography is largely phonemic —there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or digraphs and trigraphs ) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in

3150-401: The ś in święty ("holy") all represent the sound / ɕ / . The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where s before i is pronounced as s , e.g. sinus , sinologia , do re mi fa sol la si do , Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści , Sierioża , Siergiej , Singapur , singiel . In other loanwords

3255-690: The Sicherheitspolizei (German security police) through its undercover agents, known as the Vertrauensmänner . Based on their information, the German police compiled files and lists of Poles who were supposed to be either executed or imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps . Nazi militants carried out attacks on Polish schools, organizations, printshops, shops. The persecution of Poles further intensified in 1939. In early 1939, many Polish activists were expelled. Afterwards, in an attempt to rig

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3360-543: The Bauda River  [ pl ] . Further south, the Pasłęka is joined by the tributaries Wałsza  [ pl ] ( German : Walsch ) and Drwęca Warmińska ( German : Drewenz ), with the headwaters of the river located near the southern end of Warmia. The source of the Łyna river is found just south of the southern tip of the region, near the eponymous town of Łyna . The river flows through several lakes on

3465-596: The Brest and Grodno regions and in areas along the Lithuanian border. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries. In the United States , Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. According to the 2000 United States Census , 667,414 Americans of age five years and over reported Polish as

3570-832: The German Empire in 1871. From 1920 to 1939 it was split between Germany and the Free City of Danzig . In 1945, the western part, comprising 43.8%, became again part of Poland, whereas the eastern part fell to the Soviet Union (now within Russia ). Administratively, it is divided between the Polish Pomeranian and Warmian-Masurian voivodships , and the Russian Kaliningrad Oblast . The nearly extinct ethnic group or Kursenieki lived on

3675-472: The Memorial of Hubert Jerzy Wagner , an international volleyball friendly competition, were held in Warmia. 53°48′N 20°30′E  /  53.8°N 20.5°E  / 53.8; 20.5 Polish language Polish ( endonym : język polski , [ˈjɛ̃zɘk ˈpɔlskʲi] , polszczyzna [pɔlˈʂt͡ʂɘzna] or simply polski , [ˈpɔlskʲi] )

3780-666: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 's influence gave Polish the status of lingua franca in Central and Eastern Europe . The process of standardization began in the 14th century and solidified in the 16th century during the Middle Polish era. Standard Polish was based on various dialectal features, with the Greater Poland dialect group serving as the base. After World War II , Standard Polish became

3885-677: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . At the same time, the territory continued to enjoy substantial autonomy, with many legal differences from neighbouring lands. For example, the bishops were by law members of Polish Senat and the land elected MP's to the Sejmik of Royal Prussia as well as MP's to the Sejm of Poland . Warmia was under the Church jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Riga until 1512, when Prince-Bishop Lucas Watzenrode received exempt status, placing Warmia directly under

3990-794: The Red Army towards Warsaw in the Polish–Soviet War in 1920 , the plebiscite resulted in a German victory, and the region remained within Germany in the interbellum. Despite German hostility, the Poles founded numerous Polish organizations in Warmia in the interbellum. Persecution of Poles intensified after the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany. Due to severe persecution, from 1936 Polish organizations carried out their activities partly in conspiracy. Polish organizations were heavily invigilated by

4095-876: The Reszel and Olsztyn castles, the Old Town of Barczewo with the museum of Polish composer Feliks Nowowiejski at his birthplace. There are also several palaces, including the Baroque Grabowski Palace in Lidzbark Warmiński and the palace in Smolajny , favorite summer residence of leading Polish Enlightenment poet Ignacy Krasicki . The Basilica of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Gietrzwałd

4200-647: The Teutonic Order and with King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary . The feud, known as the War of the Priests , was a low scale affair, affecting mainly Warmia. In 1478 Braniewo (Braunsberg) withstood a Polish siege which was ended in an agreement in which the Polish king recognized von Tüngen as bishop and the right of the Cathedral Chapter to elect future bishops, which however would have to be accepted by

4305-657: The Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) broke out. During the war Warmia was recaptured by the Teutonic Knights, however, in 1464 Bishop Paweł Legendorf vel Mgowski sided with Poland and the Prince-Bishopric came again under the overlordship of the Polish King. In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) the Teutonic Knights renounced any claims to Warmia, and recognized Polish sovereignty over the region, which

