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58-615: The 11th-century Byzantine historian Michael Psellos reported that the Komnenos family originated from the village of Komne in Thrace —usually identified with the "Fields of Komnene" ( Κομνηνῆς λειμῶνας ) mentioned in the 14th century by John Kantakouzenos —a view commonly accepted by modern scholarship. The first known member of the family, Manuel Erotikos Komnenos , acquired extensive estates at Kastamon in Paphlagonia , which became

116-472: A close prisoner, despite having previously been redeemed by Alexios from captivity at Antioch and showered with honours. To compensate for this crime and to solidify his position as emperor, Alexios had to scatter money so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. These actions inevitably led to the financial ruin of

174-410: A conspiracy against him by his sister, the chronicler Anna Komnene . John's son Manuel ruled for another 37 years. The Komnenos dynasty produced a number of branches. As imperial succession was not in a determined order but rather depended on personal power and the wishes of one's predecessor, within a few generations several relatives were able to present themselves as claimants. After Manuel I's reign

232-399: A coup against Michael and was proclaimed emperor. Although his reign lasted only until 1059, when his courtiers pressured him to abdicate and become a monk, Isaac initiated many useful reforms. The dynasty returned to the throne with the accession of Alexios I Komnenos , Isaac I's nephew, in 1081. By this time, descendants of all the previous dynasties of Byzantium seem to have disappeared from

290-597: A junior position at court as a secretary ( ὑπογραμματεύς ) in the imperial chancellery and began a rapid ascent at court. He became an influential political advisor to emperor Constantine IX Monomachos (reigned 1042–1055) and became the leading professor at the University of Constantinople , bearing the honorary title of "Chief of the Philosophers" ( ὕπατος τῶν φιλοσόφων hypatos tōn philosophōn ). Despite his eminence and prowess in learning, his knowledge of Latin

348-505: A letter to Psellos's brother comforting him on the death of his brother saying that, "Your brother has not died, but has departed to God released of both a painful life and disease". The Chronographia ( Greek : Χρονογραφία ), a history of the Byzantine emperors during the 100 years leading up to Psellos' own time, is probably Psellos' best known and most accessible work. It covers the reigns of 14 emperors and empresses, beginning with

406-488: A series of biographies from emperor Basil II to Nikephoros III , which serves as a valuable source on the history of the 11th century Byzantine Empire . The main sources of information about Psellos' life are his works, which contain extensive autobiographical passages. Michael Psellos was probably born in Constantinople . His family hailed from Nicomedia and, according to his own testimony, counted members of

464-927: A single ally in Southeastern Europe. Soon, Alexios was threatened by a new and more formidable danger. In 1202, soldiers assembled at Venice to launch the Fourth Crusade . Alexios IV Angelos , the son of the deposed Isaac II, had recently escaped from Constantinople and now appealed for support to the crusaders, promising to end the East–West Schism , to pay for their transport, and to provide military support if they would help him depose his uncle and ascend to his father's throne. The crusaders, whose objective had been Egypt , were persuaded to set their course for Constantinople, arriving there in June 1203, proclaiming Alexios IV as emperor, and inviting

522-542: A tradition linking them to Claudius Gothicus , the supposed grandfather of Constantine the Great . Many classical monuments dedicated to Claudius stood in the vicinity of Kastra Komnenon , which according to historian Maximilian C. G. Lau may have increased his appeal in the eyes of the Komnenoi. The 17th-century French scholar du Cange suggested that the family descended from a Roman noble family that followed Constantine

580-431: Is little reliable information about his later years. Some scholars believe that Psellos had to retreat into a monastery again at some time during the 1070s. Following a remark by Psellos' fellow historian Joannes Zonaras , it is believed by most scholars that Psellos died soon after the fall of Michael VII in 1078, although some scholars have also proposed later dates. What is known is that Theophylaktos of Bulgaria wrote

638-503: Is so fascinating that if you only read one book about Byzantium, by a Byzantine, that would be the one I’d choose". Psellos left many other writings: Psellos was universally educated and had a reputation for being one of the most learned men of his time. He prided himself on having single-handedly reintroduced to Byzantine scholarship a serious study of ancient philosophy, especially of Plato . His predilection for Plato and other pagan (often Neoplatonic ) philosophers led to doubts about

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696-463: The Chronographia , transmitting highly critical and subversive messages about the emperors portrayed, or even about Byzantine Christian beliefs and morality at large. As mentioned above, serious questions were raised during Psellos' lifetime concerning his religious beliefs. For example, according to Byzantinist Anthony Kaldellis , "In 1054 he [Psellos] was accused by his erstwhile friend,

