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126-646: Gaullism (French: Gaullisme , [ɡolism] ) is a French political stance based on the thought and action of World War II French Resistance leader Charles de Gaulle , who would become the founding President of the Fifth French Republic . De Gaulle withdrew French forces from the NATO Command Structure , forced the removal of allied ( US ) military bases from France, as well as initiated France's own independent nuclear deterrent programme. His actions were predicated on

252-499: A Bonapartist revival or a republican monarchy . France remained a democracy, however, and de Gaulle's decision to step down as president following voters' rejection of the April 1969 constitutional referendum showed that his commitment to democratic principles was not merely a rhetorical ploy. In foreign policy , Gaullists are identified with both realism and French exceptionalism , and de Gaulle sought to impose French influence on

378-570: A separation of powers and proclaims France's "attachment to the Rights of Man and the principles of National Sovereignty as defined by the Declaration of 1789 ". The political system of France consists of an executive branch , a legislative branch , and a judicial branch . Executive power is exercised by the president of the republic and the Government . The Government consists of

504-457: A 'person' with whom a mystical dialogue was maintained throughout history. The goal of Gaullism, therefore, is to give precedence to its interests, to ensure that the voice is heard, to make it respected, and to assure its survival … to remain worthy of its past, the nation must endow itself with a powerful state." Kritzman writes that "the Gaullist idea of France set out to restore the honor of

630-649: A Gaullist Union for the Fourth Republic but it could not prevent the approval of the text prepared by the elected National Assembly, which restored the parliamentary system. In 1947, he gathered the anti-Communist opposition in the Rally of the French People ( Rassemblement du peuple français or RPF). He accused the Fourth Republic of being dominated by the "parliamentary fiddles" and to organize

756-580: A bill (effectively treating the bill as an issue of a confidence vote), under the provisions of article 49.3 of the Constitution. The bill is then considered passed unless the National Assembly votes a motion of no-confidence (French: motion de censure ), in which case the bill is defeated and the government has to resign. As of 2006 , the use of this article was the " First Employment Contract " proposed by Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin,

882-543: A commission typically composed of senior lawyers or of members of the Parliament. Each of the two chambers of the Parliament often has its own commission, but sometimes they collaborate to create a single Commission nationale mixte paritaire . For example: In addition, the duties of public service limit the power that the executive has over the French Civil Service . For instance, appointments, except for

1008-747: A disavowal. Relations became more difficult with the only non-Gaullist party in the presidential majority, the Independent Republicans, while the opposition was reconstructed. While the Popular Republican Movement intensified its criticism, some Christian-Democrats, such Maurice Schumann , joined the Gaullist Party, renamed Union of Democrats for the Fifth Republic ( Union des démocrates pour la Cinquième République or UD-V). Prime Minister Pompidou led

1134-429: A first constitutional law was rejected by referendum . One month later, a new Assembly was elected in order to write a new constitutional text. In his Bayeux Manifesto , de Gaulle outlined his institutional ideas but he was accused of wanting re-establish a Bonapartist government. Furthermore, without the support of a political force, he could not influence the constitutional law being prepared. René Capitant founded

1260-487: A law. If Parliament votes "no" to ratification, the ordinance is cancelled. Most of the time, ratification is made implicitly or explicitly through a Parliament act that deals with the subject concerned, rather than by the ratification act itself. The use of ordinances is normally reserved for urgent matters, or for technical, uncontroversial texts (such as the ordinances that converted all sums in French francs to euros in

1386-461: A motion of censure, forcing the resignation of the government. This, in practice, forces the government to reflect the same political party or coalition which has the majority in the Assembly. Ministers have to answer questions from members of Parliament, both written and oral; this is known as the questions au gouvernement ("questions to the government"). In addition, ministers attend meetings of

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1512-407: A move that greatly backfired. Traditionally, the government comprises members of three ranks. Ministers are the most senior members of the government; deputy ministers ( ministres délégués ) assist ministers in particular areas of their portfolio; state secretaries ( secrétaires d'État ) assist ministers in less important areas, and attend government meetings only occasionally. Before the founding of

1638-692: A new Constitution. At the same time, they elected a new National Assembly . The French Communist Party , the Socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) and the Christian democratic MRP were the largest forces represented in this Assembly. It re-elected de Gaulle as president of the provisional government but, disagreeing with restoration of the "regime of the parties", de Gaulle resigned in January 1946. In May 1946,

1764-425: A parallel administration, especially (but not only) in all matters that are politically sensitive. Each cabinet is led by a chief-of-staff entitled directeur de cabinet . The state also has distributive services spread throughout French territory, often reflecting divisions into régions or départements . The prefect , the representative of the national government in each région or département , supervises

1890-523: A parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the Assembly provided that the governing party/coalition has a working majority in the Chamber (which is no longer the case for the current ruling coalition as a result of the 2022 legislative election ). Economic liberalism Economic liberalism is associated with markets and private ownership of capital assets . Economic liberals tend to oppose government intervention and protectionism in

2016-637: A part of the Gaullists as Jacques Chaban-Delmas joined the centre-left Republican Front under the label National Centre of Social Republicans ( Centre national des républicains sociaux or CNRS). At the end of the 1950s, the Fourth Republic floundered in the Algerian War . The 13 May 1958 crisis led to turmoil, and a threat of military coup was brandished. Emissaries sent by de Gaulle such as Jacques Soustelle participated in this bustle. The National Assembly accepted to call back de Gaulle to lead

