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134-668: McMillin was born in Ohio on November 25, 1889, to Chas and Addie McMillin. He lived in Youngstown, Ohio , and had two brothers. He was left-handed . In 1911, McMillin graduated from the United States Naval Academy . He was appointed to the United States Naval Academy in 1907, graduating in 1911. He transferred to the USS ; Delaware as an ensign the year of his graduation. From March 1919 to October of

268-505: A lazaret and prisoner camp for around 6,000 POWs who lived in the burial vaults and used the coffins for firewood. Food was scarce and prisoners resorted to eating horses, cats, dogs or even human flesh. The bad conditions inside the graveyard contributed to a city-wide epidemic after the battle. The extensive period of conflict during the American Revolutionary War and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815), followed by

402-418: A war of aggression , murder , ill treatment, and deportation of individuals, and genocide during World War II. Most were executed or sentenced to life in prison for their crimes. The United States Military Code of Conduct was promulgated in 1955 via Executive Order 10631 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve as a moral code for United States service members who have been taken prisoner. It

536-573: A $ 250 million New Urbanist revitalization of the Smoky Hollow neighborhood developed about 400 new residential units, university student housing, retail space, and a park. In 2005, Federal Street, a major downtown thoroughfare that was closed off to create a pedestrian-oriented plaza, reopened to traffic. The downtown area has seen the razing of structurally unsound buildings and the expansion or restoration of others. New construction has dovetailed with efforts to cultivate business growth. One of

670-623: A camp located on Shikoku . They reported that he supposedly seemed "chipper" and expressed his wish that President Franklin Roosevelt know that Guam had been "valiantly" defended. Eventually the Japanese transferred him to the Zentsūji camp, where he was the oldest prisoner at fifty-four. In June 1949, McMillin retired from the Navy as a rear admiral . He served during four conflicts: World War I,

804-491: A captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations and the freedom of the prison. If he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who hold him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured European settlers, including perspectives of literate women captured by

938-579: A competitive disadvantage to the iron and steel producers in Cleveland, Buffalo , Chicago and Detroit —all on Great Lake shores. Compared to these four cities, Youngstown had a higher cost of transporting raw materials to the mills, according to a Harvard Business Review report published in January 1933. Higher transportation costs are one reason why Youngstown mills began their decline slightly earlier than manufacturing in other cities. The city had

1072-481: A death rate of 25% (2,963), nearly equalled that of Andersonville. During the 19th century , there were increased efforts to improve the treatment and processing of prisoners. As a result of these emerging conventions, a number of international conferences were held, starting with the Brussels Conference of 1874, with nations agreeing that it was necessary to prevent inhumane treatment of prisoners and

1206-778: A grant from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development allowed for the demolition of Westlake Terrace, a sprawling and dilapidated public housing project. Today, the site features a blend of senior housing, rental townhouses and for-sale single-family homes. Low real-estate prices and the efforts of the Youngstown Central Area Improvement Corporation have contributed to the purchase of several long-abandoned downtown buildings (many by outside investors) and their restoration and conversion into specialty shops, restaurants, and eventually condominiums. In addition,

1340-673: A healthy position within the Midwest in terms of transportation connections. An airport built in 1930 hosted Capital and United Airlines flights through the region and to New York prior to the jet age of the latter 1950s. It was on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad mainline to Chicago with the Capital Limited . Likewise, Youngstown was on the Erie Railroad mainline, on its Chicago-Jersey City circuit, with trains such as

1474-644: A large part of human history, prisoners of war would most often be either slaughtered or enslaved . Early Roman gladiators could be prisoners of war, categorised according to their ethnic roots as Samnites , Thracians , and Gauls ( Galli ). Homer's Iliad describes Trojan and Greek soldiers offering rewards of wealth to opposing forces who have defeated them on the battlefield in exchange for mercy, but their offers are not always accepted; see Lycaon for example. Typically, victors made little distinction between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although they were more likely to spare women and children. Sometimes

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1608-458: A large reception camp was established at Dover capable of housing 40,000 men, which could later be used for demobilisation . On 13 December 1918, the armistice was extended and the Allies reported that by 9 December 264,000 prisoners had been repatriated. A very large number of these had been released en masse and sent across Allied lines without any food or shelter. This created difficulties for

1742-544: A large unit surrendered all its men. At Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered during the battle. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, 20,000 Russians became prisoners. Over half the Russian losses were prisoners as a proportion of those captured, wounded or killed. About 3.3 million men became prisoners. The German Empire held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.9 million, and Britain and France held about 720,000, mostly gained in

1876-467: A mix of rain, sleet, and snow with occasional heavy snowfall and icing. January is the coldest month with an average mean temperature of 26.8 °F (−2.9 °C), with temperatures on average dropping to or below 0 °F (−18 °C) on 4.1 days and staying at or below freezing on 43 days per year. Snowfall averages 67.8 inches (172 cm) per season, somewhat less than the snowbelt areas closer to Lake Erie . The snowiest month on record

2010-440: A quality at least equal to that available to locals. The senior officer from each quadrangle was permitted to inspect the food as it was delivered to the prison to ensure it was of sufficient quality. Despite the generous supply and quality of food, some prisoners died of starvation after gambling away their rations. Most of the men held in the prison were low-ranking soldiers and sailors, including midshipmen and junior officers, with

2144-530: A quarter of the over 2 million POWs held there died. Nearly 375,000 of the 500,000 Austro-Hungarian prisoners of war taken by Russians perished in Siberia from smallpox and typhus . In Germany, food was short, but only 5 per cent died. The Ottoman Empire often treated prisoners of war poorly . Some 11,800 British soldiers, most from the British Indian Army , became prisoners after

2278-457: A ransom. During his lifetime ( c.  570 – 632), Muhammad made it the responsibility of the Islamic government to provide food and clothing, on a reasonable basis, to captives, regardless of their religion; however, if the prisoners were in the custody of a person, then the responsibility was on the individual. On certain occasions where Muhammad felt the enemy had broken a treaty with

