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97-576: The name of the settlement is attested as Britiniacum in 1146, as Bretigniacum in 1548, and subsequently as Breteigny. The origins of Brétigny start in the era of Roman Gaul . The etymology comes from the Latin britiniacum , which means "property of the Breton". The name certifies that this territory was during that period dedicated to a Breton, coming from (Great) Britain, during the period of Briton migration (6th century). Brétigny afterwards belonged to

194-470: A coup d'état in his own country, after which the three new kings would collaborate. When word of his aspirations to make himself king reached the Helvetii, Orgetorix was summoned to stand trial, facing execution on the pyre should he be found guilty. For the time being, he averted a verdict by arriving at the hearing set for him with ten thousand followers and bondsmen; yet before the large force mustered by

291-554: A Helvetian uprising, was executed. In spite of the extensive damage and devastations the civitas had already sustained, according to Tacitus the Helvetii were saved from total annihilation owing to the pleas of one Claudius Cossus, a Helvetian envoy to Vitellius, and, as Tacitus puts it, "of well-known eloquence". Roman occupation in the aftermath of the Gallic Wars had pacified the Celtic-Germanic contact zone along

388-411: A Roman army under L. Cassius Longinus near Agendicum in 107 BC, in which the consul was killed. According to Caesar, the captured Roman soldiers were ordered to pass under a yoke set up by the triumphant Gauls, a dishonour that called for both public as well as private vengeance. Caesar is the only narrative source for this episode, as the corresponding books of Livy 's histories are preserved only in

485-414: A Roman detachment. Aulus Caecina Alienus , a former supporter of Galba who was now at the head of a Vitellian invasion of Italy, launched a massive punitive campaign, crushing the Helvetii under their commander Claudius Severus and routing the remnants of their forces at Mount Vocetius , killing and enslaving thousands. The capital Aventicum surrendered, and Julius Alpinus , head of what was now seen as

582-477: A catalyst for Caesar's conquest of Gaul . The Helvetians were subjugated after 52 BC, and under Augustus , Celtic oppida , such as Vindonissa or Basilea , were re-purposed as garrisons. In AD 68, a Helvetian uprising was crushed by Aulus Caecina Alienus . The Swiss plateau was at first incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica (22 BC), later into Germania Superior (AD 83). The Helvetians, like

679-575: A certain inner autonomy, including the defence of certain strongholds by their own troops. In the civil war which followed Nero's death, the civitas Helvetiorum supported Galba ; unaware of his death, they refused to accept the authority of his rival, Vitellius . The Legio XXI Rapax , stationed in Vindonissa and favouring Vitellius, stole the pay of a Helvetian garrison, which prompted the Helvetians to intercept Vitellian messengers and detain

776-478: A day. Caesar himself does not appear as a triumphant victor in turn, being unable to pursue the Helvetii for three days, "both on account of the wounds of the soldiers and the burial of the slain". However, it is clear that Caesar's warning to the Lingones not to supply his enemies was quite enough to make the Helvetii leaders once again offer peace. On what terms this peace was made is debatable, but as said before,

873-533: A large number of fused Celtic coins, which are mixed with charcoal remnants. Some of the 18,000 coins originate from the Eastern Gaul , others are of the Zürich type, that were assigned to the local Helvetii , which date to around 100 BC. The find is so far unique, and the scientific research assumes that the melting down of the lump was not completed, therefore the aim was to form cultic offerings. The site of

970-837: A man of Helvetian descent living in Mantua. Of the four Helvetian pagi or sub-tribes, Caesar names only the Verbigeni ( Bell. Gall. 1.27) and the Tigurini (1.12), Posidonius the Tigurini and the Tougeni ( Τωυγενοί ). There has been substantial debate in Swiss historiography (beginning with Felix Stähelin 1927) on whether the Tougeni may or may not be identified with the Teutones mentioned by Titus Livius . According to Caesar,

1067-529: A number of foreign auxiliary units, a levy of Gaulish merchant ships, and barbarian mercenaries attracted by the prospect of booty. In 293 emperor Constantius Chlorus isolated Carausius by besieging the port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and invaded Batavia in the Rhine delta, held by his Frankish allies, and reclaimed Gaul. A migration of Celts from Britain appeared in the 4th century in Armorica led by