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4410-522: The United Kingdom and the United States . Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. At the time, it was a collection of dialect groups with some mutual features, but much regional variation was present. Mieszko I , ruler of the Polans tribe from the Greater Poland region, united

4515-630: The Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (province). The region covers an area of around 4,500 km (1,700 sq mi) and has approximately 350,000 inhabitants. Important landmarks include the Cathedral Hill in Frombork , the bishops' castles at Olsztyn and Lidzbark , the medieval town of Reszel and the sanctuary in Gietrzwałd , a site of Marian apparitions . Geographically, it is an area of many lakes and lies at

4620-474: The classical languages , have the stress on the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable. For example, fizyka ( /ˈfizɨka/ ) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. This may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement, for example muzyka /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. muzyka /muˈzɨka/ – genitive singular of muzyk 'musician'. When additional syllables are added to such words through inflection or suffixation ,

4725-578: The flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) , as well as the expulsion of Ukrainians and Operation Vistula , the 1947 migration of Ukrainian minorities in the Recovered Territories in the west of the country, contributed to the country's linguistic homogeneity. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak Polish somewhat differently, although the differences between modern-day vernacular varieties and standard Polish ( język ogólnopolski ) appear relatively slight. Most of

4830-404: The standard language ; considerable colloquialisms and expressions were directly borrowed from German or Yiddish and subsequently adopted into the vernacular of Polish which is in everyday use. Historically, Polish was a lingua franca , important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe . In addition to being the official language of Poland, Polish

4935-486: The 1410 Battle of Grunwald , Bishop Heinrich Vogelsang of Warmia surrendered to King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland, and later with Bishop Henry of Sambia paid homage to the Polish king at the Polish camp during the siege of Marienburg Castle (Malbork) . After the Polish army moved out of Warmia, the new Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, Heinrich von Plauen the Elder , accused the bishop of treachery and reconquered

5040-416: The 16th century, which is also regarded as the " Golden Age of Polish literature". The orthography was modified in the 19th century and in 1936. Tomasz Kamusella notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day." Polish evolved into the main sociolect of

5145-486: The 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto (91,810 speakers) and Montreal . The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II and Polish population transfers (1944–46) . Poles settled in the " Recovered Territories " in the west and north, which had previously been mostly German -speaking. Some Poles remained in

5250-476: The German government. Polish children speaking their language were punished in schools and often had to wear signs with insulting names, such as "Pollack". After the First World War , Poland regained independence, and a plebiscite was held to determine the future of Warmia. In February 1920, Poland opened a consulate in Olsztyn in 1920, however, due to the German persecution of Poles and the advances of

5355-583: The Henryków monastery, noted that "Hoc est in polonico" ("This is in Polish"). The earliest treatise on Polish orthography was written by Jakub Parkosz  [ pl ] around 1470. The first printed book in Polish appeared in either 1508 or 1513, while the oldest Polish newspaper was established in 1661. Starting in the 1520s, large numbers of books in the Polish language were published, contributing to increased homogeneity of grammar and orthography. The writing system achieved its overall form in

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5460-671: The Silesian language was recognized by ISO , and was attributed an ISO code of szl. Some additional characteristic but less widespread regional dialects include: Polish linguistics has been characterized by a strong strive towards promoting prescriptive ideas of language intervention and usage uniformity, along with normatively-oriented notions of language "correctness" (unusual by Western standards). Polish has six oral vowels (seven oral vowels in written form), which are all monophthongs , and two nasal vowels . The oral vowels are / i / (spelled i ), / ɨ / (spelled y and also transcribed as /ɘ/ or /ɪ/), / ɛ / (spelled e ), /

5565-753: The Warmian-Masurian Voivedeship. During 1945–46, Warmia was part of the Okreg Mazurski (Masurian District). In 1946 a new voivodeship was created and named the Olsztyn Voivodeship , which encompassed both Warmia and Masurian counties. From 1975 to 1998, Warmia was divided between the Olsztyn and Elbląg Voivodeships , and in 1999 it was entirely included with the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. The Catholic character of Warmia has been preserved in

5670-443: The architecture of its villages and towns, as well as in folk customs. The unofficial anthem of Warmia is O Warmio moja miła from 1920, with music by local Polish composer Feliks Nowowiejski and lyrics by Maria Paruszewska. It is also the bugle call of the region's largest city of Olsztyn . Three landmarks in Warmia are listed as Historic Monuments of Poland : Other sights include the old towns of Olsztyn and Reszel with