2412-425: A report on the circumstances of their capture and to ensure that they had done all they could to avoid capture. Each returning officer and man was given a message from King George V , written in his own hand and reproduced on a lithograph. The Queen joins me in welcoming you on your release from the miseries & hardships, which you have endured with so much patience and courage. During these many months of trial,

2546-578: A small number of privateers . About 100 senior officers and some civilians "of good social standing", mainly passengers on captured ships and the wives of some officers, were given parole outside the prison, mainly in Peterborough although some further afield. They were afforded the courtesy of their rank within English society. During the Battle of Leipzig both sides used the city's cemetery as

2680-525: A uniform plain, with valleys such as that caused by the Mahoning River traversing the plain. Lakes created by glaciers that dammed small streams were eventually drained, leaving behind fertile terrain. Central Youngstown consists of the original city layout designed by John Young , including Downtown Youngstown . Downtown Youngstown is the site of most of the city's government buildings and banks. A number of entertainment venues are also located in

2814-751: A wave of industrial consolidations that placed much of the Mahoning Valley's industry in the hands of national corporations. In the late 1930s, the community's steel sector again gained national attention when Youngstown became a site of the so-called "Little Steel Strike", an effort by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee , a precursor to United Steelworkers , to secure contract agreements with smaller steel companies. On June 21, 1937, strike-related violence in Youngstown resulted in two deaths and 42 injuries. Despite

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2948-576: Is Youngstown State University (YSU), an urban public campus that serves about 15,000 students, just north of downtown. Youngstown is the site of several steel and metalworking operations, though not to the extent of the past. The largest industrial employers within the city limits are Vallourec Star Steel Company, in the Brier Hill district, and Trivium Packaging. Steelite , a British ceramics manufacturer, has its U.S. headquarters based in Youngstown. Youngstown's downtown, which once underscored

3082-601: Is considered Central Youngstown. The area is the smallest division of Youngstown, as well as its least populous, but also its least residential by zoning. It is surrounded by the I-680 and Madison Avenue Expressway highway system. The North Side consists of the Brier Hill , Crandall Park, North Heights , and Wick Park neighborhoods and the northern section of the Riverbend Industrial Park. Brier Hill

3216-576: Is consistent with efforts in other metropolitan areas to address the phenomenon of urban depopulation. Youngstown 2010 received an award for public outreach from the American Planning Association in 2007. On May 28, 2024, an explosion destroyed most of the first floor of the Realty Building in downtown Youngstown and severely damaged the floors above it, killing one bank employee and injuring seven. The explosion

3350-652: Is guided by Additional Protocol II , but insurgents are often treated as traitors , terrorists or criminals by government forces and are sometimes executed on spot or tortured. However, in the American Civil War , both sides treated captured troops as POWs presumably out of reciprocity , although the Union regarded Confederate personnel as separatist rebels. However, guerrillas and other irregular combatants generally cannot expect to receive benefits from both civilian and military status simultaneously. Under

3484-417: Is modern day Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , and Syria . By the 1920s, this dramatic demographic shift produced a nativist backlash, and the Mahoning Valley became a center of Ku Klux Klan activity. The situation reached a climax in 1924, when street clashes between Klan members and Italian and Irish Americans in neighboring Niles led Ohio Governor A. Victor Donahey to declare martial law. By 1928

3618-408: Is widely regarded as the death knell of the old area steel industry in Youngstown. In the wake of the steel plant shutdowns, the community lost an estimated 40,000 manufacturing jobs, 400 satellite businesses, $ 414 million in personal income, and from 33 to 75 percent of the school tax revenues. The Youngstown area has yet to fully recover from the loss of jobs in the steel sector. The blow dealt to

3752-746: The Atlantic Express/Pacific Express and the Lake Cities . The city was on the New York Central's Pittsburgh-Buffalo circuit and the Pennsylvania Railroad's Pittsburgh-Cleveland circuit. The city's population became more diverse after the end of World War II , when a seemingly robust steel industry attracted thousands of workers. In the 1950s, the Latino population grew significantly; and by

3886-485: The Anglo-American War of 1812 , led to the emergence of a cartel system for the exchange of prisoners , even while the belligerents were at war. A cartel was usually arranged by the respective armed service for the exchange of like-ranked personnel. The aim was to achieve a reduction in the number of prisoners held, while at the same time alleviating shortages of skilled personnel in the home country. At

4020-671: The Commandant of Midshipmen at the Naval Academy while a commander . In 1933, he was attached to the United States Asiatic Fleet . He attended the Naval War College in 1936 and served on staff there for two years following his graduation. From May 1938 to April 1939, he was executive officer aboard the USS  Idaho , and then took command of the USS  Medusa . McMillin served as

4154-862: The Czechoslovak Legion of Czechoslovak prisoners (from the Austro-Hungarian army) who were released and armed to fight on the side of the Entente, who briefly served as a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War . At the end of the war in 1918 there were believed to be 140,000 British prisoners of war in Germany, including thousands of internees held in neutral Switzerland. The first British prisoners were released and reached Calais on 15 November. Plans were made for them to be sent via Dunkirk to Dover and

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4288-588: The Dix–Hill Cartel was suspended, Confederate officials approached Union General Benjamin Butler, Union Commissioner of Exchange, about resuming the cartel and including the black prisoners. Butler contacted Grant for guidance on the issue, and Grant responded to Butler on 18 August 1864 with his now famous statement. He rejected the offer, stating in essence, that the Union could afford to leave their men in captivity,

4422-699: The General Motors Lordstown Assembly , which was the area's largest industrial employer in the decades following the decline of the steel industry. Once one of the nation's largest auto plants in terms of square feet, the Lordstown facility was home to production of the Chevrolet Impala, Vega, and Cavalier . The Lordstown Assembly was shuttered in March 2019 and is currently owned by Foxconn . The city's largest employer

4556-467: The Roman Empire , who were held in his town under appalling conditions and destined for a life of slavery, took the initiative in ransoming them by selling his church's precious gold and silver vessels and letting them return to their country. For this he was eventually canonised . According to legend, during Childeric 's siege and blockade of Paris in 464 the nun Geneviève (later canonised as