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1164-567: A peaceful passage through the Provincia . Caesar stalled them by asking for some time for consideration, which he used to assemble reinforcements and to fortify the southern banks of the Rhône . When the embassy returned on the agreed-upon date, he was strong enough to bluntly reject their offer. The Helvetii now chose the more difficult northern route through the Sequani territory, which traversed

1261-575: A proper army and invaded Britain . However, tribes rose up on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a draconian campaign against the Gauls in an attempt to pacify them. This failed and the Gauls staged a mass revolt under the leadership of Vercingetorix in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the Battle of Gergovia , but the Romans' indomitable siege works at

1358-598: Is 11.9 °C (53.4 °F). The average annual rainfall is 628.9 mm (24.76 in) with December as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in July, at around 20.2 °C (68.4 °F), and lowest in January, at around 4.5 °C (40.1 °F). The highest temperature ever recorded in Brétigny-sur-Orge was 42.0 °C (107.6 °F) on 25 July 2019; the coldest temperature ever recorded

1455-568: Is confirmed by the Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemaios (c. 90–168 AD), who tells us of an Ἐλουητίων ἔρημος (i.e. "Helvetic deserted lands") north of the Rhine . Tacitus knows that the Helvetians once settled in the swath between Rhine , Main , and the Hercynian forest . The abandonment of this northern territory is now usually placed in the late 2nd century BC, around the time of

1552-451: Is presented as the instigator of a new Helvetian migration, in which the entire tribe was to leave their territory and, according to Caesar, to establish a supremacy over all of Gaul. This exodus was planned over three years, in the course of which Orgetorix conspired with two noblemen from neighbouring tribes, Casticus of the Sequani and Dumnorix of the Aedui , that each should accomplish

1649-777: The Pax Romana ended with the Crisis of the Third Century . In 260, when the Gallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome, emperor Gallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper Ingenuus , allowing the Alemanni to invade the Swiss plateau. There, cities, villages and most villae were raided or sacked by marauding bands. The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to

1746-520: The Battle of Alesia utterly defeated the Gallic coalition. In 51 BC and 50 BC, there was little resistance and Caesar's troops were mostly mopping up. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become a Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no clear end-date for the war, but the imminent Roman Civil War led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in

1843-774: The Battle of Vouillé . They were able to retain Narbonensis and Provence after the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent by Theodoric the Great . Certain Gallo-Roman aristocratic families continued to exert power in episcopal cities (such as the Mauronitus family in Marseilles and Bishop Gregory of Tours ). The appearance of Germanic given and family names becomes noticeable in Gallia/Francia from

1940-749: The Franks and the Alamanni , invaded Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian 's victory at Châlons in 274. In 286–7 Carausius , commander of the Classis Britannica , the fleet of the English Channel, declared himself Emperor of Britain and northern Gaul. His forces comprised his fleet, the three legions stationed in Britain and also a legion he had seized in Gaul,

2037-526: The Jura Mountains via a very narrow pass at the site of the modern Fort l'Écluse , but bypassed the Provincia . After ravaging the lands of the Aedui tribe, who called upon Caesar to help them, they began the crossing of the Saône , which took them several days. As only a quarter of their forces were left on the eastern banks, Caesar attacked and routed them. According to Caesar, those killed had been

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2134-619: The Latin terms civitas ("state" or "tribe") and magistratus ("officials"). In his Natural History (c. 77 AD), Pliny provides a foundation myth for the Celtic settlement of Cisalpine Gaul in which a Helvetian named Helico plays the role of culture hero . Helico had worked in Rome as a craftsman and then returned to his home north of the Alps with a dried fig, a grape, and some oil and wine,

2231-689: The Limmat on Zürichsee lake shore. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Ambrones probably reached southern Germany around the year 111 BC, where they were joined by the Tigurini , and, probably the Teutoni-Toutonoi-Toygenoi. (The precise identity of the latter group is unclear). The tribes began a joint invasion of Gaul, including the Roman Provincia Narbonensis , which led to the Tigurini's victory over

2328-634: The Periochae , short summarising lists of contents, in which hostages given by the Romans, but no yoke, are mentioned. In 105 BC, the allies defeated another Roman army near Arausio and went on to harry Spain, Gaul, Noricum , and northern Italy. They split up in two groups in 103 BC, with the Teutones and Ambrones marching on a western route through the Provincia and the Cimbri and Tigurini crossing

