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134-545: The Grand Magal has been recognized as "one of the most popular pilgrimages in the world," with over 3 million participating in 2011. The pilgrimage dates back to 1928 (one year after Bamba's death) and commemorates his 1895 exile to Gabon by the French colonial government . "Magal" is a Wolof word derived from the verb "mag," which means "to be important" or "to be old"; the noun form is translated as "celebration" or "anniversary." There are other Mouride magals annually, such as

268-518: A mujaddid (a "renewer of Islam "). Bamba's fame spread through his followers, and people joined him to receive the salvation that he promised. Salvation, he said, comes through submission to the cheikh and hard work. There is only one surviving photograph of Amadou Bamba, in which he wears a flowing white kaftan and his face is mostly covered by a scarf. This picture is venerated and reproduced in paintings on walls, buses, taxis, and other private and public spaces all over modern-day Senegal. At

402-798: A Sheikh of the Tariqat . Additionally to the Three Pillars of Mouridism, the Mourides follow what is called the Mouride Triangle: Amadou Bamba is considered a mujaddid (renewer of Islam) by his followers, citing a hadith that implies that God will send renewers of the faith every 100 years. The members of all the Senegalese brotherhoods claim that their founders were such renewers. The Mouride beliefs are based on Quranic and Sufi traditions and influenced by

536-543: A coup d'état and cancelled the election results. They also dissolved state institutions including the Judiciary, Parliament and the constitutional assembly. On 31 August 2023, army officers who seized power, ending the Bongo family's 55-year hold on power, named Gen Brice Oligui Nguema as the country's transitional leader. On 4 September 2023, General Nguema was sworn in as interim president of Gabon. In November 2024,

670-405: A referendum on a new constitution was approved, reforming the country's government. The presidential republic form of government is stated under the 1961 constitution (revised in 1975, rewritten in 1991, and revised in 2003). The president is elected by universal suffrage for a seven-year term; a 2003 constitutional amendment removed presidential term limits. The president can appoint and dismiss

804-494: A 1-party state by dissolving BDG and establishing a new party – the Parti Démocratique Gabonais (PDG). He invited all Gabonese, regardless of previous political affiliation, to participate. Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies, using PDG as a tool to submerge the regional and tribal rivalries that had divided Gabonese politics in the past. Bongo

938-650: A 15-month Stand-By Arrangement with the IMF. A three-year Stand-By Arrangement with IMF was approved in May 2007. Because of the financial crisis and social developments surrounding the death of President Omar Bongo and the elections, Gabon was unable to meet its economic goals under the Stand-By Arrangement in 2009. Gabon's oil revenues have given it a per capita GDP of $ 8,600. A "skewed income distribution" and "poor social indicators" are "evident". The richest 20% of

1072-432: A 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.07/10, ranking it 9th globally out of 172 countries. Gabon has a large number of protected animal and plant species. The country's biodiversity is one of the most varied on the planet. Gabon is home of 604 species of birds, 98 species of amphibians, between 95 and 160 species of reptiles and 198 different species of mammals. In Gabon there are rare species, such as

1206-579: A PDG-controlled National Assembly. Following the death of President Omar Bongo on 8 June 2009 due to cardiac arrest at a Spanish hospital in Barcelona, Gabon entered a period of political transition. Per the amended constitution, Rose Francine Rogombé , the President of the Senate, assumed the role of Interim President on 10 June 2009. The subsequent presidential elections, held on 30 August 2009, marked

1340-474: A better life and solve their problems as well. Even taxi and bus drivers fill their vehicles with stickers, paintings and photos of the marabouts of their particular brotherhoods. The marabout-talibe relationship in Senegal is essentially a relationship of personal dependence. It can be a charismatic or a clientelistic relationship. In a charismatic relationship demonstrations of devotion and abnegation towards

1474-424: A considerable effort to attain the support from these religious leaders for their personal advancement. In order to attain their support in elections, bribes and material incentives were given to marabouts from political parties and potential candidates. Many believed that no party could hope to attain political power if the marabouts were completely opposed to it, and any party who rose to power had to comply with

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1608-466: A conventional education. These boys receive Islamic training and are instilled with the doctrine of hard work. Many Mourides consider the city of Touba as equally or even more important than Mecca. Pilgrims regularly come to Touba all year round, but the peak of the year is a mass pilgrimage called the Grand Màgal , which celebrates Bamba's return from exile. As in other parts of West Africa and

1742-527: A curfew remained in effect for over three months. In June 2010, a partial legislative by-election was held, marking the emergence of the Union Nationale (UN) coalition, primarily comprising defectors from the ruling PDG party following Omar Bongo's death. The contest for the five available seats saw both the PDG and UN claiming victory, underscoring the political tensions that persisted in the aftermath of

1876-570: A few minutes of prayer at these locations. Pilgrims also visit the mausoleums of other important Mouride leaders, many of whose tombs are located near the mosque. Other common sites to visit include the "Well of Mercy," said to have been created by God to flow for Cheikh Amadou Bamba, and the central library of Touba, which contains the many writings of the Cheikh and other influential Mourides. Lastly, pilgrims visit their personal Mouride spiritual guides, or marabouts . Each prominent Mouride marabout has

2010-499: A government of national unity. This arrangement broke down and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics. PDG won in the legislative election, and some cities, including Libreville , elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election. Facing a divided opposition, President Omar Bongo coasted to re-election in December 1998. While some of Bongo's opponents rejected

2144-573: A historic moment as they were the first in Gabon's history not to feature Omar Bongo as a candidate. With a crowded field of 18 contenders, including Omar Bongo's son and ruling party leader, Ali Bongo , the elections were closely watched both domestically and internationally. After a rigorous three-week review by the Constitutional Court, Ali Bongo was officially declared the winner, leading to his inauguration on 16 October 2009. However,