754-501: The Despotate of Epirus in 1204, under Michael I Komnenos Doukas , great-grandson of Emperor Alexios I. This branch adopted the surnames Komnenos Doukas and are known as such in modern scholarship. Helena Doukaina Komnene, a child of that branch of the family, married Guy I de la Roche thereby uniting the Komnenos and the de la Roche houses, with Komnenos family members eventually becoming Dukes of Athens . One renegade member of

812-624: The Fourth Crusade in 1204, by Alexios V Doukas , a relative from the Doukas family. Several weeks before the occupation of Constantinople by crusaders in 1204, one branch of the Komnenoi fled back to their homelands in Paphlagonia, along the eastern Black Sea and its hinterland in the Pontic Alps , where they established the Empire of Trebizond . Their first 'emperor', named Alexios I ,

870-979: The Seljuk Turks , who had captured it just prior to Alexios' reign. Alexios also saw the First Crusade pass through Byzantine territory, leading to the establishment of the Crusader states in the east. The Komnenos dynasty was very much involved in crusader affairs, and also intermarried with the reigning families of the Principality of Antioch and the Kingdom of Jerusalem - Theodora Komnene , niece of Manuel I Komnenos , married Baldwin III of Jerusalem , and Maria , grandniece of Manuel, married Amalric I of Jerusalem . Remarkably, Alexios ruled for 37 years, and his son John II ruled for 25, after uncovering

928-510: The Byzantine army returned to the city without a fight. His courtiers demanded action, and Alexios III promised to fight. Instead, that night (17/18 July), Alexios III hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters, Eirene, and as much treasure (1,000 pounds of gold) as he could collect, got into a boat and escaped to Develtos in Thrace, leaving his wife and his other daughters behind. Isaac II, drawn from his prison and robed once more in

986-423: The Great to Constantinople , from whose cousin but although such mythical genealogies were common—and are attested for the closely related Doukas clan as well—the complete absence of any such assertion in the Byzantine sources argues against Du Cange's view. The Romanian historian George Murnu suggested in 1924 that the Komnenoi were of Aromanian descent, but this view too is now rejected. Modern scholars consider

1044-623: The Komnenos dynasty also held the name of Axouchos as descendants of John Axouch , a Byzantine nobleman and minister to the Byzantine Komnenian Dynasty. A princess of the Trebizond branch is said to have been the mother of prince Yahya (born 1585), who reportedly became a Christian yet spent much of his life attempting to gain the Ottoman throne. Another branch of the family, descendants of Constantine Angelos , founded

1102-541: The Komnenos dynasty fell into conspiracies and plots like many of its predecessors (and the various contenders within the family sought power and often succeeded in overthrowing the preceding kinsman); Alexios II , the first Komnenos to ascend as a minor, ruled for three years and his conqueror and successor Andronikos I ruled for two, overthrown by the Angelos family under Isaac II who was dethroned and blinded by his own brother Alexios III. The Angeloi were overthrown during

1160-528: The almost 50-year-long reign of Basil II, the "Bulgar-Slayer" (976–1025), and ending some time during the reign of Michael VII Doukas (1071–1078). It is structured mainly as a series of biographies. Unlike most other historiographical works of the period, it emphasizes the description of characters rather than details of political and military events. It also includes extensive autobiographical elements about Psellos' political and intellectual development, and it gives far greater weight to those periods when Psellos

1218-553: The city at night with one of his three daughters. From Adrianople , and then Mosynopolis , he attempted unsuccessfully to rally his supporters, only to end up a captive of Marquis Boniface of Montferrat . He was ransomed and sent to Asia Minor where he plotted against his son-in-law Theodore I Laskaris , but was eventually captured and spent his last days confined to the Monastery of Hyakinthos in Nicaea , where he died. Alexios III

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1276-506: The consular and patrician elite among its ancestors. His baptismal name was Constantine ; Michael was the monastic name he chose when he entered a monastery later in life. "Psellos" ('the stammerer') probably was a personal by-name referring to a speech defect. Michael Psellos was educated in Constantinople. At around the age of ten, he was sent to work outside the capital as a secretary of a provincial judge, to help his family raise

1334-435: The crisis through diplomatic means. The Emperor's attempts to bolster the empire's defences by special concessions to pronoiai (notables) in the frontier zone backfired, as the latter increased their regional autonomy. Byzantine authority survived, but in a much weakened state. In 1197, local lord Dobromir Chrysos established himself in the region of Vardar Macedonia , defying the imperial power for several years. During