2142-583: A post-World War II bipolar global political order dominated by the two superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union , and sought to avoid dependence on the United States . Kritzman writes: "Gaullist foreign policy was motivated by its need to distinguish itself from … the two great superpowers. Paradoxically, [de Gaulle] desired to be part of the Western alliance and be critical of it at

2268-441: A real Gaullist. Pompidou left the leadership of the cabinet in order to prepare his future presidential campaign. In this, he declared his candidacy if de Gaulle were to resign. That was the case in 1969, after the failure of that year's referendum on Senate and regional reform , and he won the 1969 presidential election despite the reluctance of some of the "barons of Gaullism". His prime minister Jacques Chaban-Delmas announced

2394-652: A reform programme for a "New Society". It raised sceptical reactions from the conservative wing of the UDR, then from Pompidou himself. They reproached him for giving too many concessions to the left-wing opposition. In President Pompidou's circle, he was accused of wanting to weaken the presidential functions in favour of himself. The party became the Union of Democrats for the Republic ( Union des démocrates pour la République ) while this crisis broke out. Pompidou refused Chaban-Delmas

2520-422: A restrained fiscal policy and a balanced budget through measures such as low taxes, reduced government spending, and minimized government debt. Free trade, deregulation , tax cuts , privatization , labour market flexibility , and opposition to trade unions are also common positions. Economic liberalism can be contrasted with protectionism because of its support for free trade and an open economy , and

2646-421: A strong state that protects the right to property and enforces contracts. They may also support government interventions to resolve market failures. Ordoliberalism and various schools of social liberalism based on classical liberalism include a broader role for the state but do not seek to replace private enterprise and the free market with public enterprise and economic planning . A social market economy

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2772-423: A variety of topics. If necessary, they can establish parliamentary enquiry commissions with broad investigative power. The National Assembly is the principal legislative body. Its 577 deputies are directly elected for five-year terms in local majority votes, and all seats are voted on in each election. The National Assembly may force the resignation of the government by voting a motion of censure. For this reason,

2898-506: A vote of confidence in the National Assembly and, when he held it anyway, Pompidou forced him to resign and nominated Pierre Messmer . The UDR, allied with the Independent Republicans and Centre, Democracy and Progress , won the 1973 legislative election and succeeded in blocking the "Union of the Left" and its Common Programme . When Pompidou died in office, on 2 April 1974, his two former prime ministers, Chaban-Delmas and Messmer, claimed

3024-401: Is Michel Barnier since 5 September 2024. The French executive has a limited power to establish regulation or legislation. (See below for how such regulations or legislative items interact with statute law.) Only the president and prime minister sign decrees ( décrets ), which are akin to US executive orders . Decrees can only be taken following certain procedures and with due respect to

3150-667: Is a unitary state , its administrative subdivisions— regions , departments and communes —have various legal functions, and the national government is prohibited from intruding into their normal operations. France was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community , later the European Union . As such, France has transferred part of its sovereignty to European institutions, as provided by its constitution. The French government therefore has to abide by European treaties , directives and regulations . According to

3276-419: Is a much broader concept than fiscal liberalism, which is called fiscal conservatism or economic libertarianism in the United States. The ideology that highlighted the financial aspect of economic liberalism is called fiscal liberalism, which is defined as support for free trade . Economic liberalism opposes government intervention in the economy when it leads to inefficient outcomes. They are supportive of

3402-440: Is considered opposed to planned economies and non-capitalist economic orders, such as socialism . As such, economic liberalism today is associated with classical liberalism , neoliberalism , right-libertarianism , and some schools of conservatism like liberal conservatism and fiscal conservatism . Economic liberalism follows the same philosophical approach as classical liberalism and fiscal conservatism. Developed during

3528-546: Is divided into the judicial branch (dealing with civil law and criminal law ) and the administrative branch (dealing with appeals against executive decisions), each with their own independent supreme court of appeal: the Court of Cassation for the judicial courts and the Conseil d'Etat for the administrative courts. The French government includes various bodies that check abuses of power and independent agencies. While France

3654-616: Is headed by a director, named by the President in Council . The central administration largely stays the same, regardless of the political tendency of the executive in power. In addition, each minister has a private office, which is composed of members whose nomination is politically determined, called the cabinet . Cabinets are quite important and employ numbers of highly qualified staff to follow all administrative and political affairs. They are powerful, and have been sometimes considered as

3780-495: Is less a matter of doctrine than a means of upholding stability. To put an end to class struggle, Gaullists hope to make use of participation, a nineteenth-century concept of which the general spoke frequently, but which he allowed his associates to ignore." As part of a strong state, de Gaulle highlighted the necessity to found state institutions on a strong executive, contrasting with the French republican tradition, which emphasized

3906-436: Is required to obtain a nationwide majority of non-blank votes at either the first or second round of balloting, which implies that the president is somewhat supported by at least half of the voting population. As a consequence, the president of France is the pre-eminent figure in French politics. He appoints the prime minister and chairs the Council of Ministers (Cabinet meeting). Though the president may not de jure dismiss

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4032-411: The 1940 military disaster . He advocated a strong executive power, governing in the national interest, led by a man who was an incarnation of national unity. Indeed, in his mind, France is strong when it is united and the parties, represented in Parliament, serve particular interests and thus express national divisions. In November 1945, a large majority of the French voters accepted the elaboration of