2278-539: A majority. Following President Omar Bongo 's re-election in December 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results. Civil disturbances and violent repression led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement. These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994, under which some opposition figures were included in

2412-461: A marabout. These collective farms were largely responsible for the expansion of peanut cultivation. A Mouride peasant may submit to a marabout's organization of agricultural work because it is the best option available to him, independently of the ideology which supports it. In contrast to a vision of masses blindly manipulated by a religious elite, the ties of talibes to their marabouts are frequently far more contingent and tenuous than assumed. As

2546-458: A means of economic advantage through the increasing production of crops for export. Due to this high proportion of groundnut crop produced by the Mouride, the brotherhood has always seemed to have a large influence in the groundnut market and the economy. Economic involvement is in fact encouraged by the religious leaders to their disciples through the use of ideology that places great value on

2680-579: A residence in the city from which he accepts visits. During the night, pilgrims gather to sing Arabic poetry (or qaṣāʾid ) written by Bamba. There is also a political dimension to the Grand Magal, in which the most prominent Mouride leaders - including the head of the Brotherhood, or Caliph General (currently Serigne Sidy Mokhtar Mbacké) – grant audiences to official government delegations and others of political importance. The tradition has roots in

2814-577: A ritual of allegiance called njebbel , as it is considered highly important to have a sheikh "spiritual guide" in order to become a Mouride. The Mouride brotherhood was founded in 1883 in Senegal by Amadou Bamba . The Mouride make up around 40 percent of the total population, and their influence over everyday life can be seen throughout Senegal. The Mouride brotherhood was founded in 1883 in Senegal by Shaykh Aḥmadu Bàmba Mbàkke ( Wolof name), commonly known as Amadou Bamba (1850–1927). In Arabic , he

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2948-527: A sector-by-sector basis, making wage concessions. He promised to open up PDG and to organize a national political conference in March–April 1990 to discuss Gabon's future political system. PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference. Participants essentially divided into 2 "loose" coalitions, ruling PDG and its allies, and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of

3082-695: A system of rainforests , with 89.3% of its land area forested. There are coastal plains (ranging between 20 and 300 km [10 and 190 mi] from the ocean's shore), the mountains (the Cristal Mountains to the northeast of Libreville, the Chaillu Massif in the centre), and the savanna in the east. The coastal plains form a section of the World Wildlife Fund 's Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion and contain patches of Central African mangroves including on

3216-442: A transitional government headed by a new Prime Minister, Casimir Oye-Mba . The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from some opposition parties in its cabinet. RSDG drafted a provisional constitution in May 1990 that provided a basic bill of rights and an independent judiciary and retained "strong" executive powers for

3350-464: A wide range of products can thus be found with prices lower than those of any other market in Senegal. The large number of pilgrims in Touba during the Grand Magal demands an intense degree of organization and logistical management. Traffic jams and road accidents are common as heavy crowds descend on Touba each year; during the November 2016 Magal, 16 people were killed and 572 injured while travelling to

3484-627: Is a large tariqa ( Sufi order) most prominent in Senegal and The Gambia with headquarters in the city of Touba , which is a holy city for the order. Adherents are called Mourides , from the Arabic word murīd (literally "one who desires"), a term used generally in Sufism to designate a disciple of a spiritual guide.The beliefs and practices of the Mourides constitute Mouridism . Mouride disciples call themselves taalibé in Wolof and must undergo

3618-516: Is at once a ceremony and a festival, containing both religious rituals and entertainment. "No other event in Senegal, religious or secular, attracts as much attention", writes Villalón; it is "anticipated for weeks and generates a general effervescence." The rites of the pilgrimage bear similarities to those of the Islamic Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca: the two central events of the Magal are visits to

3752-531: Is beginning for an after-oil scenario. The rich Grondin Oil Field was discovered in 1971 in 50 m (160 ft) water depths 40 km (25 mi) offshore in an anticline salt structural trap in Batanga sandstones of Maastrichtian age, but about 60% of its estimated reserves had been extracted by 1978. As of 2023, Gabon produced about 200,000 barrels a day (bpd) of crude oil. "Overspending" on

3886-440: Is causing heavy deforestation that threatens this valuable ecosystem. Likewise, poaching endangers wildlife. Gabon's national flower is Delonix Regia . Oil revenues constitute roughly 46% of the government's budget, 43% of the gross domestic product (GDP), and 81% of exports. Oil production declined from its higher point of 370,000 barrels per day in 1997. Some estimates suggest that Gabonese oil will be expended by 2025. Planning

4020-412: Is composed of 102 members who are elected by municipal councils and regional assemblies and serve for six years. The Senate was created in the 1990–1991 constitutional revision, and was not brought into being until after the 1997 local elections. The President of the Senate is next in succession to the President. In 1990, the government made changes to Gabon's political system. A transitional constitution

4154-530: Is considered the spiritual leader of all Mourides. There are other marabouts , each with a regional following. Dahiras are a unique institution of the Senegalese Sufi model which connect followers of a particular marabout or order in an association. They are often based on shared allegiances to a particular marabout or common geographical location, for example, a neighborhood or city-specific dahira. Other dahiras bring together followers belonging to

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4288-533: Is dedicated to their study. It is also home to more than half the population of African forest elephants , mostly in Minkébé National Park . Gabon's national symbol is the black panther . More than 10,000 species of plants, and 400 species of trees form the flora of Gabon. Gabon's rainforest is considered the densest and most virgin in Africa. However, the country's enormous population growth