2425-553: The Roman Empire from the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD. The Roman Republic 's influence began in southern Gaul. By the mid-2nd century BC, Rome was trading heavily with the Greek colony of Massilia (modern Marseille ) and entered into an alliance with them, by which Rome agreed to protect the town from local Gauls, including the nearby Aquitani and from sea-borne Carthaginians and other rivals, in exchange for land that

2522-519: The Siege of Massilia in 49 BC after which it lost its territories but was allowed to keep nominal autonomy, due to ancient ties of friendship and support of Rome. In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate , Lepidus was given responsibility for Gallia Narbonensis (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony was given the balance of Gaul. In 22 BC, imperial administration of Gaul

2619-710: The Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. According to Julius Caesar , the Helvetians were divided into four subgroups or pagi . Of these, Caesar names only the Verbigeni and the Tigurini , while Posidonius mentions the Tigurini and the Tougeni ( Τωυγενοί ). They feature prominently in the Commentaries on the Gallic War , with their failed migration attempt to southwestern Gaul (58 BC) serving as

2716-548: The Tigurini , on whom he had now taken revenge in the name of the Republic and his family. After the battle, the Romans quickly bridged the river, thereby prompting the Helvetii to once again send an embassy, this time led by Divico , another figure whom Caesar links to the ignominious defeat of 107 BC by calling him bello Cassio dux Helvetiorum (i.e. "leader of the Helvetii in the Cassian campaign"). What Divico had to offer

2813-481: The Tres Galliae (the 3 Gauls): The Romans divided these huge provinces into civitates corresponding more or less with the pre-Conquest communities or polities sometimes described misleadingly as "tribes," such as the Aedui , Allobroges , Bellovaci , and Sequani (see List of Celtic tribes ) but the civitates were too large and in turn were divided into smaller units, pagi , a term that eventually became

2910-551: The ethnogenesis of modern Swiss people . They are mentioned as Helvetii by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC), Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Tacitus (early 2nd c. AD), in the genitive case as Helvetiorum by Livy (late 1st c. BC), as Helveti by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), and as Elouḗtioi (Ἐλουήτιοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD). The Gaulish ethnic name Helvetii is generally interpreted as (h)elu-ētioi ('rich in land'), from elu - ('numerous', cf. OIr. il ) attached to etu - ('grassland'; cf. OIr. iath ). The presence of

3007-702: The fall of Roman administration and the Domain of Soissons , a remnant of the Empire , survived from 457 to 486. In 486, the Franks defeated the last Roman authority in Gaul at the Battle of Soissons . Almost immediately afterwards, most of Gaul came under the rule of the Merovingians , the first kings of a proto-France. In 507, the Visigoths were pushed out of most of Gaul by the Frankish king Clovis I at

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3104-666: The 4th and 5th centuries, the Franks settled in northern France and Belgium , the Alemanni in Alsace and Switzerland , and the Burgundians in Savoie . Villas were usually centres of agricultural production, and were often closely associated with vineries and wine production . The owners were probably mainly local Gallic elites who became quickly romanised after the conquest , and sometimes Romans and Italians who wished to exploit rich local resources. The villas would have been

3201-511: The 6th century, which describes how a shrine "called 'Vasso Galatae' in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground. Throughout the Roman rule over Gaul, although considerable Romanization in terms of material culture occurred, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and continued to be spoken, coexisting with Latin. Germanic placenames were first attested in border areas settled by Germanic colonizers (with Roman approval). In

3298-541: The Aeduan oppidum Bibracte , Caesar caught up with the Helvetii and faced them in a major battle , which ended in the Helvetii's retreat and the capture of most of their baggage by the Romans. Leaving the largest part of their supplies behind, the Helvetii covered around 60 km in four days, eventually reaching the lands of the Lingones (the modern Langres plateau). Caesar did not pursue them until three days after

3395-515: The Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. The Sequani and the Arverni sought Ariovistus 's aid and defeated the Aedui in 63 BC at the Battle of Magetobriga . As 58 BC dawned, most of Gaul was still under independent rule. It was beginning to urbanize and shared many aspects of Roman civilization. Into this picture came the rising general Julius Caesar , who had ensured himself

3492-488: The Empire, but that task was not Caesar's and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not be made formally into Roman provinces until the reign of Augustus in 27 BC. Several rebellions happened subsequently and Roman troops were kept stationed throughout Gaul. There may have been unrest in the region as late as 70 AD. Massilia was allied to Pompey during Caesar's civil war , which led to its eventual defeat at