4690-814: The Rust Belt . Youngstown has seen declines in population of nearly 65 percent within its city limits and about 15 percent in the metro area since 1960. Downtown Youngstown has seen various revitalization efforts in the 21st century, including the Covelli Centre and Youngstown Foundation Amphitheatre . Other notable institutions in the city include the Butler Institute of American Art , Mill Creek Park , Stambaugh Auditorium , and Youngstown State University . Youngstown's first new downtown hotel since 1974—the DoubleTree by Hilton —opened in 2018 in

4824-494: The Third Geneva Convention , a combatant must be part of a chain of command , wear a "fixed distinctive marking, visible from a distance", bear arms openly, and have conducted military operations according to the laws and customs of war . (The Convention recognises a few other groups as well, such as "[i]nhabitants of a non-occupied territory, who on the approach of the enemy spontaneously take up arms to resist

4958-651: The Third Geneva Convention , prisoners of war (POW) must be: In addition, if wounded or sick on the battlefield, the prisoner will receive help from the International Committee of the Red Cross. When a country is responsible for breaches of prisoner of war rights, those accountable will be punished accordingly. An example of this is the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials . German and Japanese military commanders were prosecuted for preparing and initiating

5092-738: The Youngstown Phantoms , who play in the United States Hockey League . Previously, it was home to the Youngstown Steelhounds hockey team, who played in the CHL . The venue also hosts "on ice" musical shows and concerts. Historically, one of the area's most popular attractions was Idora Park in the Idora neighborhood of Youngstown's south side. An urban amusement park , it operated from 1899 until it

5226-692: The Youngstown State University campus. Established by industrialist Joseph G. Butler Jr. , in 1919, it was the first museum in the country dedicated to American art. Across the street from the Butler Institute stands the McDonough Museum of Art , YSU's University Art Museum and the Mahoning Valley's center for contemporary art. The McDonough, established in 1991, features changing exhibitions by regional, national and international artists and provides public access to

5360-593: The Youngstown–Warren metropolitan area , which had 430,591 residents in 2020 and is the seventh-largest metro area in Ohio. Youngstown is situated on the Mahoning River in Northeast Ohio , 58 miles (93 km) southeast of Cleveland and 61 miles (100 km) northwest of Pittsburgh . Youngstown is a midwestern city located at the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains . The city

5494-403: The indigenous peoples of North America , exist in some number. The writings of Mary Rowlandson , captured in the chaotic fighting of King Philip's War , are an example. Such narratives enjoyed some popularity, spawning a genre of the captivity narrative , and had lasting influence on the body of early American literature, most notably through the legacy of James Fenimore Cooper 's The Last of

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5628-497: The naval governor of Guam from April 20, 1940, to December 10, 1941. On November 3, 1940, the worst typhoon since 1918 hit Guam. The storm destroyed a majority of the island's crops, caused extensive damage to many military structures, and destroyed thousands of residential homes. McMillin requested $ 50,000 in aid from the American Red Cross . He oversaw a major evacuation of all United States non-military citizens on

5762-756: The occupation of the Dominican Republic , the United States occupation of Veracruz , and World War II. He was postmaster of Long Beach, Calif., for eight years after his retirement. On October 23, 1912, McMillin married Annabel Parlett in Annapolis, Maryland , at the home of the bride's parents. They have one daughter, Ann. McMillin and his family lived in places including Long Beach, California , and Guam . McMillin's daughter attended Mrs. Porter’s School for Girls in Long Beach, California,

5896-432: The 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed ; their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the social status of the captive. Feudal Japan had no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, who could expect for the most part summary execution. In the 13th century the expanding Mongol Empire famously distinguished between cities or towns that surrendered (where

6030-704: The 13th-century Albigensian Crusade in Languedoc and the Northern Crusades in the Baltic region . When asked by a Crusader how to distinguish between the Catholics and Cathars following the projected capture (1209) of the city of Béziers , the papal legate Arnaud Amalric allegedly replied, " Kill them all, God will know His own ". Likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during Christians' Crusades against Muslims in

6164-598: The 1920s, Youngstown was the birthplace of the Good Humor brand of ice cream novelties, and the popular franchise of Handel's Homemade Ice Cream & Yogurt was established there in the 1940s. In the 1950s, Youngstown-born developer Edward J. DeBartolo Sr. established one of the country's first modern shopping plazas in the suburban Boardman. The fast-food chain, Arby's , opened the first of its restaurants in Boardman in 1964, and Arthur Treacher's Fish & Chips

6298-703: The 1930s until the 1950s progressing southward, apart from the early Steelton neighborhood and industrial Salt Springs neighborhood. It shares Mill Creek Park with the South Side and lies southwest of the Mahoning River. Youngstown has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb / Dfa ), typical of the Midwestern United States , with four distinct seasons and lies within USDA hardiness zone 6a. Winters are cold and dry but typically bring

6432-485: The 1940s, when the mechanization of southern agriculture brought an end to the sharecropping system, leading onetime farm laborers to seek industrial jobs. Youngstown's local iron ore deposits were exhausted by the early 20th century. Since the city is landlocked (the Mahoning River is not navigable), ore from Michigan and Minnesota had to arrive by rail from Cleveland and other Great Lakes port cities where large bulk carriers were unloaded. This put Youngstown at

6566-693: The 1949 Geneva Conventions , POWs acquires the status of protected persons , meaning it is a war crime by the detaining power to deprive the rights afforded to them by the Third Convention's provisions. Article 17 of the Third Geneva Convention states that POWs can only be required to give their name , date of birth , rank and service number (if applicable). The ICRC has a special role to play, with regards to international humanitarian law , in restoring and maintaining family contact in times of war , in particular concerning

6700-517: The 1970s, St. Rose of Lima Roman Catholic Church and the First Spanish Baptist Church of Ohio were among the largest religious institutions for Spanish-speaking residents in the Youngstown metropolitan area. In 1951, city planners projected that Youngstown would grow to 200,000 to 250,000 in population due to continuously strong demand for domestic steel in western Europe , Japan , and South Korea , and so 12,000 acres on