4422-682: Is known as Aḥmad ibn Muhammad ibn Habīb Allāh or by the nickname "Khadīmu r-Rasūl" ("Servant of the Prophet "). In Wolof he is called "Sëriñ Tuubaa" ("Holy Man of Touba"). He was born in the village of Mbacké in Baol , the son of a Cheikh from the Qadiriyya , the oldest of the Muslim brotherhoods in Senegal. Amadou Bamba was a Muslim mystic and ascetic marabout , a spiritual leader who wrote tracts on meditation , rituals , work, and tafsir . He

4556-651: Is not limited to) performing individual obligations ( Fard Ayn ) such as prayer, ablution, fasting, pilgrimage and giving charity. A Mouride aspires to achieve Iman by the Six Articles of Faith: Belief in God , his angels , the prophets , the revealed Holy Books, the Day of Judgment and the Divine Decree. A Mouride aspires to achieve Ihsan by the path of Tasawwuf (Sufism) through taking initiation ( Bayat ) with

4690-408: Is one of the wealthiest countries in Africa in terms of per capita income ; however, large parts of the population are very poor. Omar Bongo came to office in 1967 and created a dynasty , which stabilized its power through a clientist network, Françafrique . The official language of Gabon is French , and Bantu ethnic groups constitute around 95% of the country's population. Christianity

4824-436: Is perhaps best known for his emphasis on work, and his disciples are known for their industriousness. Although he did not support the French conquest of West Africa , he did not wage outright war on them, as several prominent Tijani cheikh had done. He taught, instead, what he called the jihād al-akbar or "greater struggle," which fought not through weapons but through learning and fear of God . Bamba's followers call him

4958-466: Is said to have broken his leg-irons, leapt overboard into the ocean, and prayed on a prayer rug that miraculously appeared on the surface of the water. In addition, when the French put him in a furnace, he is said to have simply sat down and had tea with Muhammad . In a den of hungry lions, it is said the lions slept beside him. By 1912, policy shifted towards using the Senegalese Sufi orders – among them

5092-475: Is seen as a time of persecution and testing of Bamba's spiritual strength and resolve. The Grand Magal has grown over the years, from hundreds of thousands of pilgrims attending in the later decades of the twentieth century to nearly 2 million in 2000 and over 3 million in 2011. The event is televised, with coverage in part serving the Mouride Brotherhood's proselytizing mission; video cassettes of

5226-532: Is sought since they are thought to be a source of much baraka "blessings, divine grace". The marabouts of the Mouride Brotherhood devote less time to study and teaching than other brotherhoods. They devote most of their time to ordering their disciples’ work and making amulets for their disciples' work and making amulets for their followers. Devout Mourides’ homes and workplaces are covered with pictures and sayings of their marabout, and they wear numerous amulets prepared by them. These acts are believed to bring them

5360-552: Is the Ogooué which is 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) long. It has 3 karst areas where there are hundreds of caves located in the dolomite and limestone rocks. A National Geographic Expedition visited some caves in the summer of 2008 to document them. In 2002, President Omar Bongo Ondimba designated roughly 10% of the nation's territory to be part of its national park system (with 13 parks in total). The National Agency for National Parks manages Gabon's national park system. Gabon had

5494-441: Is the nation's predominant religion, practised by about 80% of the population. With petroleum and foreign private investment, it has the fourth highest HDI (after Mauritius , Seychelles , and South Africa ) and the fifth highest GDP per capita (PPP) (after Seychelles, Mauritius, Equatorial Guinea , and Botswana ) of any African nation. Gabon's nominal GDP per capita is $ 10,149 in 2023 according to OPEC. Pygmy peoples in

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5628-520: The Chaillu Massif in the centre), and a savanna in the east. Libreville is the country's capital and largest city. Gabon's original inhabitants were the pygmy peoples . Beginning in the 14th century, Bantu migrants began settling in the area as well. The Kingdom of Orungu was established around 1700. The region was colonised by France in the late 19th century. Since its independence from France in 1960, Gabon has had three presidents . In

5762-959: The Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA); the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC); the Nonaligned Movement ; and the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS/CEEAC). In 1995, Gabon withdrew from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), rejoining in 2016. Gabon was elected to a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council for January 2010 through December 2011 and held

5896-569: The French Community , and on 17 August 1960, it became fully independent. The first president of Gabon, elected in 1961, was Léon M'ba , with Omar Bongo Ondimba as his vice president. After M'ba's accession to power, the press was suppressed, political demonstrations suppressed, freedom of expression curtailed, other political parties gradually excluded from power, and the Constitution changed along French lines to vest power in

6030-821: The Gabonese Republic ( French : République gabonaise ), is a country on the Atlantic coast of Central Africa , on the equator , bordered by Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the north, the Republic of the Congo on the east and south, and the Gulf of Guinea to the west. It has an area of 270,000 square kilometres (100,000 sq mi) and a population of 2.3 million people. There are coastal plains, mountains (the Cristal Mountains and

6164-464: The Great Mosque of Touba , which involves a partial circumambulation of the mosque, and to the mausoleum of Amadou Bamba, which is believed to be infused with the barakah , or spiritual power, of Bamba. Pilgrims pray with outstretched hands and touch the walls and doors of the mausoleum, and some drop coins inside the area around the tomb, which is fenced off. They may wait for over six hours for

6298-562: The Muni River estuary on the border with Equatorial Guinea . Geologically, Gabon is primarily Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic igneous and metamorphic basement rock , belonging to the stable continental crust of the Congo Craton . Some formations are more than 2 billion years old. Some rock units are overlain by marine carbonate , lacustrine and continental sedimentary rocks, and unconsolidated sediments and soils that formed in