4158-491: The 1986 legislative election . From 1986 to 1988, Chirac " cohabited " as prime minister with Mitterrand, but lost the 1988 presidential election . After his defeat, his leadership was challenged by younger politicians who wished to renew the right. Furthermore, the abandonment of the Gaullist doctrine was criticized by Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin . They tried to remove him from the RPR leadership in 1990, in vain. However,

4284-510: The Age of Enlightenment , particularly by Adam Smith , economic liberalism was born as the theory of economics of liberalism, which advocates minimal interference by government in the economy. Arguments in favor of economic liberalism were advanced by Smith and others during the age of enlightenment, opposing feudalism and mercantilism . It was first analyzed by Adam Smith in An Inquiry into

4410-526: The Council of Ministers , is chaired by the president and usually takes place at the Élysée Palace . The Council of Ministers is the executive's formal decision-making body since government bills need to be approved by the Council to be introduced in Parliament, some decrees are signed during the meeting ( decrees in Council of Ministers ) and some constitutional powers have to be approved by the Council beforehand to be invoked. The current French prime minister

4536-547: The Democratic Union of Labour between 1959 and 1967, and by politicians like René Capitant , Jacques Chaban-Delmas , Jean Charbonnel , Léo Hamon , Philippe Dechartre  [ fr ] or Jean Mattéoli . More recently, the Citizen and Republican Movement and Jean-Pierre Chevènement took up the banner of left-Gaullism. "Neo-Gaullism" has been used in the literature to describe a movement that emerged after

4662-809: The Fifth Republic (1958). Author of the L'Appel of 18 June 1940 , and founder and leader of the Free French Forces , General Charles de Gaulle is the symbol of the French Resistance to the Nazi occupation and the Vichy government . Yet, based in London , then in Algiers , he was forced to compromise with the domestic Resistance movements dominated by various political forces (such as

4788-479: The Fifth Republic in 1958, some ministers of particular political importance were called "Ministers of State" ( ministres d'État ); the practice has continued under the Fifth Republic in a mostly honorific fashion: ministers styled "Minister of State" are of higher importance in the gouvernement and have the ability to deputize for the PM and the authority to hold inter-ministerial meetings. The number of ministries and

4914-564: The French Revolution ; presumption of innocence ; freedom of speech ; freedom of opinion including freedom of religion ; the guarantee of property against arbitrary seizure; the accountability of government agents to the citizenry. France has a semi-presidential system of government, with both a president and a prime minister . The prime minister is responsible to the French Parliament . A presidential candidate

5040-458: The June 1968 legislative election , disagreements had risen between de Gaulle and Pompidou. Pompidou reproached de Gaulle for leaving the country during the crisis without informing him. For de Gaulle, his aim of an alliance between capital and labour could prevent this sort of social crisis, but Pompidou wished to scrap it. Indeed, for de Gaulle's circle, Pompidou was more a classical conservative than

5166-702: The Resistant Free France (1940–1944) during World War II , has served as the symbol of many Gaullist parties and movements, including the Rally of the French People (1947–1955), the Union for the New Republic (1958–1967), or the Rally for the Republic (1976–2002). Defunct Defunct The "fundamental principle" of Gaullism is a "certain idea of France" as a strong state. In his War Memoirs , de Gaulle describes France as "an indomitable entity,

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5292-550: The Socialist Party leader François Mitterrand became president, the RPR gradually abandoned the Gaullist doctrine, adopting the European and liberal positions of the Union for French Democracy ( Union pour la démocratie française or UDF). The two parties competed for the leadership of the right-wing opposition, but they presented a common list at the 1984 European Parliament election and a platform to prepare for winning

5418-464: The Third World . De Gaulle and the Gaullists did not support Europe as a supranational entity, but did favour European integration in the form of "a confederation of sovereign states mutually engaged in "common policy, autonomous from the superpowers," and significantly influenced by France. De Gaulle's hopes to advance this sort of union largely failed, however, "in the face of the desire of

5544-551: The V-Dem Democracy indices France was in 2023 the 10th most electoral democratic country in the world. A popular referendum approved the constitution of the French Fifth Republic in 1958, greatly strengthening the authority of the presidency and the executive with respect to Parliament. The constitution does not contain a bill of rights in itself, but its preamble mentions that France should follow

5670-418: The class conflict analysis of Marxism , which was perceived as a threat to national unity, de Gaulle advocated instead a "capital-labour association", that is the need for the direct participation of workers in their company's financial results and management, which he believed was a necessary condition for them to take an interest in its functioning and development. This aspect of Gaullism has been promoted by

5796-471: The division of labour , and the principle of individual initiative—this contributed to obscuring other aspects of the rich body of political liberalism to be found in Smith's work. For example, his work promoted the ideal that the everyday man could hold ownership of his own property and trade, which Smith felt would slowly allow for individuals to take control of their places within society. Economic liberalism

5922-759: The left–right divide in a similar way to populist republican parties elsewhere such as Fianna Fáil in Republic of Ireland , the Justicialist Party in Argentina , and the African National Congress in South Africa . In the past, some Gaullist voters saw themselves as leaning towards the political left , a view ascribed to the once-leading Gaullist André Malraux . Most of Charles de Gaulle 's own followers leaned towards