6834-555: The 2000s, additions included the Nathaniel R. Jones Federal Building and U.S. Courthouse in 2002, designed by Robert A. M. Stern Architects , the Mahoning County Children's Services Center and George Voinovich Government Center in 2004, and both the Covelli Centre and Ohio Seventh District Court of Appeals in 2006. In 2004, construction began on a 60-home upscale development called Arlington Heights, and

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6968-417: The American School in Guam, and the Long Beach Junior College for one semester. In 1942, she won a partial scholarship to Ogontz Junior College in Pennsylvania. Youngstown, Ohio Youngstown is a city in and the county seat of Mahoning County, Ohio , United States. At the 2020 census , it had a population of 60,068, making it the eleventh-most populous city in Ohio. It is a principal city of

7102-452: The Confederacy could not. After that about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the American Civil War , accounting for nearly 10% of the conflict's fatalities. Of the 45,000 Union prisoners of war confined in Camp Sumter , located near Andersonville, Georgia , 13,000 (28%) died. At Camp Douglas in Chicago, Illinois, 10% of its Confederate prisoners died during one cold winter month; and Elmira Prison in New York state, with

7236-445: The East Side closest to Downtown Youngstown were among the earliest developed in the city. However, much of the East Side is undeveloped fields and forests, as the land was annexed in the 1950s as part of a zoning effort for future development that never occurred. Altogether the most recently developed side of Youngstown, the neighborhoods of Belle Vista, Cornersburg, Garden District, Kirkmere, Rocky Ridge, and Schenley were built from

7370-480: The Japanese and was held until August 20, 1945, when Red Army forces freed him. After his capture on Guam, McMillin spent the rest of World War II as a prisoner of war at various Japanese POW camps . He was initially brought to a prison camp on Taiwan . On a few occasions there he was allowed to write to his wife, Annabel, who later sponsored and christened the cruiser USS  Guam in 1944. Soon after his internment began, Dōmei Tsushin interviewed McMillin in

7504-563: The Jordan Valley. Australian Flying Corps pilots and observers were captured in the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine and the Levant. One third of all Australian prisoners were captured on Gallipoli including the crew of the submarine AE2 which made a passage through the Dardanelles in 1915. Forced marches and crowded railway journeys preceded years in camps where disease, poor diet and inadequate medical facilities prevailed. About 25 per cent of other ranks died, many from malnutrition, while only one officer died. The most curious case came in Russia where

7638-448: The Klan was in steep decline; and three years later, the organization sold its Canfield, Ohio, meeting area, Kountry Klub Field. Despite the prevalence of Irish Americans in Youngstown, their presence wasn't always evident. When radio personality Pete Gabriel (who was Greek) came to Youngstown, he found out that there was no St. Patrick's Day parade there at the time, so he started one. The growth of industry attracted people from within

7772-446: The Mohicans . Some Native Americans continued to capture Europeans and use them both as labourers and bargaining chips into the 19th century; see for example John R. Jewitt , a sailor who wrote a memoir about his years as a captive of the Nootka people on the Pacific Northwest coast from 1802 to 1805. The earliest known purpose-built prisoner-of-war camp was established at Norman Cross in Huntingdonshire, England in 1797 to house

7906-427: The Muslims he endorsed the mass execution of male prisoners who participated in battles, as in the case of the Banu Qurayza in 627. The Muslims divided up the females and children of those executed as ghanima (spoils of war). In Europe, the treatment of prisoners of war became increasingly centralised, in the time period between the 16th and late 18th century. Whereas prisoners of war had previously been regarded as

8040-401: The Oakland Center for the Arts was re-established with a new focus on youth and kids theatre. Well known theatrical personalities from the Youngstown area include comedic actor Joe Flynn , screen actress Elizabeth Hartman , singer and Broadway performer Maureen McGovern , and television and screen actor Ed O'Neill . The Butler Institute of American Art is on the northeastern edge of

8174-430: The Pentagon which has a "POW/Missing Personnel Office" and awards the Prisoner of War Medal . During World War I, about eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps until the war ended. All nations pledged to follow the Hague rules on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and in general the POWs had a much higher survival rate than their peers who were not captured. Individual surrenders were uncommon; usually

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8308-412: The September 19, 1977, closure of the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Campbell Works after financial downturn due to changes in the steel manufacturing process and international competition. In response to subsequent challenges, the city has taken well-publicized steps to diversify economically, while building on some traditional strengths. Downtown Youngstown has seen modest levels of new construction. In

8442-554: The Soviet Union's refusal to sign the Geneva Convention as a reason for not providing the necessities of life to Soviet POWs; and the Soviets also used Axis prisoners as forced labour. The Germans also routinely executed Allied commandos captured behind German lines per the Commando Order . To be entitled to prisoner-of-war status, captured persons must be lawful combatants entitled to combatant's privilege—which gives them immunity from punishment for crimes constituting lawful acts of war such as killing enemy combatants . To qualify under

8576-399: The United States and from Latin America . By the late 19th century, African Americans were well represented in Youngstown, and the first local congregation of the African Methodist Episcopal Church was established in 1871. In the 1880s, local attorney William R. Stewart was the second African American elected to the Ohio House of Representatives . A large influx of African Americans in

8710-482: The Western Reserve's population grew, the need for administrative districts became apparent. In 1800, territorial governor Arthur St. Clair established Trumbull County (named in honor of Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull ), and designated the smaller settlement of Warren as its administrative center, or county seat . In 1813, Trumbull County was divided into townships, with Youngstown Township comprising much of what became Mahoning County. The village of Youngstown

8844-411: The YBI was the top University Associated Incubator in North America, and came in second to the Guinness Enterprise Centre in Dublin . A number of products and enterprises introduced in Youngstown became national household names. Among them is Youngstown-based Schwebel's Bakery , which was established in neighboring Campbell in the 20th century. The company now distributes bread products nationally. In

8978-475: The Youngstown area developed a thriving steel industry, starting with the area's blast furnace in 1803 by James and Daniel Heaton. By the mid-19th century, Youngstown was the site of several iron industrial plants, and because of easy rail connections to adjacent states, the iron industry continued to expand in the 1890s despite the depletion of local natural resources. At the turn of the 20th century, local industrialists began to convert to steel manufacturing, amid

9112-487: The area for more than 80 years, despite intermittent financial problems. Believed by some observers to be the nation's oldest continuously operating community theater, the Youngstown Playhouse was the only community theater in Ohio to ever receive major institutional support from the Ohio Arts Council . The Oakland Center for the Arts , formerly in the downtown area, was a well-known venue for locally produced plays before it closed in 2015 due to poor management. In late 2016.