3589-517: The Gallic tribes. In 390 BC, the Gauls had sacked Rome , which left an existential dread of barbarian conquest the Romans never forgot. In 109 BC, Italy had been invaded from the north and saved by Gaius Marius only after several bloody and costly battles. Around 62 BC, when a Roman client state, the Arverni, conspired with the Sequani and the Suebi nations east of the Rhine to attack

3686-519: The Helvetians who had not participated in the raids. The Helvetii were the first Gallic tribe of the campaign to be confronted by Caesar. He narrates the events of the conflict in the opening sections of Commentarii de Bello Gallico . Due to the political nature of the Commentarii , Caesar's purpose in publicizing his own achievements may have distorted the significance of events and the motives of those who participated. The nobleman Orgetorix

3783-450: The Helvetians, both the historical and archaeological records are sparse. Ptolemy (2.4.11) in the 2nd century uses the term Eremus Helvetiorum (also rendered Heremus Helvetiorum ) "desolation of the Helvetians" to refer to this area (largely corresponding to modern Baden ). The term was adopted by Aegidius Tschudi in the 16th century, and remains in use in modern historiography (German: Helvetier-Einöde ). It has been proposed that

3880-493: The Helvetii in the Swiss plateau, with the Emme as being one of the gold-yielding rivers mentioned by Posidonius. This interpretation is now generally discarded, as Posidonius' narrative makes it more likely that the country some of the Helvetians left in order to join in the raids of the Teutones , Cimbri , and Ambrones was in fact southern Germany and not Switzerland . That the Helvetians originally lived in southern Germany

3977-428: The Helvetii withdrew from the battle at nightfall, abandoning, as it seemed, most of their wagons, which they had drawn up into a wagon fort ; they retreated northwards in a forced night march and reached the territory of the Lingones four days after the battle. What Caesar implies to have been a desperate flight without stopping could actually have been an ordered retreat of moderate speed, covering less than 40 km

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4074-444: The Helvetii would settle on their own territory as allies in the oppidum Gorgobina . The nature of Caesar's arrangement with the Helvetii and the other tribes is not further specified by the consul himself, but in his speech Pro Balbo of 56 BC, Cicero mentions the Helvetii as one among several tribes of foederati , i.e. allied nations who were neither citizens of the Republic nor her subjects, but obliged by treaty to support

4171-639: The Rhine frontier against the Germans, he then allowed the Helvetii, Tulingi and Latobrigi to return to their territories and to rebuild their homes, instructing the Allobroges to supply them with a sufficient supply of grain. Caesar does not mention the Raurici , who seem to have built a new oppidum at Basel-Münsterhügel upon their return. The Aedui were granted their wish that the Boii who had accompanied

4268-634: The Rhine. The Suebi and Marcomanni who under Ariovistus had planned to invade Gaul were pushed back beyond the Black Forest , where they amalgamated into the future Alemanni . The Romans allowed Germanic tribes such as the Ubii , Triboci , Nemetes and Vangiones to settle in the deserted areas left of the Rhine. On the right bank of the Upper Rhine, which according to the testimony of Tacitus ( Germania 28) had formerly also been occupied by

4365-435: The Roman military leader. In general, numbers written down by ancient military authors have to be taken as gross exaggerations. What Caesar claims to have been 368,000 people is estimated by other sources to be rather around 300,000 ( Plutarch ), or 200,000 ( Appian ); in the light of a critical analysis, even these numbers seem far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting men extremely unlikely in

4462-410: The Roman tunic instead of their traditional clothing. Surviving Celtic influences also infiltrated back into the Roman Imperial culture in the 3rd century. For example, the Gaulish tunic—which gave Emperor Caracalla his surname—had not been replaced by Roman fashion. Similarly, certain Gaulish artisan techniques, such as the barrel (more durable than the Roman amphora ) and chain mail were adopted by

4559-462: The Romans wanted in order to build a road to Hispania to improve troop movements to its provinces there. The Mediterranean settlements on the coast continued to be threatened by the powerful Gallic tribes to the north and in 122 BC the Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus campaigned in the area and defeated the Allobroges followed by Quintus Fabius Maximus against the Arverni under King Bituitus in 121 BC. The Romans respected and feared