6432-616: The Trans-Gabon Railway , the CFA franc devaluation of 1994, and periods of lower oil prices caused debt problems. Successive International Monetary Fund (IMF) missions have criticized the Gabonaise government for overspending on off-budget items (in good years and bad), over-borrowing from the central bank , and slipping on the schedule for privatization and administrative reform. In September 2005 Gabon successfully concluded

6566-430: The gerontocratic traditional order and incorporating modern media while calling for a return to a mythologised Mouride past of rejecting authority. These interactions and new movements highlight Islamic Studies professor Rüdiger Seeseman’s argument that rather than treating Sufism and reform Islam as unchanging and opposed, these movements interact and lead to new forms of thoughts which incorporate beliefs to best address

6700-411: The njebbel , a loyal Mouride is ideologically required to follow his religious leaders’ instructions or risk of losing any material support that would have been given to him if he disregards them. Marabouts very rarely themselves participate directly in the political process. What is more common is to see them exert their influence over their followers and use this in return to gain a larger presence in

6834-561: The 1990s, it introduced a multi-party system and a democratic constitution that aimed for a more transparent electoral process and reformed some governmental institutions. Despite this, the Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG) remained the dominant party until its removal from power during the 2023 Gabonese coup d'état . Gabon is a developing country , ranking 123rd in the Human Development Index . It

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6968-413: The 1994 Paris Conference and Accords. These provided a framework for the next elections. Local and legislative elections were delayed until 1996–1997. In 1997, constitutional amendments put forward years earlier were adopted to create the Senate and the position of Vice President , and to extend the President's term to seven years. In October 2009, President Ali Bongo Ondimba began efforts to streamline

7102-487: The Arabic word for "circle"), have arisen in many international cities with robust Mouride communities: in 2011, researchers found 47 cities across western Europe and 16 cities in North America with active Mouride dahiras. According to Ross, "Murid dahiras abroad are intended as both extensions of, and conduits to, the holy city itself" and they organize celebrations of the Grand Magal annually. In these gatherings,

7236-506: The Baye Fall ( Wolof : Baay Faal ), many of whom substitute hard labor and dedication to their marabout for the usual Muslim pieties. Sheikh Ibrahima Fall was one of the first of Amadou Bamba's disciples and one of the most illustrious. He catalysed the Mouride movement and led all the labour work in the Mouride brotherhood. Fall reshaped the relation between Mouride talibes (disciples) and their guide, Amadou Bamba. Fall instituted

7370-491: The French had he wanted. Fearful of his power, the French sentenced Bamba to exile in Gabon (1895–1902) and later Mauritania (1903–1907) and confining him in house arrest in Senegal until 1912. However, Bamba's exile fueled legends about his miraculous ability to survive torture, deprivation, and attempted executions, and thousands more flocked to his organization. For example, on the ship to Gabon, forbidden from praying, Bamba

7504-497: The French. In 1928 the French colonial administration issued a deed recognizing the land of Bamba’s tomb and the Great Mosque as private property of the Mouride community. This marked the first step towards Touba’s autonomy from the wider Senegalese state which continued post-independence. The Mourides played a central role in the 1958 Senegalese constitutional referendum which determined whether Senegal would become part of

7638-530: The Gabon pangolin and the grey-necked rockfowl , or endemics, such as the Gabon guenon . The country is one of the most varied and important fauna reserves in Africa: it is an important refuge for chimpanzees (whose number, in 2003, was estimated between 27,000 and 64,000) and gorillas (28,000-42,000 estimated in 1983). The "Gorilla and Chimpanzee Study Station" inside the Lopé National Park

7772-623: The Magal are sold domestically and internationally as well. The date of the Grand Magal is determined by the Islamic calendar (known as the Hijri calendar), which is based on the lunar year . Each year, the events of the pilgrimage begin on the 18th of Safar and last for two days. Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year,

7906-516: The Magal of Saint Louis , which commemorates a prayer performed by the saint in 1895 in defiance of colonial authorities. However, the Grand Magal is the most important and widely attended of the Mouride magals. It is the largest celebration in Senegal, both religious and secular. The Grand Magal originates in a request of Amadou Bamba's in which he asked that his followers celebrate the anniversary of his exile to Gabon. However, after Bamba's death in 1927, his son and successor Moustapha Mbacke organized

8040-518: The Marabout's demands or lose their political support. In the 1962 power clash between now-President Senghor and Prime Minister Mamadou Dia , the Mourides again played a notable role. Dia was supported by Salafiyya -inspired urban Reform movements which opposed the Mourdides’ collaboration with the colonial system and maraboutic influence. In line with these concerns, Dia had previously opposed

8174-421: The Mouride brotherhood was allowed to grow and in 1926 Bamba began work on the Great Mosque in Touba, where he would be buried one year later. Bamba’s successors were increasingly cordial with the French administration, collaborating and receiving support against rivals and material benefits such as land and machinery in return. This led to the brotherhood’s authority becoming part of a form of indirect rule by

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8308-485: The Mouride brotherhood was well-respected among the Senegalese and partnered with them to promote political and social order. Traditional Wolof aristocrats had proven problematic as intermediaries for the colonial authorities, and they hoped that Mouride leaders would be more effective and legitimate. During the French colonial reign, the marabouts usually gave their support to politicians based upon their support of

8442-455: The Mourides as a solid bloc of support. The Party for Truth and Development , founded by Cheikh Ahmadou Kara Mbacké, a descendant of Cheick Amadou Bamba, marked the entry of an explicitly Mouride organisation into organised politics, with Kara reportedly also targeting a presidential run but being discouraged by his relatives. Groundnuts are the third largest export from Senegal after fish and phosphates. The amount of groundnut crop which