9246-404: The area were Pittsburgh native James Hillman and wife Catherine Dougherty. By 1798, Youngstown was the home of several families who were concentrated near where Mill Creek meets the Mahoning River . Boardman Township was founded in 1798 by Elijah Boardman , a member of the Connecticut Land Company. Also founded in 1798 was Austintown by John McCollum who was a settler from New Jersey . As

9380-425: The area's more successful business ventures in recent years has been the Youngstown Business Incubator , which fosters the growth of fledgling technology-based companies. In line with these efforts to change the community's image, the city government, in partnership with Youngstown State University, has organized an ambitious urban renewal plan known as Youngstown 2010 . The stated goals of Youngstown 2010 include

9514-457: The baggage and equipment of the army, and because the French were attacking again and Henry was afraid that they would break through and free the prisoners who would rejoin the fight against the English. In the later Middle Ages a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat but also to eliminate enemies. Authorities in Christian Europe often considered the extermination of heretics and heathens desirable. Examples of such wars include

9648-712: The city's East Side were annexed and extended utilities in expectation of future housing projects, in addition to aggressive re-zoning for expanded commercial spaces throughout the city. At 11:30 on Wednesday, September 6, 1967, only 9 of the 50 scheduled patrolmen arrived for work at the Youngstown Police Department. The others were not on strike . That was prevented by Ohio state law. The patrolmen, eventually numbering 300, along with another 300 city-employed firefighters, were instead attending "continuous professional meetings", and would be until their demand for an immediate across-the-board raise of $ 1200

9782-584: The city's north side, has served for decades as a site of concerts and is often rented for private events. The facility also hosts the Stambaugh Youth Concert Band. Bruce Springsteen , who sang about the decline of Youngstown's steel industry and its adverse effects on local workers in his ballad " Youngstown ", played at Stambaugh Auditorium on January 12, 1996, as part of his solo Ghost of Tom Joad Tour . The Youngstown Playhouse , Mahoning County's primary community theater, has served

9916-542: The city's patron saint) pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I ( r.  481–511 ) liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so. King Henry V 's English army killed many French prisoners of war after the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. This was done in retaliation for the French killing of the boys and other non-combatants handling

10050-421: The city's population was under the age of 18, 10.8% was from age 18 to 24, 24.3% was from age 25 to 44, 26.2% was from age 45 to 64, and 15.8% was age 65 or older. The median age was 38 years old. For every 100 females, there were 96.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95 males. Endowed with large deposits of coal and iron as well as "old growth" hardwood forests needed to produce charcoal,

10184-634: The city's sports-related attractions is the Covelli Centre , which was funded primarily through a $ 26 million federal grant secured in 2000 by then-Congressman Jim Traficant . Located on the site of an abandoned steel mill, the large, high-tech facility opened in October 2005. It was formerly called the Chevrolet Center, and during planning it was known as the Youngstown Convocation Center. The centre's main tenants are

10318-440: The community's economic difficulties, is a site of new business growth. The Youngstown Business Incubator (YBI), in the heart of downtown, houses several start-up technology companies that have received office space, furnishings, and access to utilities. Some Incubator-supported companies have earned recognition, and a few are starting to outgrow their current space. Inc. Magazine rated one such company– Turning Technologies –as

10452-553: The community's industrial economy in the 1970s was slightly mitigated by the auto production plants in the metropolitan area. In the late 1980s, the Avanti , an automobile with a fiberglass body originally designed by Studebaker to compete with the Corvette , was manufactured in an industrial complex on Youngstown's Albert Street. This company moved away after just a few years. A mainstay of Youngstown's industrial economy had long been

10586-466: The creation of a "cleaner, greener, and better planned and organized Youngstown". In January 2005, the organization unveiled a master plan prepared by Urban Strategies Inc. of Toronto , which had taken shape during an extensive process of public consultation and meetings that gathered input from citizens. The plan, which included platforms such as the acceptance of a reduced population and an improved image and quality of life, received national attention and

10720-520: The criteria of Additional Protocol I. Therefore, they fall under the category of unlawful combatants , or more properly they are not combatants. Captured soldiers who do not get prisoner of war status are still protected like civilians under the Fourth Geneva Convention . The criteria are applied primarily to international armed conflicts. The application of prisoner of war status in non-international armed conflicts like civil wars

10854-417: The designation "Prisoner of War" for captured American personnel with "Missing-Captured". A January 2008 directive states that the reasoning behind this is since "Prisoner of War" is the international legal recognised status for such people there is no need for any individual country to follow suit. This change remains relatively unknown even among experts in the field and "Prisoner of War" remains widely used in

10988-638: The downtown area. There are further sub-neighborhoods in the South Side as well, such as Indian Village, Handel's , Boulevard Park, Cochran Park, Powerstown, and Gibsonville that have distinct identities within their larger neighborhoods. The South Side shares Mill Creek Park with the West Side. The East Side is the largest of the city's regions by area and consists of the East High, East Side, Hazelton , Landsdowne, Lincoln Knolls, Scienceville and Sharon Line/McGuffey Heights communities. The neighborhoods on

11122-651: The downtown, including the Covelli Centre , Powers Auditorium , the DeYor Performing Arts Center, and Youngstown Foundation Amphitheatre . In addition, the downtown sits to the immediate south of notable cultural and educational resources, including Youngstown State University , the Butler Institute of American Art , and the McDonough Museum of Contemporary Art. The Arlington , Mahoning Commons, Riverbend, Smoky Hollow and University neighborhoods that surround downtown compromise what