5775-615: The authority of the Pope (in terms of church jurisdiction), which remained until the resolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. By the First Partition of Poland in 1772, Warmia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia ; the properties of the Archbishopric of Warmia were secularized by the Prussian state. In 1773 Warmia was merged with the surrounding areas into the newly established province of East Prussia . Ignacy Krasicki ,

5880-485: The cases mentioned above, the letter i if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents / j / , yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed. The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using j instead of i : for example, zjeść , "to eat up". The letters ą and ę , when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by

5985-528: The consul and employees of the Polish Consulate in Olsztyn, and shut down or seized Polish newspapers and libraries. Arrested Poles were mostly deported to concentration camps, incl. Hohenbruch  [ de ] , Soldau , Stutthof , Sachsenhausen , Gusen and Ravensbrück . During World War II , many Poles from the region were forcibly conscripted into the Wehrmacht . The Germans operated

6090-713: The corresponding sentence in modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij ; and in English: Come, let me grind, and you take a rest ), written around 1280. The book is exhibited in the Archdiocesal Museum in Wrocław, and as of 2015 has been added to UNESCO 's " Memory of the World " list. The medieval recorder of this phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of

6195-479: The disappearance of yers . Polish can have word-initial and word-medial clusters of up to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five consonants. Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), źdźbło [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), wstrząs [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and krnąbrność [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). A popular Polish tongue-twister (from

6300-430: The distinction between regular penultimate and exceptional antepenultimate stress. Another class of exceptions is verbs with the conditional endings -by, -bym, -byśmy , etc. These endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress; for example, zro biłbym ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable, and zro bi libyśmy ('we would do') on the second. According to prescriptive authorities ,

6405-437: The early Middle Ages the Warmians, an Old Prussian tribe, inhabited the area. In the 13th century the area became a battleground in the Northern Crusades . Having failed to gather an expedition against Palestine, Pope Innocent III resolved in 1207 to organize a new crusade; beginning in 1209, he called for crusades against the Albigenses , against the Almohad dynasty of Spain (1213), and, also around that time, against

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6510-415: The eastern parts of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote Polish in the Arabic alphabet. The Cyrillic script is used to a certain extent today by Polish speakers in Western Belarus , especially for religious texts. The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the kreska (graphically similar to the acute accent ) over the letters ć, ń, ó, ś, ź and through the letter in ł ;

6615-420: The end of words (where devoicing occurs) and in certain consonant clusters (where assimilation occurs). For details, see Voicing and devoicing in the article on Polish phonology. Most Polish words are paroxytones (that is, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable of a polysyllabic word), although there are exceptions. Polish permits complex consonant clusters, which historically often arose from

6720-414: The entire country. Polish has traditionally been described as consisting of three to five main regional dialects: Silesian and Kashubian , spoken in Upper Silesia and Pomerania respectively, are thought of as either Polish dialects or distinct languages , depending on the criteria used. Kashubian contains a number of features not found elsewhere in Poland, e.g. nine distinct oral vowels (vs.

6825-412: The following table. The following digraphs and trigraphs are used: Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the Phonology section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters. The spelling rule for

6930-405: The grant, although Konrad of Masovia never recognized the rights of the Order to rule Prussia. Later, the Knights were accused of forging these land grants. By the end of the 13th century the Teutonic Order had conquered and Christianized most of the Prussian region , including Warmia. The Teutonic Order recruited mostly German-speaking settlers to develop the land . The new régime reduced many of

7035-407: The king, and the bishop as well as Cathedral Chapter swore an oath to the Polish king. Later in the Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December 1512), conceded to the king of Poland a limited right to determine the election of bishops by choosing four candidates from Royal Prussia. The region retained autonomy, governing itself and maintaining its own laws, customs, rights and German language. Warmia

7140-414: The knights. They had the task of establishing secure borders between Masovia and the Prussians, with the assumption that conquered territories would become part of Masovia. The Order waited until they received official authorisation from the Empire, which Emperor Frederick II granted by issuing the Golden Bull of Rimini (March 1226). The papal Golden Bull of Rieti from Pope Gregory IX in 1234 confirmed