4656-600: The Romans with a certain number of fighting men. According to the victor, tablets with lists in Greek characters were found at the Helvetian camp, listing in detail all men able to bear arms with their names and giving a total number for the women, children and elderly who accompanied them. The numbers added up to a total of 263,000 Helvetii, 36,000 Tulingi , 14,000 Latobrigi , 23,000 Rauraci , and 32,000 Boii , all in all 368,000 heads, 92,000 of whom were warriors. A census of those who had returned to their homes listed 110,000 survivors, which meant that only about 30 percent of

4753-410: The Romans. The Celtic heritage also continued in the spoken language (see History of French ). Gaulish spelling and pronunciation of Latin are apparent in several 5th century poets and transcribers of popular farces. The last pockets of Gaulish speakers appear to have lingered until the 6th or 7th century. Gaulish was held to be attested by a quote from Gregory of Tours written in the second half of

4850-419: The Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Châlons , in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila. The Western Roman administration finally collapsed as remaining Roman troops withdrew southeast to protect Italy. Between 455 and 476, the Visigoths , the Burgundians, and the Franks assumed control in Gaul. However, certain aspects of the ancient Celtic culture continued after

4947-452: The Western Roman Empire, the Gaulish language and cultural identity underwent a syncretism with the Roman culture of the new governing class, and evolved into a hybrid Gallo-Roman culture that eventually permeated all levels of society. Gauls continued writing some inscriptions in the Gaulish language, but switched from the Greek alphabet to the Latin alphabet during the Roman period. Current historical research suggests that Roman Gaul

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5044-580: The area inhabited by the Helvetians had extended beyond the Swiss plateau, far into what is now Baden-Württemberg , but had been displaced in the course of the Cimbrian War , some two generations prior to Caesar's invasion of Gaul. The Swiss plateau was gradually romanized during the 1st to 3rd centuries. The principal Roman settlements were the cities of Iulia Equestris ( Nyon ), Aventicum ( Avenches ), Augusta Raurica ( Augst ) and Vindonissa ( Windisch ). Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages ( vici ) and hundreds of villas . In

5141-433: The authorities could apprehend him, he died under unexplained circumstances, the Helvetii believed by his own hand. Nevertheless, the Helvetii did not give up their planned emigration, but burned their homes in 58 BC. They were joined by a number of tribal groups from neighbouring regions: the Raurici, the Latobrigi , the Tulingi and a group of Boii , who had besieged Noreia . They abandoned their homes completely with

5238-412: The authors of the important Panegyrici latini . Many other writers were from the region of Cisalpine Gaul , which was part of Italy, including Virgil , Caecilius Statius , Catullus and Pliny the Elder . In the Crisis of the Third Century around 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire , which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes,

5335-414: The barbarian raids, and Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used the Huns against the Burgundians , and these mercenaries destroyed Worms , killed king Gunther , and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila , became a greater threat, and Aëtius used

5432-549: The battle, while still sending messengers to the Lingones warning them not to assist the Helvetii in any way. The Helvetii then offered their immediate surrender and agreed both to providing hostages and to giving up their weapons the next day. In the course of the night, 6000 of the Verbigeni fled from the camp out of fear of being massacred once they were defenceless. Caesar sent riders after them and ordered those who were brought back to be "counted as enemies", which probably meant being sold into slavery. In order for them to defend

5529-446: The centre of complex relationships with the local area. Much of the work would have been undertaken by slave labour or by local coloni ("tenant farmers"). There would also have been a farm manager in addition to the inhabiting family. Helvetii The Helvetii ( Latin : Helvētiī [hɛɫˈweːti.iː] , Gaulish : * Heluētī ), anglicized as Helvetians , were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of

5626-452: The conclusion of a foedus casts some doubt on the totality of the defeat. As Caesar's account is heavily influenced by his political agenda, it is difficult to determine the actual motive of the Helvetii movement of 58 BC. One might see the movement in the light of a Celtic retreat from areas which were later to become Germanic; it can be debated whether they ever had plans to settle in the Saintonge , as Caesar claims (Bell. Gall. 1,10.). It

5723-437: The country's contemporary Neo-Latin name, Confoederatio Helvetica (abbreviated CH), are derived from this tradition. In 2015, the star 51 Pegasi , the first main-sequence star found to have an exoplanet , was named Helvetios after the Helvetii as part of the IAU 's NameExoWorlds contest. The distribution of La Tène culture burials in Switzerland indicates that the Swiss plateau between Lausanne and Winterthur

5820-419: The course of Romanization, the Celtic polytheism of the Helvetians was syncretized with Roman religion . The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts, and Roman gods acquired the names of local gods, such as Mars Caturix , Mercurius Cissonius and Jupiter Poeninus . A major cultic center of Gallo-Roman religion , consisting of eight chapels or small temples,