11256-553: The early 20th century owed much to developments in the industrial sector. During the national Steel Strike of 1919 , local industrialists recruited thousands of workers from the Southern United States , many of whom were Black. This move inflamed racist sentiment among local Whites, and for decades, African-American steelworkers experienced discrimination in the workplace. Migration from the South rose dramatically in

11390-457: The early rescue of our gallant Officers & Men from the cruelties of their captivity has been uppermost in our thoughts. We are thankful that this longed for day has arrived, & that back in the old Country you will be able once more to enjoy the happiness of a home & to see good days among those who anxiously look for your return. While the Allied prisoners were sent home at the end of

11524-470: The enemy (beyond identifying themselves, that is, "name, rank, serial number"), receiving special favours or parole, or otherwise providing their enemy captors aid and comfort. Since the Vietnam War , the official U.S. military term for enemy POWs is EPW (Enemy Prisoner of War). This name change was introduced in order to distinguish between enemy and U.S. captives. In 2000, the U.S. military replaced

11658-469: The evacuation of various civilian populations, the jailing of all Japanese nationals on the island, and churches, banks, and schools closed. A few hours later, the Japanese attacked Guam. At 8:27 p.m. on December 8, the battle began. Japanese planes first began bombing the Marine barracks and then other key targets. The USS  Penguin also sank in the initial attack. The USS  Robert L. Barnes

11792-481: The exchange of prisoners would be carried out between warring states. Another such treaty was the 1648 Peace of Westphalia , which ended the Thirty Years' War . This treaty established the rule that prisoners of war should be released without ransom at the end of hostilities and that they should be allowed to return to their homelands. There also evolved the right of parole , French for "discourse", in which

11926-421: The face of the Mahoning Valley. The community's burgeoning coal industry drew hundreds of immigrants from Wales , Germany , and Ireland . With the establishment of steel mills in the late 19th century, Youngstown became a popular destination for immigrants from Eastern Europe , Italy , and Greece . In the early 20th century, the community saw an influx of immigrants from non-European countries including what

12060-636: The fastest-growing privately held software company in the United States and 18th fastest-growing privately held company overall. To keep such companies downtown, the YBI secured approval to demolish a row of nearby vacant buildings to clear space for expansion. In 2014, the YBI was ranked as the top university-associated business incubator in the world by the Swedish University Business Incubator Index. In 2015,

12194-662: The first founded on the South Side during the 19th century and were completely annexed by 1910 as Youngstown industrialized. Later neighborhoods, such as Fosterville , Newport, Lansingville , Buckeye Plat, and Cottage Grove came into being as industry and population expanded throughout the first half of the 20th century, being annexed in 1929 from the remainder of Youngstown Township. The Pleasant Grove and Brownlee Woods neighborhoods further south were also annexed in 1929 from Boardman Township . These neighborhoods were generally well connected to each together and were defined by economic class as they became increasingly suburban further from

12328-641: The five-month Siege of Kut , in Mesopotamia , in April 1916. Many were weak and starved when they surrendered and 4,250 died in captivity. During the Sinai and Palestine campaign 217 Australian and unknown numbers of British, New Zealand and Indian soldiers were captured by Ottoman forces. About 50 per cent of the Australian prisoners were light horsemen including 48 missing believed captured on 1 May 1918 in

12462-525: The historic Stambaugh Building, adapted for this use. Youngstown was named for New York native John Young , who surveyed the area in 1796 and settled there soon afterward. On February 9, 1797, Young purchased the township of 15,560 acres (6,300 ha) from the Western Reserve Land Company for $ 16,085. The 1797 establishment of Youngstown was officially recorded on August 19, 1802. The area that includes present-day Youngstown

12596-586: The historical range is 54.01 in (1,372 mm) in 2011 to 23.79 in (604 mm) in 1963. Between 1960 and 2010, the city's population declined by over 60%. The Mahoning Valley metropolitan area had 541,243 residents as of the 2020 census. According to the 2020 Census , Youngstown had 28,303 households. The population density was 1770.5/sq mi. The city's racial makeup was 47.8% White , 41.1% African American , 0.3% Native American , 0.7% Asian , 0.0% Pacific Islander , and 7.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.9% of

12730-413: The households had children under the age of 18. Of these, 25.6% were married couples living together, 24.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.6% were non-families. Meanwhile, 37.8% of all households comprised a single person, and 14.5% of households comprised a person over 65 years of age living alone. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 3.02. 22.8% of

12864-619: The increasing number of prisoners from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . The average prison population was about 5,500 men. The lowest number recorded was 3,300 in October 1804 and 6,272 on 10 April 1810 was the highest number of prisoners recorded in any official document. Norman Cross Prison was intended to be a model depot providing the most humane treatment of prisoners of war. The British government went to great lengths to provide food of

12998-454: The invading forces, without having had time to form themselves into regular armed units".) Thus, uniforms and badges are important in determining prisoner-of-war status under the Third Geneva Convention. Under Additional Protocol I , the requirement of a distinctive marking is no longer included. Francs-tireurs , militias , insurgents , terrorists , saboteurs , mercenaries , and spies generally do not qualify because they do not fulfill

13132-573: The island during his term as the political situation with Japan grew more tense. In the summer of 1941, the evacuation began and was completed on October 17, 1941, with only one, the pregnant wife of the chief commissary steward, remaining. The Department of the Navy informed McMillin of the December 7 attack on Pearl Harbor on December 8. Upon receiving this news and the beginning of United States involvement in World War II , McMillin ordered

13266-482: The most recent year to not reach that mark is 2014. July is the warmest month with an average mean temperature of 71.5 °F (22 °C). The all-time record high temperature in Youngstown of 103 °F (39 °C) was established on July 10, 1936, which occurred during the Dust Bowl , and the all-time record low temperature of −22 °F (−30 °C) was set on January 19, 1994. The first and last freezes of