7245-405: The lagoon since 1946 is Kaliningradskiy zaliv (Калининградский залив), it means 'Kaliningrad Bay'. From the first half of the 13th c. the lagoon was part of the State of the Teutonic Order . In 1454, King Casimir IV Jagiellon incorporated the region to the Kingdom of Poland upon the request of the anti-Teutonic Prussian Confederation . Following the peace treaty of 1466 , it remained

7350-413: The lagoon. Kaliningrad and Baltiysk are currently major seaports on the lagoon. It is an Important Bird Area of Poland. The earliest version of the name of the Vistula Lagoon has been recorded in historical sources by Wulfstan of Hedeby at the end of the 9th Century as Estmere . It is an Anglo-Saxon rendition of the Old Prussian Aīstinmari , which was the name for the lagoon. The name

7455-435: The language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than English , 0.25% of the US population, and 6% of the Polish-American population. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census (over 50%) were found in three states: Illinois (185,749), New York (111,740), and New Jersey (74,663). Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services (which has

7560-574: The last prince-bishop of Warmia as well as Enlightenment Polish poet, friend of Frederick the Great (whom he did not give homage as his new king), was nominated to the Archbishopric of Gniezno (and thus Primate of Poland) in 1795. After the last partition of Poland and during his tenure as Primate of Poland and Prussian subject he was ordered by Pope Pius VI to teach his Catholic Poles to 'stay obedient, faithful, and loving to their new kings', Papal brief of 1795. The Prussian census in 1772 showed

7665-439: The letter y . The predominant stress pattern in Polish is penultimate stress – in a word of more than one syllable, the next-to-last syllable is stressed. Alternating preceding syllables carry secondary stress, e.g. in a four-syllable word, where the primary stress is on the third syllable, there will be secondary stress on the first. Each vowel represents one syllable, although the letter i normally does not represent

7770-431: The middle aged and young speak vernaculars close to standard Polish, while the traditional dialects are preserved among older people in rural areas. First-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty recognizing the regional and social differences. The modern standard dialect , often termed as "correct Polish", is spoken or at least understood throughout

7875-460: The most widely spoken variant of Polish across the country, and most dialects stopped being the form of Polish spoken in villages. Poland is one of the most linguistically homogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their first language . Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in areas which were once administered or occupied by Poland, notably in neighboring Lithuania , Belarus , and Ukraine . Polish

7980-550: The name Tarzan . Vistula Lagoon The lagoon is a mouth of a few branches of the Vistula River, notably Nogat and Szkarpawa , and of the Pregolya River. The lagoon is split between Poland (including the localities of Elbląg , Tolkmicko , Frombork , and Krynica Morska ) and Russia 's Kaliningrad Oblast (including the localities of Kaliningrad , Baltiysk , and Primorsk ). Before 2022,

8085-415: The native Prussians to the status of serfs and gradually Germanized them. . Native Prussians were also reported as holders of estates. Over several centuries the colonists, native Prussians and immigrants gradually intermingled. Until the early 13th century, also the southern parts of Warmia were German-speaking. Polish settlers arrived later, particularly after 1410, mainly to southern Warmia, so that German

8190-595: The nobles in Poland–Lithuania in the 15th century. The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the Kingdom of Poland . Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Congress Poland , the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , and as the administrative language in the Russian Empire 's Western Krai . The growth of

8295-471: The north near the coast. With the exception of the far northern and southern ends of the region, the Pasłęka constitutes its western border. That river flows into the Vistula Lagoon ( German : Frisches Haff ) just after passing the town of Braniewo ( German : Braunsberg ). The historically important port town of Frombork ( German : Frauenberg ) lies west of the Pasłęka, near the mouth of

8400-633: The only water route from the lagoon out to the Gdańsk Bay was the Strait of Baltiysk , in Russia's portion of the lagoon. The Polish port of Elbląg used to see a substantial amount of trading traffic on the lagoon, but that declined due to international tensions and silting. Between 2019 and 2022, Poland built the Vistula Spit canal in their own portion of the lagoon, to create another water route out of

8505-673: The others being Czech orthography and Croatian orthography , the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. Kashubian uses a Polish-based system, Slovak uses a Czech-based system, and Slovene follows the Croatian one; the Sorbian languages blend the Polish and the Czech ones. Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, Lipka Tatars and Muslims inhabiting

8610-586: The pagans of Prussia . The first Bishop of Prussia , Christian of Oliva , was commissioned in 1209 to convert the Prussians, at the request of Konrad I of Masovia (duke from 1194 to 1247). In 1226 Duke Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to Christianize the pagan Prussians. He supplied the Teutonic Order and allowed the usage of Chełmno Land ( Culmerland ) as a base for