5917-496: The desirability of which caused his countrymen to invade northern Italy . The Greek historian Posidonius (c. 135–50 BC), whose work is preserved only in fragments by other writers, offers the earliest historical record of the Helvetii. Posidonius described the Helvetians of the late 2nd century BC as "rich in gold but peaceful," without giving clear indication to the location of their territory. His reference to gold washing in rivers has been taken as evidence for an early presence of

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6014-466: The east, where the Nervii nearly defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, he sought to boost his public image, and undertook first of their kind expeditions across the Rhine river and the English Channel . Upon his return from Britain, Caesar was hailed as a hero, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small. The next year, he went back with

6111-414: The eastern Alps (probably by the Brenner Pass ). While the Teutones and Ambrones were slaughtered in 102 BC by Gaius Marius near Aquae Sextiae , the Cimbri and the Tigurini wintered in the Padan plain . The following year, Marius virtually destroyed the Cimbri in the battle of Vercellae . The Tigurini, who had planned on following the Cimbri, turned back over the Alps with their booty and joined those of

6208-462: The emigrants had survived the war. Caesar's report has been partly confirmed by excavations near Geneva and Bibracte . However, much of his account has not yet been corroborated by archaeology, whilst his narrative must in wide parts be considered as biased and, in some points, unlikely. For a start, only one out of the fifteen Celtic oppida in the Helvetii territory so far has yielded evidence for destruction by fire. Many other sites, for example

6305-434: The end of the Merovingian period in the 750s. Slowly, during the ensuing Carolingian period (751–987), the expression Francia , then Francia occidentalis spread to describe the political reality of the kingdom of the Franks ( regnum francorum ). Before 22 BC, Gaul had three geographical divisions, one of which was divided into multiple Roman provinces: After 22 BC, the Romans divided Gallia Comata into three provinces,

6402-406: The find was at that time at least 50 metres (164 ft) from the lake shore, and probably 1 metre (3 ft) to three meters deep in the water. There's also an island sanctuary of the Helvetii in connection with the settlement at the preceding Oppidi Uetliberg on the former Grosser Hafner island, as well as the settlement Kleiner Hafner at the Sechseläuten square on the effluence of

6499-485: The first Germanic incursions into the Roman world, when the Tigurini and Toygenoi/Toutonoi are mentioned as participants in the great raids. At the later Vicus Turicum , probably in the first 1st century BC or even much earlier, the Celts settled at the Lindenhof Oppidium . In 1890, so-called Potin lumps were found, whose largest weights 59.2 kilograms (131 lb) at the Prehistoric pile dwelling settlement Alpenquai in Zürich, Switzerland. The pieces consist of

6596-402: The former territories of the Helvetii and their inhabitants were as thoroughly romanised as the rest of Gaul. What seems to have been the last action of the Helvetii as a tribal entity happened shortly after the death of emperor Nero in 68 AD. Like the other Gallic tribes, the Helvetii were organised as a civitas ; they even retained their traditional grouping into four pagi and enjoyed

6693-399: The giving of hostages by the defeated Romans at Agen . In the cavalry battle that followed, the Helvetii prevailed over Caesar's Aedui allies under Dumnorix ' command, and continued their journey, while Caesar's army was being detained by delays in his grain supplies, caused by the Aedui on the instigations of Dumnorix , who had married Orgetorix ' daughter. A few days later, however, near

6790-488: The important general Gnaeus Julius Agricola . Another general born in Gaul was Marcus Antonius Primus . In addition, the family of Antoninus Pius , which was also the adoptive family of Marcus Aurelius , came from Roman Gaul. Among the Roman writers known or hypothesized to be born in Gaul there are Tacitus , Petronius , Varro Atacinus , Aemilius Magnus Arborius , Frontinus , Ausonius , Rutilius Claudius Namatianus , Sextus Pompeius Festus , Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus and

6887-422: The initial h -, remnant of a previous p - ( PIE *pelh 1 u- > Celt. helu- > elu- ), attests of an archaic formation. The earliest attestation of the name is found in a graffito on a vessel from Mantua , dated to c. 300 BC. The inscription in Etruscan letters reads eluveitie, which has been interpreted as the Etruscan form of the Celtic elu̯eti̯os ("the Helvetian"), presumably referring to