13400-600: The period just before the Armistice in 1918. The US held 48,000. The most dangerous moment for POWs was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes killed or mistakenly shot down. Once prisoners reached a POW camp conditions were better (and often much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. There

13534-607: The phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of war in custody for a range of legitimate and illegitimate reasons, such as isolating them from the enemy combatants still in the field (releasing and repatriating them in an orderly manner after hostilities), demonstrating military victory, punishing them, prosecuting them for war crimes , exploiting them for their labour , recruiting or even conscripting them as their own combatants, collecting military and political intelligence from them, or indoctrinating them in new political or religious beliefs. For

13668-541: The population was spared but required to support the conquering Mongol army) and those that resisted (in which case the city was ransacked and destroyed , and all the population killed). In Termez , on the Oxus : "all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain". The Aztecs warred constantly with neighbouring tribes and groups, aiming to collect live prisoners for sacrifice . For

13802-401: The population. The median household income was $ 30,129. According to the 2010 Census , Youngstown had 26,839 households and 15,150 families. The population density was 755.2/km (1958.5/sq mi). There were 33,123 housing units at an average density of 968.5 per square mile (373.9/km ). Youngstown's vacant-housing rate in 2010 was twenty times the national average. The city's racial makeup

13936-411: The private property of the captor, captured enemy soldiers became increasingly regarded as the property of the state. The European states strove to exert increasing control over all stages of captivity, from the question of who would be attributed the status of prisoner of war to their eventual release. The act of surrender was regulated so that it, ideally, should be legitimised by officers, who negotiated

14070-507: The purpose of a battle, if not of a war, was to capture women, a practice known as raptio ; the Rape of the Sabines involved, according to tradition, a large mass-abduction by the founders of Rome. Typically women had no rights , and were held legally as chattels . In the fourth century AD, Bishop Acacius of Amida , touched by the plight of Persian prisoners captured in a recent war with

14204-457: The re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests of 622–750, Muslims routinely captured large numbers of prisoners. Aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved . Christians captured during the Crusades were usually either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay

14338-475: The receiving Allies and many ex-prisoners died from exhaustion. The released POWs were met by cavalry troops and sent back through the lines in lorries to reception centres where they were refitted with boots and clothing and dispatched to the ports in trains. Upon arrival at the receiving camp the POWs were registered and "boarded" before being dispatched to their own homes. All commissioned officers had to write

14472-457: The right of prisoners of war and internees to send and receive letters and cards (Geneva Convention (GC) III, art. 71 and GC IV, art. 107). However, nations vary in their dedication to following these laws, and historically the treatment of POWs has varied greatly. During World War II, Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany (towards Soviet POWs and Western Allied commandos) were notorious for atrocities against prisoners of war. The German military used

14606-439: The same time, Youngstown never became economically diversified, as did larger industrial cities such as Chicago, Pittsburgh, Akron, or Cleveland. Hence, when economic changes forced the closure of plants throughout the 1970s, the city was left with few substantial economic alternatives. The September 19, 1977, announcement of the closure of a large portion of Youngstown Sheet and Tube , an event still referred to as "Black Monday",

14740-731: The same year, he served aboard the USS  New Mexico as an assistant engineer officer. Following this assignment, he headed the Electrical School at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard . From August 1924 to September 1926 he served within the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations . Afterward, he became first lieutenant of the USS  Saratoga for three years. In the May 1930 to May 1933, he served as assistant to

14874-623: The season on average fall on October 14 and May 6, respectively, allowing a growing season of 160 days; however, freezing temperatures have been observed in every month except July. The normal annual mean temperature is 49.9 °F (9.9 °C). Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30-year average from 1991 to 2020 is 41.19 inches (1,046 mm), falling on an average of 168 days per year. Monthly precipitation has ranged from 10.66 in (271 mm) in June 1986 to 0.16 in (4.1 mm) in October 1924, while for annual precipitation

15008-428: The sounding of a car horn three times, which both sides recognized as a sign to cease fire. McMillin surrendered the island at 6 a.m. on December 10 when Japanese troops captured him in the reception room of his living quarters, though some small fighting continued until 7:00 a.m. Twenty-one American military personnel and civilians died during the attack. He was one of the first American prisoners of war held by

15142-529: The start of the American Civil War a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. In the late summer of 1864, a year after

15276-423: The surrender of their whole unit. Soldiers whose style of fighting did not conform to the battle line tactics of regular European armies, such as Cossacks and Croats , were often denied the status of prisoners of war. In line with this development the treatment of prisoners of war became increasingly regulated in international treaties, particularly in the form of the so-called cartel system, which regulated how

15410-496: The treatment of prisoners of war in detail. These provisions were further expanded in the 1929 Geneva Convention on the Prisoners of War and were largely revised in the Third Geneva Convention in 1949. Article 4 of the Third Geneva Convention protects captured military personnel , some guerrilla fighters, and certain civilians . It applies from the moment a prisoner is captured until his or her release or repatriation. Under

15544-475: The use of weapons causing unnecessary harm. Although no agreements were immediately ratified by the participating nations, work was continued that resulted in new conventions being adopted and becoming recognised as international law that specified that prisoners of war be treated humanely and diplomatically. Chapter II of the Annex to the 1907 Hague Convention IV – The Laws and Customs of War on Land covered

15678-429: The violence, historian William Lawson observed that the strike transformed industrial unions from "basically local and ineffective organizations into all-encompassing, nationwide collective bargaining representatives of American workers". Between the 1920s and 1960s, the city was known as an important industrial hub that featured the massive furnaces and foundries of such companies as Republic Steel and U.S. Steel . At

15812-521: The work of students, faculty and alumni from the Department of Art. The Clarence R. Smith Mineral Museum, also on the YSU campus, is operated by the university's geology department and housed in a campus building. Prisoner of war A prisoner of war ( POW ) is a person who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict . The earliest recorded usage of