8576-399: The Mourides produce has been estimated to range from one-third to three-quarters of Senegalese groundnut production, although others have now estimated it to equal around one-half of the national total of groundnuts produced. This partnership between the Brotherhood and the government stems from the French colonial administrators, who had viewed the production of groundnuts by the Mourides as

8710-489: The Mourides – as assets in the colonial administration. This way, it was thought, the authority and power of the orders could instead be used to support colonial rule. In order to facilitate rapprochement and in an attempt to limit the appearance of Bamba as a freedom fighter, he was released from house arrest and moved back to Diourbel , close to the future site of Touba . The Mouride doctrine of hard work served French economic interests, as addressed below. After World War I ,

8844-515: The Mourides." The members of the Baye Fall dress in colorful ragged clothes, wear their hair in dreadlocks which are called ndiange ("strong hair"), which they decorate usually with homemade beads, wire or string. They also carry clubs, and act as security guards in the annual Grand Magal pilgrimages to Touba. Women usually are covered in draping coverings including their heads and occasionally are known to wear highly decorative handmade jewelry made from household or natural items. In modern times

8978-665: The Presidency, a post that M'ba assumed himself. When M'ba dissolved the National Assembly in January 1964 to institute one-party rule, an army coup sought to oust him from power and restore parliamentary democracy. French paratroopers flew in within 24 hours to restore M'ba to power. After days of fighting, the coup ended and the opposition was imprisoned, with protests and riots. When M'Ba died in 1967, Bongo replaced him as president. In March 1968, Bongo declared Gabon

9112-571: The President, the Assembly unanimously adopted the constitution in March 1991. Multiparty legislative elections were held in 1990–1991 when opposition parties had not been declared formally legal. In January 1991, the Assembly passed by unanimous vote a law governing the legalization of opposition parties. After President Omar Bongo was re-elected in 1993, in a disputed election where only 51% of votes were cast, social and political disturbances led to

9246-669: The Qadiri and Tijani brotherhoods, as well as the works by the scholar al-Ghazali . Amadou Bamba wrote more than 1000 books in Classical Arabic , all of which are based on the Quran and Hadith . Ahmadou Bamba said "If it's not in the Qur'an or Hadith, it's not from me". Mourides sometimes call their order the "Way of Imitation of the Prophet". Parents sometimes send their sons to live with the marabout as talibes rather than giving them

9380-435: The Senegalese politics. Such things as withholding seed from granaries, unless followers purchase party cards, is a way that some marabouts exert their influence in the region to attain votes. Other marabout may actually seek out political office, but most prefer to use their influence as an intermediary of politics in Senegal. As noted above, following a period of repression, French colonial administrators recognized that

9514-412: The alleged bombing of opposition party headquarters by the presidential guard. Between 50 and 100 citizens were killed by security forces and 1,000 arrested. International observers criticized irregularities, including unnaturally high turnout reported for some districts. The country's supreme court threw out some suspect precincts, and the ballots have been destroyed. The election was declared in favour of

9648-580: The announcement of his victory was met with skepticism by some opposition candidates, sparking sporadic protests across the country. Nowhere was this discontent more pronounced than in Port-Gentil , where allegations of electoral fraud resulted in violent demonstrations. The unrest claimed four lives and led to significant property damage, including attacks on the French Consulate and a local prison. Subsequently, security forces were deployed, and

9782-513: The area were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes as they migrated. By the 18th century, a Myeni -speaking kingdom known as the Kingdom of Orungu formed as a trading centre with the ability to purchase and sell slaves, and fell with the demise of the slave trade in the 1870s. Explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza led his first mission to the Gabon-Congo area in 1875. He founded

9916-493: The breakaway Morena Fundamental and the Gabonese Progress Party . The April 1990 conference approved political reforms, including creation of a national Senate , decentralization of the budgetary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of an exit visa requirement. In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multiparty democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created

10050-467: The brotherhood's leaders and interests. The most notable of these was Blaise Diagne , whose successful campaign to the Chamber of Deputies in 1914 they subsidized. Together with the continued cooperation with the colonial administration, this successful partnership built the foundation for the future cooperation between the Senegalese government and the Mouride brotherhood. This was further strengthened by

10184-588: The central role of Mourides in Senegal has meant that even some Salafist-inspired reform movements have, over time, softened anti-maraboutic stances in order to focus on other issues, at times even cooperating with notable Mourides in order to gain popular support and pursue goals appealing to most Muslims. Other types of reform have come from inside the Mouride order, with younger marabouts drawing inspirations from reformists and West African Pentecostalism . They combine these inspirations with aspects of traditional Mouride beliefs, offering new forms of worship removed from

10318-511: The city more autonomy. While the effects of this are contested, the Grand Marabout did issue a forceful njebbel in support of Diouf for the 1988 elections, according to which failure to vote for him amounted to betrayal of Cheick Amadou Bamba’s will. However, this move was unpopular with many Mourides, and later led to a retreat from national politics by the position of the Grand Marabout. The public perception of Mourides’ involvement in

10452-562: The close alliance with Léopold Senghor , who had courted the Mourides and other Sufi orders from early on. Senghor campaigned on stabilizing the price of groundnuts , vital to Mouride economic interests (see below) and promised to subsidize the completion of the Grand Mosque of Touba. In this way Senghor gained the electoral support of the Mourides while the order and the Grand Marabout benefitted from investments in Touba’s infrastructure and

10586-412: The colonial period, when it was created to defuse tension and demonstrate mutual recognition between the powerful Mourides and the French colonial government. Informally, pilgrims also visit Touba's renowned marketplace, one of the biggest in the country. Because of the minimal government presence in the city (due to its religious character), business is conducted with little state regulation or oversight;