6048-451: The market economy when it inhibits free trade and competition , but tend to support government intervention where it protects property rights , opens new markets or funds market growth, and resolves market failures . An economy that is managed according to these precepts may be described as a liberal economy or operating under liberal capitalism . Economic liberals commonly adhere to a political and economic philosophy that advocates

6174-400: The political right , christian democratic or national conservative . Consequently, left-leaning voters started showing less support again after Malraux's death in 1976, as figures of the Gaullist left (like Jacques Chaban-Delmas ) were gradually marginalised. Under its various names and acronyms, the Gaullist Party has been the dominant organisation of the French right since the beginning of

6300-464: The populist stance and the opposition to European integration and the free market as initially advocated by Jacques Chirac in the late 1970s. This position was embodied in particular by Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin , who came to oppose Chirac's shift to neo-Gaullism during the 1990s. Social Gaullism, or "left-wing Gaullism", focuses on the social dimensions of Gaullism, and has often been linked by scholars to social democracy . Opposed to

6426-489: The prime minister and ministers. The prime minister is appointed by the president, and is responsible to Parliament. The government , including the prime minister, can be revoked by the National Assembly , the lower house of Parliament, through a motion of no-confidence; this ensures that the prime minister is practically always supported by a majority in the lower house (which, on most topics, has prominence over

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6552-450: The "presidentialisation" of French politics. Indeed, de Gaulle instituted the direct election of the presidency, defying all political parties (except the UNR). The French voters approved this by referendum . De Gaulle had intended to replace Debré with Georges Pompidou as prime minister but this was denied by a vote of no-confidence. De Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly. Associated with

6678-549: The "struggle of classes", which hampered national unity. Six months after its founding, membership of the RPF reached one million. It took control of the executive of many cities, including Paris , Marseille and Bordeaux . After the 1951 legislative election , despite the change to the ballot system, the RPF formed the largest parliamentary group of the National Assembly but had a systematic opposition. In 1952, some RPF deputies voted in favour of Antoine Pinay 's cabinet then joined

6804-656: The 18th century, with origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire , dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673, in 1740 which lowered duties to only 3% for imports and exports and in 1790. Ottoman free trade policies were praised by British economists advocating free trade such as J. R. McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834), but criticized by British politicians opposing free trade such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli , who cited

6930-427: The 5th Republic: in 1962 when the parliamentary majority of the time voted a motion of censure against the government of George Pompidou. The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament (the cabinet has control over the parliamentary order of business 50% of the time, 2 out of 4 weeks per month). The government can also 'commit its responsibility' on a bill it has proposed (effectively treating

7056-420: The Assembly is usually politically allied to the ministers, such legislation is, in general, very likely to pass (unless there is a hung parliament). However, this is not guaranteed, and, on occasion, the opinion of the majority parliamentarians may differ significantly from those of the executive, which often results in a large number of amendments. The prime minister can commit the government's responsibility on

7182-520: The Communists). In 1944, while France was liberated , de Gaulle presided over the provisional government composed of Communists, Socialists, and Christian Democrats . Because de Gaulle refused to create a great political party unifying the non-Communist Resistance, a lot of parties re-emerged. The Christian democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP) seemed to be the closest to de Gaulle. The provisional government implemented policies inspired by

7308-485: The Constitution have added a reference in the preamble to an Environment charter that has full constitutional value, and a right for citizens to contest the constitutionality of a statute before the Constitutional Council. The foundational principles of the constitution include: the equality of all citizens before law, and the rejection of special class privileges such as those that existed prior to

7434-419: The Constitution puts under the responsibility of legislation, issued by Parliament. Still, Parliament may, through a habilitation law, authorize the executive to issue ordinances ( ordonnances ), with legislative value, in precisely-defined areas. Habilitation laws specify the scope of the ordinance. After the ordinance is issued, the government has to propose a ratifying bill in order that the ordinance becomes

7560-565: The French economy and perpetuate national disunity, "de Gaulle felt that it was in France's best interests to grant independence and desist from military engagement," thereby preserving French unity and grandeur. Gaullists emphasize the need for France to "guarantee its national independence without resorting to allies whose interests might not coincide with those of France." The development of independent French nuclear capability , undertaken at significant effort despite much international criticism,

7686-491: The Independent Republicans' leader. Giscard eliminated Chaban-Delmas in the first round, then narrowly defeated Mitterrand in the second. He was the first non-Gaullist President of the Fifth Republic. Chirac became prime minister, and then leader of the UDR in December 1974, in spite of the negative opinions of many historical Gaullist personalities (Michel Debré, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, etc.). They accused him of having betrayed

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7812-520: The National Assembly and the Senate; the National Assembly is the pre-eminent body. Parliament meets for one nine-month session each year: under special circumstances the president can call an additional session. Although parliamentary powers have diminished from those existing under the Fourth Republic , the National Assembly can still cause a government to fall if an absolute majority of the total Assembly membership votes to censure. It happened once under

7938-535: The Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), which advocated minimal interference of government in a market economy , although it did not necessarily oppose the state's provision of basic public goods . In Smith's view, if everyone is left to his own economic devices instead of being controlled by the state, the result would be a harmonious and more equal society of ever-increasing prosperity. This underpinned