1392-476: The crusaders arrived. In July, the crusaders, led by the aged Doge Enrico Dandolo , scaled the walls and took control of a major section of the city. In the ensuing fighting, the crusaders set the city on fire, ultimately leaving 20,000 people homeless. On 17 July, Alexios III finally took action and led 17 divisions from the Gate of St. Romanus , vastly outnumbering the crusaders. His courage failed, however, and

1450-567: The deposed emperor was ransomed by Michael I, who sent him to Asia Minor , where Alexios' son-in-law Theodore – now emperor of Nicaea – was holding his own against the Latins. Here Alexios conspired against his son-in-law after the latter refused to recognize Alexios' authority, receiving the support of Kaykhusraw I , the sultan of Rûm . In the Battle of Antioch on the Meander in 1211, the sultan

1508-609: The descendant and heir of the Emperors of Trebizond. Irene Angelina , daughter of Isaac II Angelos and thus a descendant of Alexios I Komnenos, married Philip of Swabia (1177–1208), the King of Germany . From this union many of the royal and aristocratic families of Western Europe can trace a line of descent. Michael Psellos Michael Psellos or Psellus ( Greek : Μιχαὴλ Ψελλός , romanized :  Michaḗl Psellós , Byzantine Greek : [mixaˈil pseˈlːos] )

1566-421: The dowry for his sister. When his sister died, he gave up that position and returned to Constantinople to resume his studies. While studying under John Mauropus , he met the later Patriarchs Constantine Leichoudes and John Xiphilinos , and the later emperor Constantine X Doukas . For some time, he worked in the provinces again, now a judge. Some time before 1042 he returned again to Constantinople, where he got

1624-454: The family to have been entirely of Greek origin. Manuel Erotikos Komnenos was the father of Isaac I Komnenos ( r.  1057–1059 ), and grandfather, through Isaac's younger brother John Komnenos , of Alexios I Komnenos ( r.  1081–1118 ). Isaac I Komnenos , a stratopedarch of the East under Michael VI , founded the Komnenos dynasty of Byzantine emperors . In 1057 Isaac led

1682-595: The family, also named Isaac Komnenos , established a separate "empire" on Cyprus in 1184, which lasted until 1191, when the island was taken from him by Richard I of England during the Third Crusade . His daughter, called the Damsel of Cyprus , married Thierry of Flanders during the Fourth Crusade and tried to claim the island. When the Byzantine Empire was restored in 1261 at Constantinople, it

1740-500: The favourite instrument in her attempts at reform, was assassinated by the emperor's orders. In the east the Empire was overrun by the Seljuk Turks ; from the north, the Kingdom of Hungary and the rebellious Bulgarians and Vlachs descended unchecked to ravage the Balkan provinces of the Empire, sometimes penetrating as far as Greece, while Alexios squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens and attempted to deal with

1798-514: The final piece of the Viking trilogy . Alexios III Angelos Alexios III Angelos ( Medieval Greek : Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος ; c.  1153  – 1211), Latinized as Alexius III Angelus , was Byzantine Emperor from March 1195 to 17/18 July 1203. He reigned under the name Alexios Komnenos ( Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός ) associating himself with the Komnenos dynasty (from which he

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1856-405: The first years of Alexios' reign, relations between Byzantium and Serbia were good, since his daughter Eudokia Angelina was married to Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanjić II , who was granted the title of sebastokrator . But in 1200, those relations deteriorated. The marriage between Stefan and Eudokia was dissolved, and the alliance between Serbia and Byzantium ended, leaving Byzantium without

1914-402: The future Patriarch John Xiphilinos, of forsaking Christ to follow Plato." Even stronger doubts arose concerning Psellos' student, John Italos , who succeeded Psellos as Chief of the Philosophers. Italos was publicly accused of teaching such "Hellenizing" ideas as metempsychosis and the eternity of the world . Italos faced such accusations twice, and both times he confessed and recanted. It

1972-463: The future success of the Angelos family by marrying into it: Theodora's grandsons became the emperors Isaac II Angelos (reigned 1185–1195 and 1203–1204) and Alexios III Angelos (reigned 1195–1203). Under Alexios I and his successors the Empire was fairly prosperous and stable. Alexios moved the imperial palace to the Blachernae section of Constantinople . Much of Anatolia was recovered from

2030-690: The gloss of Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's poem " The Rime of the Ancient Mariner ", there is a reference to "the Platonic Constantinopolitan, Michael Psellus" as an authority on "the invisible inhabitants of this planet, neither departed souls nor angels". The British poet Christopher Middleton includes a poem about Psellus in his 1986 collection, Two Horse Wagon Going By , "Mezzomephistophelean Scholion". Psellos appears also in Tim Severin 's novel Viking: King's Man ,