8715-401: The palatal sounds / ɕ / , / ʑ / , / tɕ / , / dʑ / and / ɲ / is as follows: before the vowel i the plain letters s, z, c, dz, n are used; before other vowels the combinations si, zi, ci, dzi, ni are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms ś, ź, ć, dź, ń are used. For example, the s in siwy ("grey-haired"), the si in siarka ("sulfur") and

8820-520: The previously Polish-ruled territories in the east that were annexed by the USSR , resulting in the present-day Polish-speaking communities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled from those areas to areas within Poland's new borders. To the east of Poland, the most significant Polish minority lives in a long strip along either side of the Lithuania - Belarus border. Meanwhile,

8925-519: The region's strong Catholic traditions. In addition to traditional nationwide Polish cuisine , Warmia has its own regional and local traditional foods and beverages, as designated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland . Unique local dishes include the Lord-style turkey wings ( Skrzydła indycze po pańsku ). Ignacy Krasicki is considered one of the pioneers of turkey meat consumption in Warmia, as already in 1791, during

9030-641: The region, which allowed for even more blatant persecution of Poles. Germany co-formed the Einsatzgruppe V in Olsztyn, which then committed various atrocities against Poles during the German invasion of Poland that began World War II in September 1939. In August and September 1939, the Germans carried out mass arrests of Poles, including activists, teachers, school principals, bank employees, newspaper editors, entrepreneurs, priests, scout leaders, and

9135-681: The region. In February 1440 the nobility of Warmia and the town of Braniewo (Braunsberg) co-founded the Prussian Confederation , which opposed Teutonic rule, and most towns of the Warmia joined the organization in May 1440. In February 1454, the organization asked Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon to incorporate the region to the Kingdom of Poland, to which the king agreed and signed the act of incorporation in Kraków on 6 March 1454, and

9240-551: The rest of East Prussia, Warmia became part of the German Empire . In 1873, according to a regulation of the Imperial German government, school lessons at public schools inside Germany had to be held in German, as a result the Polish language was forbidden in all schools in Warmia, including Polish schools already founded in the sixteenth century. In 1900 Warmia's population was 240,000. In the jingoistic climate after World War I , Warmian Poles were subject to persecution by

9345-606: The results of an upcoming census and understate the number of Poles in the region, the Germans terrorized the Polish population, attacked Polish schools and organizations, and confiscated Polish pre-census information leaflets. In summer 1939 the German terror against the Poles even exceeded the terror from the period of the 1920 plebiscite. Poles were subjected to expulsions and arrests, there were terrorist attacks on Polish organizations and schools, Polish libraries were looted or destroyed, and entire volumes of Polish press were confiscated. In August 1939, Germany introduced martial law in

9450-583: The right bank of the Pasłęka River ( German : Passarge ), approximately 20 kilometers wide in the north and increasing to over 70 kilometers wide in the south. The Łyna River ( German : Alle ) drains the southern portion of the region, flowing to the northeast to join with the Pregolya ( German : Pregel ). The terrain is composed of gentle hills and wide plains, and has a humid continental climate , with milder temperatures found at lower elevations in

9555-540: The same applies to the first and second person plural past tense endings -śmy, -ście , although this rule is often ignored in colloquial speech (so zro bi liśmy 'we did' should be prescriptively stressed on the second syllable, although in practice it is commonly stressed on the third as zrobi li śmy ). These irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable clitics rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of ko go zoba czy liście? ('whom did you see?') it

9660-410: The series of affricate and palatal consonants that resulted from four Proto-Slavic palatalizations and two further palatalizations that took place in Polish. The full set of consonants, together with their most common spellings, can be presented as follows (although other phonological analyses exist): Neutralization occurs between voiced – voiceless consonant pairs in certain environments, at

9765-506: The six of standard Polish) and (in the northern dialects) phonemic word stress, an archaic feature preserved from Common Slavic times and not found anywhere else among the West Slavic languages . However, it was described by some linguists as lacking most of the linguistic and social determinants of language-hood. Many linguistic sources categorize Silesian as a regional language separate from Polish, while some consider Silesian to be

9870-494: The stress normally becomes regular. For example, uniwersytet ( /uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/ , 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive uniwersytetu ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/ ) and derived adjective uniwersytecki ( /uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/ ) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Loanwords generally become nativized to have penultimate stress. In psycholinguistic experiments, speakers of Polish have been demonstrated to be sensitive to