8064-466: The New Republic ( Union pour la nouvelle république or UNR). After the November 1958 legislative election , it became the largest force in the political system. It was allied with centre-left and centre-right parties to support de Gaulle, who was elected President of France by a congress of local and national elected officials in December 1958. Michel Debré was nominated as prime minister. However,

8190-488: The Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufactures of the world" in 1812. Historian Kathleen G. Donohue argues that classical liberalism in the United States during the 19th century had distinctive characteristics as opposed to Britain: "[A]t the center of classical liberal theory [in Europe]

8316-523: The RPR) now have an identity crisis. It is difficult for them to distinguish themselves from other political perspectives." Not all Gaullist ideas have endured, however. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, there have been several periods of cohabitation (1986–1988, 1993–1995, 1997–2002), in which the president and prime minister have been from different parties, a marked shift from the "imperial presidency" of de Gaulle. De Gaulle's economic policy, based on

8442-530: The UDR candidacy for the presidential election . Finally, the latter withdrew, but some influential personalities in the party, notably in the circle of the late president, doubted of the capacity of Chaban-Delmas to defeat François Mitterrand , the representative of the "Union of the Left". Led by the young minister Jacques Chirac , a former adviser of Pompidou, they published the Call of the 43 . They covertly supported Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, Minister of Economy and

8568-475: The UNR appeared as the party of de Gaulle's unconditional supporters, hence its reputation of "boot party". Debré theorized its function of strap of the government. With de Gaulle refusing to be a party leader, Debré covertly took this position. Meanwhile, the centre-left parties returned to the opposition in 1959, followed in 1962 by the centre-right parties, who criticized the eurosceptic declarations of de Gaulle and

8694-464: The activities of the distributive services in his or her jurisdiction. Generally, the services of a certain administration in a région or département are managed by a high-level civil servant, often called director, but not always; for instance, the services of the Trésor public (Treasury) in each département are headed by a treasurer-paymaster general, appointed by the president of the republic. In

8820-474: The best results for everyone ( spontaneous order ), provided that at least minimum standards of public information and justice exist, so that no one is allowed to coerce, steal, or commit fraud, and there should be freedom of speech and press. This ideology was well reflected in English law; Lord Ackner , denying the existence of a duty of good faith in English contract law, emphasised the "adversarial position of

8946-400: The bill as an issue of a vote of confidence), and unless a motion of no confidence is introduced (within 24 hours after the proposal) and passed (within 48 hours of introduction – thus full procedures last at most 72 hours), the bill is considered adopted without a vote. Members of Parliament enjoy parliamentary immunity . Both assemblies have committees that write reports on

9072-401: The cabinet. On 28 September, a new constitution was approved by referendum and the Fifth Republic was born. The parliamentary system was not questioned, but the presidential function was enhanced. In order that he should not be faced with an hostile National Assembly, dominated by the parties (as was the case in 1945–1946), de Gaulle let his followers organize a political party, the Union for

9198-635: The change of Algerian policy divided the party. The chairman of the National Assembly Jacques Chaban-Delmas considered Algeria was a part of the presidential "reserved domain", as well as foreign and military affairs. Soustelle, leader of the pro- French Algeria faction in the party, left the cabinet in 1960, then was ejected from the UNR. He joined Georges Bidault at the head of the Organisation armée secrète which perpetrated terrorist attacks. After this crisis,

9324-567: The constitution and statute law. The individual ministers issue ministerial orders ( arrêtés ) in their fields of competence, subordinate to statutes and decrees. Contrary to a sometimes used polemical cliché , that dates from the French Third Republic of 1870–1940, with its decrees-law ( décrets-lois ), neither the president nor the prime minister may rule by decree (outside of the narrow case of presidential emergency powers). The executive cannot issue decrees in areas that

9450-587: The core values of Gaullism embodied by the actions and policies of Charles de Gaulle , generally in distinction with other Gaullist currents such as "social Gaullism" and "neo-Gaullism". Resistant Gaullism ( Gaullisme de Résistance ) emphasizes the need for French political and military independence from potentially hostile powers, inspired by de Gaulle's role in the fight against Nazi Germany and Vichy France during World War II. The term "first-generation Chiraquian Gaullism" ( Gaullisme chiraquien de première génération ) has been used to describe politicians loyal to

9576-515: The creation of political and social unity by a strong state." In order to strengthen France, Gaullists also emphasize the need for "a strong economy and a stable society." Gaullism believes, according to Berstein, that "it is the imperative of the state, as guardian of the national interest, to give impetus to economic growth and to guide it. Liberal opinion is accepted if it promises more efficiency than planning. As for social justice, so long as its natural distrust of big business can be allayed, it

9702-483: The death of de Gaulle in 1970 and drew more influence from economic liberalism . Many aspects of neo-Gaullism, such as support for the Maastricht Treaty (1992) and French rapprochement with NATO under Chirac's presidency, have been described as difficult to reconcile with the historical idea of Gaullism. However, key components of Gaullism have remained, including the concept of a strong, independent state,

9828-399: The disposal of the government. However, various agencies are independent agencies ( autorités administratives indépendantes ) that have been statutorily excluded from the executive's authority, although they belong in the executive branch. These independent agencies have some specialized regulatory power, some executive power, and some quasi-judicial power. They are also often consulted by

9954-626: The division of responsibilities and administrations between them varies from government to government. While the name and exact responsibility of each ministry may change, one generally finds at least: (For more on French ministries, see French government ministers .) The government has a leading role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament, as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings. It may make use of some procedures to speed up parliamentary deliberations. The government holds weekly meetings (usually on Wednesday mornings): this weekly meeting, known as