2088-586: The imperial purple, received his son, Alexios IV, in state. Alexios III attempted to organize resistance to the new regime from Adrianople and then Mosynopolis , where he was joined by the later usurper Alexios V Doukas in April 1204, after the definitive fall of Constantinople to the crusaders and the establishment of the Latin Empire . At first, Alexios III received Alexios V well, even allowing him to marry his daughter Eudokia Angelina . Later, Alexios V

2146-402: The name in that context. It is now believed that the inclusion of the name Psellos in this chronicle was the mistake of an ignorant copyist at a later time, and that no "Michael Psellos the elder" existed. The term "Pseudo-Psellos" is also used in modern scholarship to describe the authorship of several later works that are believed to have been falsely ascribed to Psellos in Byzantine times. In

2204-491: The orthodoxy of his faith among some of his contemporaries, and at one point he was forced to make a public profession of faith in his defense. He also prided himself on being a master of rhetoric, combining the wisdom of the philosopher and the persuasiveness of the rhetorician. This made him the model of a political leader and advisor. Among modern commentators, Psellos' penchant for long autobiographical digressions in his works has earned him accusations of vanity and ambition. At

2262-462: The populace of the capital to depose his uncle. Alexios III took no effective measures to resist, and his attempts to bribe the crusaders failed. His son-in-law, Theodore I Laskaris , who was the only one to attempt anything significant, was defeated at Scutari , and the siege of Constantinople began. Misgovernment by Alexios III had left the Byzantine navy with only 20 worm-eaten hulks by the time

2320-448: The previous Doukas dynasty: Alexios I married Irene Doukaina , the grandniece of Constantine X Doukas, who had succeeded Isaac I in 1059. Thereafter the combined clan was often referred to as Komnenodoukai ( Κομνηνοδούκαι ) and several individuals used both surnames together. Several families descended from this wider clan, such as Palaiologos , Angelos , Vatatzes and Laskaris . Alexios and Irene's youngest daughter Theodora ensured

2378-560: The proclamation of Isaac as Emperor. Alexios was now closer to the imperial throne than ever before. By 1190 Alexios had returned to the court of his younger brother, from whom he received the elevated title of sebastokratōr . In March 1195 while Isaac II was away hunting in Thrace , Alexios was acclaimed as emperor by the troops with the covert support of his wife Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera . Alexios captured Isaac at Stagira in Macedonia , put out his eyes , and thenceforth kept him

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2436-399: The realm, such as the important Scleros and Argyros families. Descendants of those emperors lived abroad, having married into the royal families of Georgia , Russia , France , Persia , Italy , Germany , Poland , Bulgaria , Hungary and Serbia ; this made it easier for the Komnenos family to ascend to the throne. Upon their rise to the throne, the Komnenoi became intermarried with

2494-487: The reign of Michael's father Constantine, and as he had played an important role in helping Michael gain power against his adversary and stepfather Romanos, Psellos probably entertained hopes of an even more influential position as a teacher and advisor under him. Michael seems to have been less inclined towards protecting Psellos and after the mid-1070s there is no more information about any role played by Psellos at court. As his autobiographic accounts cease at this point, there

2552-593: The revival of Byzantine classical studies , which would later influence the Italian Renaissance , as well as by interpreting Homeric literature and Platonic philosophy as precursors and integral components of Christian doctrine . His texts combined theology , philosophy, and psychology. Among his most famous works are his Commentary on Plato’s Teachings on the Origin of the Soul , and the Chronographia ,

2610-426: The same time, his political career and the contents of his Chronographia have led commentators to characterize him as obsequious and opportunistic, because of his ostensibly uncritical stance towards some of the emperors and because of the many shifts in his political loyalty over the course of his life . However, other commentators argue that there is a powerful ironic undercurrent running through his work, especially

2668-674: The state. At Christmas 1196, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI attempted to force Alexios to pay him a tribute of 5,000 pounds (later negotiated down to 1,600 pounds) of gold or face invasion. Alexios gathered the money by plundering imperial tombs at the church of the Holy Apostles and heavily taxing the people through the Alamanikon . Because of Henry's death in September 1197, the gold was never dispatched. The Empress Euphrosyne tried in vain to sustain his credit and his court; Vatatzes,

2726-415: The stronghold of the family in the 11th century. The family thereby quickly became associated with the powerful and prestigious military aristocracy ( dynatoi ) of Asia Minor , so that despite coming from Thrace it came to be considered "eastern". Aside from deriving legitimacy as rulers from familial links to the prominent Doukai (emperors Constantine X and Michael VII in particular), they also had