10720-467: The country should be run by someone the people really wanted. He selected 19 ministers for his government, and the entire group, along with hundreds of others, spent the night at the United Nations headquarters. On January 26, the government dissolved Mba Obame's party. AU chairman Jean Ping said that Mba Obame's action "hurts the integrity of legitimate institutions and also endangers the peace,

10854-440: The culture of work among Mourides with his concept of Dieuf Dieul , ("you reap what you sow"). Ibra Fall helped Amadou Bamba to expand Mouridism, in particular with Fall's establishment of the Baye Fall movement. For this contribution, Serigne Fallou, the second Caliph (leader) after Amadou Bamba, named him "Lamp Fall" (the light of Mouridism). In addition, Ibrahima Fall earned the title باب المريدين Bab al-Murīdīna , "Gate of

10988-479: The date for the Grand Magal changes from year to year. Thus, each year in the Gregorian calendar, the pilgrimage starts eleven days (sometimes ten days) earlier than the preceding year. This makes it possible for the pilgrimage season to fall twice in one Gregorian year, and it does so every 33 years, most recently in 2013. The table below shows the Gregorian dates of the Grand Magal of recent years: The Grand Magal

11122-450: The development of local industry, preferring to force the exchange of raw materials for European finished goods, and a large number of taxation measures were instituted. At the end of the 19th century, French colonial authorities began to worry about the growing power of the Mouride brotherhood and its potential to resist French colonialism. Bamba, who had converted various kings and their followers, could probably have raised an army against

11256-411: The distribution of land, especially during periods of expanding peanut cultivation. Mouride social organization was developed in the context of the expanding peanut economy and its unique formulation was adapted to the economic imperatives of that context. The most distinctive institutional expression of Mouride agro-religious innovation is the daara, an agricultural community of young men in the service of

11390-401: The economy so that Gabon becomes less reliant on petroleum, to eliminate corruption, and to modernize the workforce. Under this program, exports of raw timber have been banned, a government-wide census was held, the work day was changed to eliminate a long midday break, and a national oil company was created. On 25 January 2011, opposition leader André Mba Obame claimed the presidency, saying

11524-445: The first Mouride gathering on the anniversary of his death rather than his exile (the first of these early Magals occurred in 1928, with an estimated participation of 70,000). This date remained until 1946, when Serigne Moustapha Mbacke's successor, Falilou Mbacke, changed the date of the Magal to the anniversary of Bamba's exile, in accordance with Bamba's original wishes. The period of exile in Gabon holds great importance to Mourides: it

11658-552: The first country to receive payments for reducing emissions resulting from deforestation and forest degradation. Additionally, in June 2022, Gabon, along with Togo , joined the Commonwealth of Nations , signalling its commitment to multilateral engagement and cooperation. In August 2023, following the announcement that Ali Bongo had won a third term in the general election , military officers announced that they had taken power in

11792-420: The government places an importance on the Mouride cultivators, the disciples do not have efficient ways of cultivating groundnuts, and their techniques are often destructive to the land. Rather than looking out for the best use of the land, the Mouride cultivators are more interested in a fast payback. The methods used by the marabout have led to a constant depletion of the forests in Senegal and have taken much of

11926-540: The government. In an effort to reduce corruption and government bloat, he eliminated 17 minister-level positions, abolished the Vice Presidency and reorganized the portfolios of some ministries, bureaus and directorates. In November 2009, President Bongo Ondimba announced a new vision for the modernization of Gabon, called "Gabon Emergent". This program contains three pillars: Green Gabon, Service Gabon, and Industrial Gabon. The goals of Gabon Emergent are to diversify

12060-422: The hard labor is often replaced by members roaming the streets asking for financial donations for their marabout . Several Baye Fall are talented musicians. A prominent member of the Baye Fall is the Senegalese musician Cheikh Lô . Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba taught the Three Pillars of Mouridism: In summary, a Mouride aspires to achieve Islam by following the basic recommendations of Shariat . This includes (but

12194-473: The heart of the Mouride movement. After his death Bamba has been succeeded by his descendants as hereditary leaders of the brotherhood. The caliph (leader) of the Mouride brotherhood is known as the Grand Marabout and has his seat in Touba. The first five caliphs were all sons of Amadou Bamba , starting with his eldest son: The Grand Marabout is a direct descendant of Amadou Bamba himself and

12328-444: The highest level of politics changed with the election of Abdoulaye Wade in 2000. A devout Mouride, Wade travelled to Touba the day after his election to seek the blessing of the Grand Marabout, Serigne Saliou Mbacké . Wade pledged financial support for the Mourides and included notable Mourides in his government, securing public support of notable Mourides – however not that of the Grand Marabout. This support allowed Wade to cultivate

12462-489: The incumbent Ondimba. The European Parliament issued two resolutions denouncing the unclear results of the election and calling for an investigation on the human rights violations. A few days after the controversial presidential election in August 2023, a group of military officials declared a military coup and that they had overthrown the government and deposed Ali Bongo Ondimba. The announcement came hours after Ali Bongo

12596-419: The issues of urban migrants but have since spread across the country to rural areas as well. Next to providing a community of like-minded Mourides, they help facilitate the participation of members at important festivals and help raise funds for sudden expenses which individuals may be unable to cover themselves, such as funeral costs. Daaras are madrassas or Quranic schools. They were originally founded by

12730-456: The laborers). They continued to turn a share of their agricultural output over to their spiritual guide, as groundnut production was the community's only means of sustenance. The large share of the Mouride's control over the groundnut production has placed them in the center of the nation's economy. The government's economic planners in turn have kept the brotherhood in their minds when establishing policies about groundnut production. Although