15946-555: Was 47.0% White , 45.2% African American , 0.4% Native American , 0.4% Asian , 0.02% Pacific Islander , 3.3% of some other race, and 3.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.3% of the population. The European ancestry included had 10.8% Italian , 10.8% Irish , 10.0% German , and 4.2% English ancestries. Among the Hispanic population, 5.7% were Puerto Rican , 1.9% Mexican , 0.1% Cuban , and 0.7% some other Hispanic or Latino. Records suggest 28.6% of

16080-463: Was 53.1 inches (135 cm) in December 2010, while winter snowfall amounts have ranged from 118.7 in (301 cm) in 2010–11 to 25.2 in (64 cm) in 1948–49. Springs generally see a transition to fewer weather systems that produce heavier rainfall. Summers are typically very warm and humid with temperatures exceeding 90 °F (32 °C) on 7.7 days per year on average; the annual count has been as high as 40 days in 1943, while

16214-566: Was closed after a large fire destroyed many of its premier rides in 1984. The community's culture center is Powers Auditorium , a former Warner Brothers movie palace that serves as the area's primary music hall and a home for the Youngstown Symphony Orchestra . This downtown landmark is one of five auditoriums within the city. Ford Recital Hall was built in 2006 as an addition to newly renovated Powers Auditorium. Imposing and neo-classical Stambaugh Auditorium , on

16348-554: Was considered one of the city's cultural hotbeds due to many Welsh , Irish , Italian , and African American migrants settling in it, but primarily was once viewed as the city's " Little Italy " as reflected by the Brier Hill-style pizza . Each year, at the end of August, the Brier Hill Fest attracts thousands of visitors from Northeast Ohio and Western Pennsylvania . The historic Crandall Park neighborhood

16482-611: Was created primarily in response to the breakdown of leadership and organisation, specifically when U.S. forces were POWs during the Korean War . When a military member is taken prisoner, the Code of Conduct reminds them that the chain of command is still in effect (the highest ranking service member eligible for command, regardless of service branch, is in command), and requires them to support their leadership. The Code of Conduct also requires service members to resist giving information to

16616-681: Was headquartered in Youngstown in the late 1970s. More recently, the city's downtown hosted the corporate headquarters of the now-defunct pharmacy chain store Phar-Mor , which was established by Youngstown native Mickey Monus . Despite the impact of regional economic decline, Youngstown offers an array of cultural and recreational resources. Youngstown's newest venue is the Youngstown Foundation Amphitheatre ; an outdoor venue opened in 2019 upon former industrial grounds in Downtown that hosts various musicians. One of

16750-463: Was incorporated in 1848, and in 1867 Youngstown was chartered as a city. It became the county seat in 1876, when the administrative center of Mahoning County was moved from neighboring Canfield . Youngstown has been Mahoning County's county seat to this day. The discovery of coal by the community in the early 19th century paved the way for the Youngstown area's inclusion on the network of the famed Erie Canal . The Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal Company

16884-504: Was met. By Saturday, the day they were ordered back to their jobs by a Common Pleas Court judge, citizens were reported as disturbed, rather than badly frightened, by the risks of police and fire services operating at about 30% normal headcounts. A car fire was the worst single incident. When ending the strike the judge also ordered the pay raise. Apart from a fruitless six-day "sick call" of police in Detroit in June 1967, Youngstown's

17018-588: Was much harsh treatment of POWs in Germany, as recorded by the American ambassador (prior to America's entry into the war), James W. Gerard, who published his findings in "My Four Years in Germany". Even worse conditions are reported in the book "Escape of a Princess Pat" by the Canadian George Pearson. It was particularly bad in Russia, where starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike;

17152-405: Was named for John Young , an early settler from Whitestown, New York , who established the community's first sawmill and gristmill . It was an early industrial city of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and became known as a center of steel production. With the movement of jobs offshore as the steel industry in the United States fell into decline in the 1970s, the city became exemplary of

17286-551: Was once home to the city's wealthiest families, and many of the mansions of industrial executives are still including in the Crandall Park-Fifth Avenue Historic District. Youngstown's South Side is, and historically has been, the city's densest and most populous division, with numerous neighborhoods from each of the city's periods of expansion. The older neighborhoods in this district, Oak Hill, Erie, Warren , and Lower Gibson, were among

17420-499: Was organized in 1835, and the canal was completed in 1840. Local industrialist David Tod , who became Ohio governor during the Civil War , persuaded Lake Erie steamboat owners that coal mined in the Mahoning Valley could fuel their vessels if canal transportation were available between Youngstown and Cleveland. The railroad's arrival in 1856 smoothed the path for further economic growth. Youngstown's industrial development changed

17554-797: Was part of the Connecticut Western Reserve , a section of the Northwest Territory that Connecticut initially did not cede to the federal government. Upon cession, Connecticut retained the title to the land in the Western Reserve, which it sold to the Connecticut Land Company for $ 1,200,000. While many of the area's early settlers came from Connecticut, Youngstown attracted many Scots-Irish settlers from neighboring Pennsylvania . The first European Americans to settle permanently in

17688-681: Was set ablaze and captured by Japanese forces. On December 10, over 5000 Japanese troops landed on the island in numerous locations, compared to American troops numbering less than 1000. A group of Marines, sailors, and members of the Insular Force Guard defended the Plaza de España but met a much larger Japanese force. McMillin soon ordered all documents of military value be destroyed as a Japanese victory became more apparent. By 5:45 a.m., it became apparent that further resistance by American Marines would do no good, and McMillin ordered

17822-635: Was suspected to have been caused by a natural gas leak . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has an area of 34.60 square miles (89.61 km ), of which 33.96 square miles (87.96 km ) is land and 0.64 square miles (1.66 km ) is water. Youngstown is in the Mahoning Valley on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau . At the end of the last ice age , the glaciers left behind

17956-479: Was the first major police strike since the Boston Police Strike in 1919. As the editorial writers at The Sheboygan Press of Sheboygan, Wisconsin put it, "So we have seen the first successful strike by policemen and firemen. It is a precedent over which there should be little rejoicing." The industrial economy that drew various groups to the area collapsed in the late 1970s, culminating with

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