10080-524: The division re-appeared with the 1992 Maastricht referendum . Chirac voted "yes" whereas Séguin and Pasqua campaigned for "no". Politics of France The politics of France take place within the framework of a semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the French Fifth Republic . The nation declares itself to be an "indivisible, secular , democratic , and social Republic ". The constitution provides for

10206-490: The duty to supply the public with unbiased information. For instance, the Agence France-Presse (AFP) is an independent public corporation. Its resources must come solely from its commercial sales. The majority of the seats in its board are held by representatives of the French press . The government also provides for watchdogs over its own activities; these independent administrative authorities are headed by

10332-431: The focus of political controversy." For instance, the strong presidency was maintained by all of de Gaulle's successors, including the socialist François Mitterrand (1981–1995). French independent nuclear capability and a foreign policy influenced by Gaullism–although expressed "in more flexible terms"–remains "the guiding force of French international relations." During the 2017 presidential election , de Gaulle's legacy

10458-417: The former, permanent personnel are civil servants, while normally in the latter, they are contract employees. In addition, the government owns and controls all, or the majority, of shares of some companies, like Electricité de France , SNCF or Areva . Social security organizations, though established by statute and controlled and supervised by the state, are not operated nor directly controlled by

10584-418: The general gives to the practice of Gaullism the allure of a programme that seems profound and fully realised." Gaullism is "a peculiarly French phenomenon, without doubt the quintessential French political phenomenon of the 20th century". Lawrence D. Kritzman argues that Gaullism may be seen as a form of French patriotism in the tradition of Jules Michelet . He writes: "Aligned on the political spectrum with

10710-453: The global order. Gaullists supported decolonization , which freed France from the burden of empire . This was reflected in de Gaulle's resolution of the Algeria crisis (1954–1962), which was strongly influenced by de Gaulle's realpolitik , or "keen sense of political expediency." Realizing that decolonization was inevitable, and that a continued crisis and extended Algerian War would harm

10836-505: The government or the French Parliament seeking advice before regulating by law. They can impose sanctions that are named "administrative sanctions" sanctions administratives . However, their decisions can still be contested in a judicial court or in an administrative court. Some examples of independent agencies: Public media corporations should not be influenced in their news reporting by the executive in power, since they have

10962-475: The highest positions (the national directors of agencies and administrations), must be made solely on merit (typically determined in competitive exams) or on time in office. Certain civil servants have statuses that prohibit executive interference; for instance, judges and prosecutors may be named or moved only according to specific procedures. Public researchers and university professors enjoy academic freedom ; by law, they enjoy complete freedom of speech within

11088-447: The houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed. Government ministers cannot pass legislation without parliamentary approval, though the prime minister may issue autonomous regulations or subordinated regulations ( décrets d'application ) provided they do not infringe on the Parliament domain, as detailed in the constitution. Ministers, however, can propose legislation to Parliament; since

11214-435: The idea of dirigisme (state stewardship of the economy), has also weakened. Although the major French banks, as well as insurance, telecommunications, steel, oil and pharmaceutical companies, were state-owned as recently as the mid-1980s, the French government has since then privatized many state assets. Defunct Defunct The term "traditional Gaullism" ( Gaullisme traditionnel ) has been used by scholars to describe

11340-694: The last several decades, the departmental conseil général (see "Local Government" below) has taken on new responsibilities and plays an important role in administering government services at the local level. The government also maintains public establishments. These have a relative administrative and financial autonomy, to accomplish a defined mission. They are attached to one or more supervising authorities. These are classified into several categories: Note that in administrations and public establishments of an administrative character operate under public law, while establishments of an industrial and commercial character operate mostly under private law. In consequence, in

11466-543: The left-wing Gaullists of the Democratic Union of Labour ( Union démocratique du travail or UDT), and allied with Valéry Giscard d'Estaing 's Independent Republicans , the UNR won the 1962 legislative election and Pompidou was confirmed to lead the cabinet. Naturally, the UNR/UDT supported de Gaulle's candidature at the 1965 presidential election . But he won only after a second ballot, which he considered as

11592-456: The legacy of French president Georges Pompidou (1969–1974). "Second-generation Chiraquian Gaullism" (or "Chiraquian neo-Gaullism"), which emerged in the mid-1980s, has been influenced by neoliberalism and is more open to European integration, in the legacy of French president Jacques Chirac (1995–2007). In France , the term Gaullist Party is usually used to refer to the largest party professing to be Gaullist . Gaullism claims to transcend

11718-408: The majority, against the instructions of de Gaulle. They left the RPF parliamentary group. More and more divided, the RPF suffered a significant decrease in support in the 1953 local elections. On 6 May 1953, de Gaulle asked to the Gaullist deputies to abandon the name "RPF". One month later, 5 Gaullist deputies joined Joseph Laniel 's government. Indeed, they participated to right-wing majorities then,

11844-443: The move towards a capitalist economic system in the late 18th century and the subsequent demise of the mercantilist system. Private property and individual contracts form the basis of economic liberalism. The early theory of economic liberalism was based on the assumption that the economic actions of individuals are largely based on self-interest ( invisible hand ) and that allowing them to act without any restrictions will produce