12864-471: The last 2.5 million years of the Quaternary . The rifting apart of the supercontinent Pangaea created rift basins that filled with sediments and formed the hydrocarbons. There are Oklo reactor zones, a natural nuclear fission reactor on Earth which was active 2 billion years ago. The site was discovered during uranium mining in the 1970s to supply the French nuclear power industry. Its largest river

12998-428: The marabouts can only explained because their talibes see them as intercessors or even intermediaries with god. This charismatic relationship is reinforced and complemented by a parallel clientelistic relationship between marabout and follower. The results is that marabouts are expected to provide certain material benefits to their follower in addition to the spiritual ones. This patronage function has been important in

13132-401: The marabouts, their cooperation with the French colonial system, and their authoritarian position inside Senegal’s religious system. The Mourides’ strong economic position and political influence (see below), system of unconditional submission to their marabouts, and focus on labour over prayer, made them a natural target of the reformers. The importance of marabouts and saints in Mouride thought

13266-538: The marabouts’ political influence through a number of agricultural reforms. Mouride leaders’ support lay squarely with Senghor, and Dia could muster little popular support among the rural population who followed their marabouts’ loyalties. This unwavering support of Senghor continued until Fallilou Mbacké’s death in 1968, after which relations with the government cooled. Support for the government returned with Senghor’s successor Adbou Diouf in 1980, who again allocated funds to infrastructure projects in Touba and afforded

13400-421: The mediators between Allah and the people. The people seek the help of marabouts for protection from the evil spirits, to improve one's status (in terms of career, love or relationship, finances etc.), to obtain a cure or remedy for sickness, or even to curse an enemy. Marabouts are believed to have the ability to deal with the spirit world and seek the spirits’ help in things impossible for humans. The spirits’ help

13534-838: The nation's economy , for example the transportation sector and the peanut plantations. Ordinary followers donate part of their income to the Mouridiya. Islam is central to the political sociology of Senegal: the religious elite carry great weight in national politics; political discourse is replete with references and appeals to Islam. There is virtually no opposition to the principle of the secular state, socio-political cleavages based on religion, whether between Muslim and non-Muslim or between Sufi orders, are also virtually non-existent. Within Muslim discourse we find constant reference to such concepts as Islamic government, Islamic economics, or Islamic social order. The essential Islamic core lies in

13668-412: The nature of leadership and the relations between leaders and followers, the nature and sources of power and authority and the limits and constraints of the economy are all factors, which mediate and direct the impact of Islam on Politics. Senegalese elites have not found appeals to ethnic solidarity a productive means of building a mass following. Common religious affiliation has played a role in defusing

13802-494: The new French Community . The leaders of the main Senegalese Sufi orders jointly announced their loyalty to Charles de Gaulle and their support of the proposed French Community. Their campaigning, supported by the French Administration, led to the overwhelming yes of nearly 98% being coined “the marabouts’ Yes.” Shaikh Amadou Bamba was buried in 1927 at the Great Mosque in Touba, the holy city of Mouridism and

13936-481: The nutrients out of the soil. Government agencies have made attempts to help the marabout become more efficient in groundnut production, such as providing incentives for the workers to slow down their production. Because of their emphasis on work, the Mouride brotherhood is economically well-established in parts of Africa, especially in Senegal and the Gambia. In Senegal, the brotherhood controls significant sections of

14070-403: The outcome as fraudulent, some international observers characterized the results as representative "despite many perceived irregularities". Legislative elections held in 2001–2002 were boycotted by a number of smaller opposition parties and were criticized for their administrative weaknesses, produced a National Assembly dominated by PDG and allied independents. In November 2005 President Omar Bongo

14204-536: The pilgrimage, according to the lieutenant-colonel of the National Fire Brigade. In Touba, workers must act with a high degree of discipline, solidarity, and single-mindedness. The Mouride Baye Fall sect are the principle drivers of this effort and provide much of the logistical manpower. Additionally, different local associations of Mourides (called da'iras) are responsible for maintaining different pilgrimage sites and residents of Touba house and feed

14338-618: The pilgrimage, and are led by the Committee of Organization of the Grand Magal of Touba. Special health measures were planned for the October 2020 pilgrimage because of the COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal . By the late 1970s, significant numbers of Mourides were living abroad; this presence has only grown with the intensifying globalization of the past decades. Community associations of disciples, known as dahiras (a Wolof term derived from

14472-408: The pilgrims. The Senegalese government also provides some technical support, although this is generally kept to a minimum due to the religious nature of the event and site. In 2014, 1300 policemen and 160 healthcare workers were deployed to Touba during the Magal, and the army gave out bread rolls and coffee. Preparations for the pilgrimage begin officially on 1 Safar each year, seventeen days prior to

14606-867: The population earn over 90% of the income while about a third of the Gabonese population lives in poverty. The economy is dependent on extraction. Before the discovery of oil, logging was the "pillar" of the Gabonese economy. Then, logging and manganese mining are the "next-most-important" income generators. Some explorations suggest the presence of the world's largest unexploited iron ore deposit. For some who live in rural areas without access to employment opportunity in extractive industries, remittances from family members in urban areas or subsistence activities provide income. Mouride#Baye Fall Others In terms of Ihsan : The Mouride brotherhood ( Wolof : yoonu murit , Arabic : الطريقة المريدية aṭ-Ṭarīqat al-Murīdiyyah or simply المريدية , al-Murīdiyyah )

14740-437: The potential for tensions that arise from other social cleavages. There however remains a potential for ethnic and caste divides to enter the Senegalese socio-political organization. The Senegalese have a mystical aspect to Islam, much like other Sufism brotherhoods. In Senegal, Islamic practice usually requires membership in religious brotherhoods that are dedicated to the marabouts of these groups. Marabouts are believed to be