6984-590: The intention of settling among the Santones ( Saintonge ). The easiest route would take them through the Rhône valley , and thus through the Roman Provincia Narbonensis . When they reached the boundaries of the Allobroges , the northernmost tribe of the Provincia , they found that Caesar had already dismantled the bridge of Geneva to stop their advance. The Helvetians sent "the most illustrious men of their state" to negotiate, promising

7081-665: The legendary king Conan Meriadoc . They spoke the now extinct British language , which evolved into the Breton , Cornish , and Welsh languages . The Goths , who had sacked Rome in 410, established a capital in Toulouse and in 418 succeeded in being accepted by Honorius as foederati and rulers of the Aquitanian province in exchange for their support against the Vandals . The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all

7178-449: The middle of the 7th century on, most notably in powerful families, indicating that the centre of gravity had definitely shifted. The Gallo-Roman (or Vulgar Latin ) dialect of the late Roman period evolved into the dialects of the Oïl languages and Old French in the north, and into Occitan in the south. The name Gallia and its equivalents continued in use, at least in writing, until

7275-470: The modern French word "pays". These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses , which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution . In the five centuries between Caesar's invasion and the collapse of

7372-415: The numerous creditors he owed money to, but also to further strengthen his position within the late Republic. In this sense, even the character of Divico , who makes his appearance in the Commentarii half a century after his victory over L. Cassius Longinus, seems more like another hackneyed argument stressing Caesar's justification to attack, than like an actual historical figure. That the victor of Agen

7469-543: The position of Governor of both Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul . He sought to pay off debts and find glory for himself, and so began a series of aggressive campaigns to conquer the Gallic tribes. The wars began with a conflict over the migration of the Helvetii in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic Suebi . By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul, and led campaigns in

7566-471: The rest of Gaul, were largely Romanized by the 2nd century. In the later 3rd century, Roman control over the region waned, and the Swiss plateau was exposed to the invading Alemanni . The Alemanni and Burgundians established permanent settlements in the Swiss plateau in the 5th and 6th centuries, resulting in the early medieval territories of Alemannia (Swabia) and Upper Burgundy . The Helvetii were largely assimilated by their new rulers, contributing to

7663-468: The royal estate of the Merovingian kings (from the 5th century until the 8th century). At the time of the creation of the commune, the city name was spelled without any accent. This accent was added in 1801, and the name of the river ("on Orge ") was added in 1898. Brétigny-sur-Orge has an oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ). The average annual temperature in Brétigny-sur-Orge

7760-455: The sanctuary at Mormont , do not exhibit any signs of damage for the period in question, and Celtic life continued seemingly undisturbed for the rest of the 1st century BC up to the beginning of the Roman era, with an accent rather on an increase in prosperity than on a "Helvetic twilight". With the honourable status as foederati taken into account, it is hard to believe that the Helvetii ever sustained casualties quite as heavy as those given by

7857-487: The severity of the crisis. The Helvetii were re-discovered as the forebears of the Swiss in the early historiography of Switzerland , in the late 15th to early 16th century. Their name was adopted as the Latin equivalent of the designation Switzer , and the Swiss Confederacy was given the Latin name of Republica Helvetiorum . The name of the national personification of Switzerland , Helvetia , and

7954-566: The site of the Helvetian settlement Noviodunum (modern Nyon ), and around 44 BC the Colonia Raurica on Rauracan territory. These colonies were probably established as a means of controlling the two most important military access routes between the Helvetian territory and the rest of Gaul , blocking the passage through the Rhône valley and Sundgau . In the course of Augustus ' reign, Roman dominance became more concrete. Some of

8051-457: The size of the baggage train that an exodus of 368,000 people would have required: Even for the reduced numbers that Furger-Gunti uses for his calculations, the baggage train would have stretched for at least 40 km, perhaps even as far as 100 km. In spite of the now much more balanced numerical weight we have to assume for the two opposing armies, the battle seems far less glorious a victory than Caesar presented it to be. The main body of

8148-437: The syncretic nature of the Roman religion led to disappearance of the Celtic religion. It remains to this day poorly understood: current knowledge of the Celtic religion is based on archaeology and via literary sources from several isolated areas such as Ireland and Wales . The Romans easily imposed their administrative, economic, artistic (especially in terms of monumental art and architecture) and literary culture. They wore