2784-477: Was a Byzantine Greek monk, savant, writer, philosopher, imperial courtier, historian and music theorist. He was born in 1017 or 1018, and is believed to have died in 1078, although it has also been maintained that he remained alive until 1096. He served as a high ranking courtier and advisor to several Byzantine emperors and was instrumental in the re-positioning of power of those emperors. Psellos has made lasting contributions to Byzantine culture by advocating for

2842-465: Was active in politics, especially the reign of Constantine IX, giving the whole work almost the character of a political memoir. It is believed to have been written in two parts. The first covers the emperors up to Isaac I Komnenos . The second, which has a much more strongly apologetic tone, is in large parts an encomium on Psellus' protectors, the emperors of the Doukas dynasty. Byzantinist historian Judith Herrin said: "This book by Michael Psellus

2900-552: Was blinded and deserted by his father-in-law, who fled from the crusaders into Thessaly . Here Alexios III eventually surrendered, with Euphrosyne, to Marquis Boniface of Montferrat , who was establishing himself as ruler of the Kingdom of Thessalonica . Alexios III attempted to escape Boniface's "protection" in 1205, seeking shelter with Michael I Komnenos Doukas , the ruler of Epirus . Captured by Boniface, Alexios and his retinue were sent to Montferrat before being brought back to Thessalonica in c.  1209 . At that point

2958-693: Was cloudy enough for him to confuse Cicero with Caesar . This is cited as a prime example of how the Eastern Roman Empire had lost nearly all of its connections to its Roman roots by the High Middle Ages. Towards the end of Monomachos' reign, Psellos found himself under political pressure for some reason and decided to leave court, entering the Olympus monastery on Mount Olympus in Bithynia in 1054. After Monomachos' death he

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3016-411: Was descended cognatically ). A member of the extended imperial family, Alexios came to the throne after deposing, blinding and imprisoning his younger brother Isaac II Angelos . The most significant event of his reign was the attack of the Fourth Crusade on Constantinople in 1203, on behalf of Alexios IV Angelos . Alexios III took over the defence of the city, which he mismanaged, and then fled

3074-543: Was once thought that there was another Byzantine writer of the same name, Michael Psellos the Elder (now also called Pseudo-Psellos ), who lived on the island of Andros in the 9th century, and who was a pupil of Photius and teacher of emperor Leo VI the Wise . Michael Psellos was also called "the younger" by some authors. This belief was based on an entry in a medieval chronicle, the Σύνοψις Κεδρηνοῦ-Σκυλίτση , which mentions

3132-502: Was recalled to court by his successor, Empress Theodora (reigned 1055–1056). Throughout the following years, he remained active in politics, serving as a high-ranking political advisor to successive emperors. He played a decisive political role in the transition of power from Michael VI to Isaac I Komnenos in 1057; then from Isaac Komnenos to Constantine X Doukas (1059), then again from Romanos IV Diogenes to Michael VII Doukas (1071). As Psellos had served as Michael's teacher during

3190-707: Was ruled by a family closely related to the Komnenoi, the Palaiologoi . The Palaiologoi ruled until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The last descendant of the dynasty is often considered to have been John Komnenos Molyvdos , a distinguished Ottoman Greek scholar and physician, who became metropolitan bishop of Side and Dristra , and died in 1719. In 1782, the Corsican Greek notable Demetrio Stefanopoli obtained letters patent from Louis XVI of France recognizing him as

3248-641: Was the grandson of Emperor Andronikos I. These emperors – the Grand Komnenoi ( Megaloi Komnenoi or Megalokomnenoi in Greek) as they were known – ruled in Trebizond for over 250 years, until 1461, when David Komnenos was defeated and executed by the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II . Mehmed himself claimed descent from the Komnenos family via John Tzelepes Komnenos . The Trapezutine branch of

3306-569: Was the second son of Andronikos Doukas Angelos and Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa . Andronikos was himself a son of Theodora Komnene , the youngest daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina . Thus, Alexios III was a member of the extended imperial family. Together with his father and brothers, Alexios had conspired against Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos ( c.  1183 ), and thus he spent several years in exile in Muslim courts, including that of Saladin . His younger brother Isaac II

3364-403: Was threatened with execution under orders of Andronikos I, their first-cousin once-removed, on 11 September 1185. Isaac made a desperate attack on the imperial agents and soon killed their leader Stephen Hagiochristophorites . He then took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia and from there appealed to the populace. His actions provoked a riot, which resulted in the deposition of Andronikos I and

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