11970-683: The nation and affirm its grandeur and independence" with de Gaulle seeking to "construct a messianic vision of France's historic destiny, reaffirm its prestige in the world, and transcend the national humiliations of the past." Accordingly, de Gaulle urged French unity over divisive "partisan quarrels" and emphasized French heritage, including both the Ancien Régime and the Revolution . The French political figures most admired by de Gaulle "were those responsible for national consensus— Louis XIV , Napoleon , Georges Clemenceau —who saw as their goal

12096-476: The national government. Instead, they are managed by the "social partners" ( partenaires sociaux ) – unions of employers such as the MEDEF and unions of employees. Their budget is separate from the national budget. A Shadow Cabinet is sometimes formed by the opposition parties in the National Assembly , though this is uncommon. The Parliament of France, making up the legislative branch , consists of two houses:

12222-518: The ordinary constraints of academia. The government also provides specialized agencies for regulating critical markets or limited resources, and markets set up by regulations. Although, as part of the administration , they are subordinate to the ministers, they often act with a high degree of independence. Each ministry has a central administration ( administration centrale ), generally divided into directorates. These directorates are usually subdivided into divisions or sub-directorates. Each directorate

12348-424: The other European powers to remain closely allied to the United States." De Gaulle's political legacy has been profound in France and has gradually influenced the entirety of the political spectrum . His successor as president, Georges Pompidou , consolidated Gaullism during his term from 1969 to 1974. Once-controversial Gaullist ideas have become accepted as part of the French political consensus and "are no longer

12474-505: The parties when involved in negotiations". Initially, the economic liberals had to contend with arguments from the supporters of feudal privileges for the wealthy, traditions of the aristocracy and the rights of monarchs to run national economies in their own personal interests. By the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, this opposition was largely defeated in the primary capital markets of Western countries. The Ottoman Empire had liberal free trade policies by

12600-551: The party during the 1967 legislative campaign . He encouraged the emergence of a new generation of Gaullist politicians who were loyal to him. The incumbent parliamentary majority only won a narrow victory. One year later, Gaullist power was confronted with the social and student protests of the May 1968 crisis. Although the newly renamed Union for the Defense of the Republic ( Union pour la défense de la République or UDR) triumphed at

12726-595: The party during the previous presidential campaign. Some months later, a conflict broke out between the executive leadership and Chirac left the cabinet in August 1976. In December 1976, the UDR was replaced by the Rally for the Republic ( Rassemblement pour la République or RPR). This name was chosen due to its similarity with the RPF. Indeed, the New Gaullist Party was devised as a machine of reconquest behind one man, Jacques Chirac . Without withdrawing from

12852-423: The president's dominance can be severely limited, as they must choose a prime minister and government who reflect the majority in parliament, and who may implement the agenda of the parliamentary majority. When parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as cohabitation . Before 2002, cohabitation occurred more commonly, because

12978-531: The presidential majority, the RPR criticized the executive duo of President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and Prime Minister Raymond Barre . In December 1978, six months before the 1979 European Parliament election , the Call of Cochin denounced the "abasement of France" by "the foreign party", which sacrificed the national interests and the independence of the country in order to build a federal Europe. This accusation targeted clearly Giscard d'Estaing. The RPR contrasted

13104-439: The prime minister and their government are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as cohabitation . While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are usually purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout

13230-403: The prime minister's proposal. When the president's political party or supporters control parliament , the president is the dominant player in executive action, choosing whomever he wishes for the government, and having it follow his political agenda (parliamentary disagreements do occur, though, even within the same party). However, when the president's political opponents control parliament,

13356-420: The prime minister, nevertheless, if the prime minister is from the same political side, they can, in practice, have them resign on demand (De Gaulle is said to have initiated this practice "by requiring undated letters of resignation from his nominees to the premiership," though more recent presidents have not necessarily used this method ). The president appoints the ministers, ministers-delegate and secretaries on

13482-676: The principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , as well as those of the preamble to the constitution of the Fourth Republic . This has been judged to imply that the principles laid forth in those texts have constitutional value, and that legislation infringing on those principles should be found unconstitutional if a recourse is filed before the Constitutional Council . Also, recent modifications of

13608-528: The programme of the National Council of Resistance : nationalization of banks and some industrial companies (for example Renault ), and the development of a welfare state . However, it was divided about the way forward for political institutions and the constitution for the Fourth Republic . For de Gaulle, the "regime of the parties" that had characterized the Third Republic was a cause of

13734-466: The republic, the president of the National Assembly , and the president of the Senate . Former presidents of the Republic can also be members of the Council if they wish (Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and Jacques Chirac are the only former presidents to have participated in the Council's work). The independent judiciary is based upon civil law system which evolved from the Napoleonic Codes . It

13860-416: The right, Gaullism was committed nevertheless to the republican values of the Revolution , and so distanced itself from the particularist ambitions of the traditional right and its xenophobic causes." Furthermore, "Gaullism saw as its mission the affirmation of national sovereignty and unity, which was diametrically opposed to the divisiveness created by the leftist commitment to class struggle ." Gaullism

13986-442: The role of the elected assembly. During his time in office, de Gaulle sought to establish authority by holding direct universal votes and popular referendums and by directly engaging with the nation (via speeches broadcast over radio, press conferences, and trips to the provinces). Even though he frequently spoke on his respect for democracy, his political opponents perceived in his rule a tendency toward dictatorial power; many feared