9975-649: The universe. After the war of 1519–1521, he coordinated the reconstruction and resettlement of the devastated southern Warmia. In 1565, Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius founded the Collegium Hosianum in Braniewo, which became the leading institution of higher learning in the region. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia was integrated more directly into the Polish Crown within

10080-719: The upper Łyna river and on the right bank of Pasłęka , stretching in the northwest to the Vistula Bay . Warmia has a number of architectural monuments ranging from Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque to Classicism , Historicism and Art Nouveau . Warmia is part of a larger historical region called Prussia , which was inhabited by the Old Prussians and later on was populated mainly by Germans and Poles . Warmia has traditionally strong connections with neighbouring Masuria , but it remained Catholic and belonged directly to Poland between 1454/1466 and 1772, whereas Masuria

10185-580: The village of Bredynki was the site of a massacre of Polish inhabitants. Local farmers protested the taking of the lake from the village and handing it over to a local miller. Prussian troops fired on the crowd, killing more than a dozen people, including women, and wounding 30. In the winter of 1863–1864, Polish insurgents of the January Uprising who fled the Russian Partition of Poland, found shelter in Warmia. In 1871, along with

10290-563: The vowel i is changed to y , e.g. Syria , Sybir , synchronizacja , Syrakuzy . The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling: Digraphs and trigraphs are used: Similar principles apply to / kʲ / , / ɡʲ / , / xʲ / and /lʲ/ , except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are k, g, (c)h, l before i , and ki, gi, (c)hi, li otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of k, g, (c)h or l as creating new sounds. Except in

10395-491: The western end of the Masurian Lake District , passing through the cities of Olsztyn ( German : Allenstein ) and Lidzbark Warmiński ( German : Heilsberg ) as it takes in numerous tributaries on its journey north. This southern portion of Warmia is more heavily forested and historically had many towns with Polish-speaking majorities, while the rest of the region was almost entirely German-speaking. By

10500-443: The word, the phoneme / x / can be spelt h or ch , the phoneme / ʐ / can be spelt ż or rz , and / u / can be spelt u or ó . In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: może ("maybe") and morze ("sea"). In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, rz represents /rz/ , not / ʐ / , in words like zamarzać ("freeze") and in

10605-458: Was a part of Poland as a fief held by the Teutonic Order and Ducal Prussia , which became predominantly Protestant. Warmia has been under the dominion of various states over the course of its history, most notably the Old Prussians , the Teutonic Knights , the Kingdom of Poland and the Kingdom of Prussia . The history of the region is closely connected to that of the Archbishopric of Warmia (formerly Prince-Bishopric of Warmia ). The region

10710-419: Was confirmed to be part of Poland. It was administratively remained a Prince-Bishopric with several privileges, part of the larger provinces of Royal Prussia and Greater Poland Province . Soon after, in 1467, the Cathedral Chapter elected Nicolas von Tüngen against the wish of the Polish king. The Estates of Royal Prussia did not take the side of the Cathedral Chapter. Nicholas von Tüngen allied himself with

10815-546: Was invaded by the Teutonic Knights during the Polish–Teutonic War of 1519–1521 , however, the Poles, led by renown astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus , repulsed the Teutonic siege of Olsztyn in 1521. Copernicus spent more than half of his life in Warmia, where he wrote many of his groundbreaking works and conducted astronomical observations and mathematical calculations, which became the basis for his heliocentric model of

10920-418: Was replaced by Polish in this area. In 1242 the papal legate William of Modena set up four dioceses , including the Archbishopric of Warmia . The bishopric was exempt and was governed by a prince-bishop , confirmed by Emperor Charles IV . The Bishops of Warmia were usually Germans or Poles, although Enea Silvio Piccolomini, the later Pope Pius II , served as an Italian bishop of the diocese. After

11025-688: Was the fusion of two Old Prussian words: So, the oldest known meaning of the name of the Vistula Lagoon was "The lagoon or sea of the Aesti". The Old Prussian name is still used in Modern Lithuanian as Aistmarės , which preserves the original meaning. Over three hundred years later, in the first half of the 13th Century, the name of the Vistula Lagoon occurs in deeds issued by the Teutonic Order in Latin as Mare Recens (1246 - " mare " -

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