8245-428: The territory abandoned by the Helvetii had comprised 400 villages and 12 oppida (fortified settlements). His tally of the total population taken from captured Helvetian records written in Greek is 263,000 people, including fighting men, old men, women and children. However, the figures are generally dismissed as too high by modern scholars (see hereafter ). Like many other tribes, the Helvetii did not have kings at

8342-431: The time of their clash with Rome but instead seem to have been governed by a class of noblemen (Lat. equites ). When Orgetorix , one of their most prominent and ambitious noblemen, was making plans to establish himself as their king, he faced execution at the stake if found guilty. Caesar does not explicitly name the tribal authorities prosecuting the case and gathering men to apprehend Orgetorix, but he refers to them by

8439-614: The traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, such as Vindonissa or Basilea (modern Basel ); others were relocated, such as the hill-fort on the Bois de Châtel, whose inhabitants founded the new "capital" of the civitas at nearby Aventicum . First incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica , later into the Germania Superior and finally into the Diocletian province of Maxima Sequanorum ,

8536-441: The view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants. Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of c. 30,000 men. The real numbers will never be determined exactly. Caesar's specifications can at least be doubted by looking at

8633-571: The war had made him extremely wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and declare himself dictator , in what would eventually lead to the end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire . At the end of the Gallic Wars, the Gauls had not been entirely subjugated and were not yet a formal part of

8730-433: Was "Roman" only in certain (albeit major) social contexts, the prominence of which in material culture has hindered a better historical understanding of the permanence of many Celtic elements. The Roman influence was most apparent in the areas of civic religion and administration. The Druidic religion was suppressed by Emperor Claudius I , and in later centuries Christianity was introduced. The prohibition of Druids and

8827-432: Was almost a surrender, namely to have the Helvetii settle wherever Caesar wished them to, although it was combined with the threat of an open battle if Caesar should refuse. Caesar demanded hostages to be given to him and reparations to the Aedui and Allobroges. Divico responded by saying that "they were accustomed to receive, not to give hostages; a fact the Roman people could testify to", this once again being an allusion to

8924-488: Was certainly in the latter's personal interest to emphasise any kind of parallel between the traumatic experience of the Cimbrian and Teutonic incursions and the alleged threat that the Helvetii were to the Roman world. The Tigurini 's part in the destruction of L. Cassius Longinus and his army was a welcome pretext to engage in an offensive war in Gaul whose proceeds permitted Caesar not only to fulfil his obligations to

9021-671: Was found in Allmendingen near Thun . Deities worshipped at the site included Mars (presumably in lieu of Caturix ) and Rosmerta as well as Mithras . Although the Gaulish language had mostly been ousted by Latin by the 3rd century, many Celtic toponyms have survived in Switzerland. Of the ten largest present-day Swiss cities, at least six have Celtic placename etymologies, and most major Swiss rivers have either Celtic or pre-Celtic names. The order and prosperity of

9118-549: Was relatively densely populated. Settlement centres existed in the Aare valley between Thun and Bern , and between Lake Zurich and the river Reuss . The Valais and the regions around Bellinzona and Lugano also seem to have been well-populated; however, those lay outside the Helvetian borders. Almost all the Helvetic oppida were built in the vicinity of the larger rivers of the Swiss midlands. Not all of them existed at

9215-514: Was reorganised establishing the provinces of Gallia Aquitania , Gallia Belgica and Gallia Lugdunensis . Parts of eastern Gaul were incorporated into the provinces Raetia (15 BC) and Germania Superior (AD 83). Roman citizenship was granted to all in 212 by the Constitutio Antoniniana . Several significant Roman figures were born in Gaul, including Roman Emperors Claudius , Caracalla and probably Carus , as well as

9312-499: Was still alive in 58 BC or, if yes, that he was physically still capable of undertaking such a journey at all, seems more than doubtful. The Helvetii and Rauraci most likely lost their status as foederati only six years after the battle of Bibracte, when they supported Vercingetorix in 52 BC with 8,000 and 2,000 men, respectively. Sometime between 50 and 45 BC, the Romans founded the Colonia Iulia Equestris at

9409-444: Was −18.8 °C (−1.8 °F) on 16 January 1985. It is served by Brétigny station on Paris RER line C . On 12 July 2013 an intercity train derailed shortly after 17.00, killing 7 people. Inhabitants of Brétigny-sur-Orge are known as Brétignolais . This Essonne geographical article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Roman Gaul Roman Gaul refers to Gaul under provincial rule in

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