14112-606: The same time on key issues such as defense." Most notably, de Gaulle withdrew France from North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) military operations in 1966, and directed non-French NATO troops to leave France, although France remained a NATO member. Gaullists were also critical of the overseas economic influence of the U.S. and the role of the U.S. dollar in the international monetary system . Under de Gaulle, France established diplomatic relations with China earlier than most other Western nations; imposed an arms embargo against Israel (1967); and denounced American imperialism in

14238-412: The social doctrine of Gaullism to the president's market liberalism . The RPR supported Chirac in the 1981 presidential election but he was eliminated in the first round. He refused to give instructions for voting for the second round, even if he said "in a private capacity", he would vote for Giscard d'Estaing. In fact, the RPR was suspected of working for the defeat of the incumbent president. While

14364-667: The state helplessness. In keeping with its strongly nationalist stance, it accused the French Communist Party of being a vassal of the Soviet Union . Furthermore, it denounced what it called the "abandonment" of colonies by the Third Force cabinets, and it viewed French participation in the European Economic Community to be a threat to the nation. In addition, the Gaullists recommended an association between capital and labour in order to end

14490-407: The term of the president was seven years and the term of the National Assembly was five years. With the term of the president shortened to five years, and with the presidential and parliamentary elections separated by only a few months, this is less likely to happen . Emmanuel Macron became president on 14 May 2017, succeeding François Hollande . In the 2022 presidential election President Macron

14616-609: The unity of the French people and references to de Gaulle's leadership. Neo-Gaullists have also conserved in some aspects the idea that France has a role to play in containing the world's "hyperpowers", as seen in Chirac's refusal to follow the US in the Iraq War in 2003. Pompidolian Gaullism ( Gaullism pompidolien ) highlights the need for France to adapt its economy in an increasingly competing world that may threaten social peace at home, in

14742-463: The upper house). Parliament consists of the National Assembly and the Senate . It passes statutes and votes on the budget; it controls the action of the executive through formal questioning on the floor of the houses of Parliament and by establishing commissions of inquiry. The constitutionality of the statutes is checked by the Constitutional Council , members of which are appointed by the president of

14868-402: The use of ordinances in such contexts as anti-democratic and demeaning to Parliament. Note however that since the National Assembly can dismiss the government through a motion of censure, the government necessarily relies on a majority in Parliament, and this majority would be likely to adopt the controversial law anyway. The general rule is that government agencies and the civil service are at

14994-688: The various laws in force in France). There is also a practice of using ordinances to transpose European Directives into French law, to avoid late transposition of Directives, which happens often and is criticized by the EU Commission . Ordinances are also used to codify law into codes – to rearrange them for the sake of clarity without substantially modifying them. They are also sometimes used to push controversial legislation through, such as when Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin created new forms of work contracts in 2005. The opposition then criticizes

15120-408: The view that France would not be subordinate to other nations. According to Serge Berstein , Gaullism is "neither a doctrine nor a political ideology " and cannot be considered either left or right . Rather, "considering its historical progression, it is a pragmatic exercise of power that is neither free from contradictions nor of concessions to momentary necessity, even if the imperious word of

15246-472: Was an outgrowth of this worldview. However, de Gaulle simultaneously initiated one of the first international nonproliferation efforts by quietly unshackling and distancing the French program from a diplomatically troublesome secret involvement with an Israeli junior partner , attempting to demilitarize and open to international oversight the Israeli nuclear arms program. France under de Gaulle sought to avoid

15372-457: Was claimed by candidates ranging from the radical left to the radical right, including Jean-Luc Mélenchon , Benoît Hamon , Emmanuel Macron , François Fillon and Marine Le Pen . According to Berstein, "It is no exaggeration to say that Gaullism has molded post-war France. At the same time, considering that the essence of Gaullist ideas are now accepted by everyone, those who wish to be the legitimate heirs of de Gaulle (e.g., Jacques Chirac of

15498-468: Was focused on promoting the idea of private ownership and trade; however, due to a growing awareness of concerns regarding policy, the rise of economic liberalism paved the way for a new form of liberalism, known as social liberalism . This promoted an accommodation for government intervention in order to help the poor. As subsequent authors picked up and promoted widespread appeal of a subset of Smith's economic theories to support their own work—of free trade,

15624-593: Was nationalistic. In the early post-WWII period, Gaullists advocated for retaining the French Empire. De Gaulle shifted his stance on empire in the mid-1950s, suggesting potential federal arrangements or self-determination and membership in the French Community . Berstein writes that Gaullism has progressed in multiple stages: Since 1969, Gaullism has been used to describe those identified as heirs to de Gaulle's ideas. The Cross of Lorraine , used by

15750-415: Was re-elected after beating his far-right rival, Marine Le Pen , in the runoff. He was the first re-elected incumbent French president since 2002. The prime minister leads the government , which comprises junior and senior ministers. It has at its disposal the civil service , government agencies, and the armed forces . The government is responsible to Parliament, and the National Assembly may pass

15876-430: Was the idea of laissez-faire . To the vast majority of American classical liberals, however, laissez-faire did not mean no government intervention at all. On the contrary, they were more than willing to see government provide tariffs, railroad subsidies, and internal improvements, all of which benefited producers. What they condemned was intervention in behalf of consumers." In its initial formation, economic liberalism

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