14874-464: The president. It is divided into 9 provinces which are subdivided into 50 departments . The president appoints the provincial governors, the prefects, and the subprefects. The provinces are (capitals in parentheses): Gabon is located on the Atlantic coast of central Africa on the equator , between latitudes 3°N and 4°S , and longitudes 8° and 15°E . Gabon has an equatorial climate with

15008-702: The president. After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991. Opposition to PDG continued after the April 1990 conference, and in September 1990, two coup d'état attempts were uncovered and aborted. With demonstrations after the death of an opposition leader, the first multiparty National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place in September–October 1990, with PDG garnering

15142-434: The presidential transition. The political landscape was further disrupted in January 2019 when a group of soldiers attempted a coup against President Ali Bongo. Despite initial unrest, the coup ultimately failed, but it highlighted the ongoing challenges facing Gabon's political stability. Against this backdrop of political volatility, Gabon achieved significant milestones on the international stage. In June 2021, it became

15276-403: The prime minister, the cabinet, and judges of the independent Supreme Court. The president has other powers such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, and conduct referendums. Gabon has a bicameral legislature with a National Assembly and Senate. The National Assembly has 120 deputies who are popularly elected for a five-year term. The Senate

15410-416: The production labor which is performed in the service of God. Thus the Mourides devoted themselves to prayer and unpaid agricultural labor in service to their religious leaders. They cultivated the marabout's fields for a decade, and then returned all land profits earned from the groundnut production. After ten years of dedicated work, laborers then received a share of land (large estates were divided up among

15544-533: The rotating presidency in March 2010. In 2022, Gabon joined the Commonwealth of Nations . In 2024, ruling junta leader Brice Oligui Nguema assured American and French leaders that Gabon would be an ally of the West moving forward, as a part of his broader plan to solve the ongoing debt crisis. It has a professional military of about 5,000 personnel, divided into army , navy , air force , gendarmerie , and police force. A 1,800-member guard provides security for

15678-584: The same age, gender, occupation, or school, linking them across Senegal and even abroad. A key example of this is the Hizbut-Tarqiyyah , which brought together Mouride students and alumni of the University of Dakar . Notably many Mouride dahiras name the Grand Marabout as their patron and thereby avoid allegiance to a specific marabout inside the order. Dahiras first appeared in urban areas as religious solidarity and mutual aid groups to tackle

15812-421: The security and the stability of Gabon." Interior Minister Jean-François Ndongou accused Mba Obame and his supporters of treason . The UN Secretary-General , Ban Ki-moon , said that he recognized Ondimba as the only official Gabonese president. The 2016 presidential election was disputed, with "very close" official results reported. Protests broke out in the capital and met a repression which culminated in

15946-488: The shared belief in the fundamental unity of the Muslim world. The sense of belonging to a larger community, felt by many Muslims, is reinforced by the common use of Arabic as the language of prayer and religious learning. Islam is a powerful mobilization instrument and provides the rhetoric for the formulation of ideological movements, and serves as a force for mobilizing people in the pursuit of goals defined by those movements. The role of local Islamic social structures,

16080-405: The shaykh, his descendants, or disciples to teach the Quran and the khassida (or xassida , poems honoring Muhammad) as well as cultivating the land. Hence they have grown to be associations of Mourides, generally based on shared allegiance to a particular marabout . One famous disciple of Bamba, Ibrahima Fall , was known for his dedication to God and considered work as a form of adoration. Fall

16214-467: The singing of sacred Mouride poetry and watching of televised footage from Touba is especially important, as these practices connect expatriate Mourides to their spiritual brethren in Touba. With the organizational support of the dahiras , the Grand Magal and can now be accurately characterized as a truly global phenomenon. Gabon Gabon ( / ɡ ə ˈ b ɒ n / gə- BON ; French pronunciation: [ɡabɔ̃] ), officially

16348-472: The situations they find themselves in. The Mourides have wielded significant political influence on the national and local scale for most of their history. In a 1965 survey, elite Senegalese named Mouride Grand Marabout Fallilou Mbacké as the second most influential person in the country. Since then, the order has been described as having played a major role in fostering consent for government policies, and as being important political power brokers. As part of

16482-427: The symbolic power of state support. After universal suffrage was given in 1956, Senegal saw a rapid increase in the number of voters, almost triple the number just 10 years prior. This swift increase meant more power for the marabout whose outreach spread largely over the rural and peasant communities, which now had the opportunity to vote. Because of the 'marabouts' far reaching influence in Senegal, politicians made

16616-710: The system most likely to promote rapid economic growth. It involved itself in mediation efforts in Chad , the Central African Republic , Angola , the Republic of the Congo , the Democratic Republic of the Congo (D.R.C.), and Burundi . In December 1999, through the mediation efforts of President Bongo, a peace accord was signed in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) between the government and most leaders of an armed rebellion. President Bongo

16750-509: The time of the foundation of the Mouride brotherhood in 1883, the French were in control of Senegal as well as most of West and North Africa . Although it had shared in the horrors of the pre-colonial slave trade , French West Africa was managed relatively better than other African regions during the Scramble for Africa and ensuing colonial era . Senegal enjoyed small measures of self-rule in many areas. However, French rule still discouraged

16884-478: The town of Franceville and was later colonial governor. Some Bantu groups lived in the area when France officially occupied it in 1885. In 1910, Gabon became a territory of French Equatorial Africa , a federation that survived until 1958. In World War II , the Allies invaded Gabon in order to overthrow the pro- Vichy France colonial administration. On 28 November 1958, Gabon became an autonomous republic within

17018-642: The wider Muslim world, the return of students from the Salafist and Wahhabist -influenced Islamic universities in the Middle East brought a new Islamic Reform movement to Senegal post-Second World War. As these movements rejected many of the Sufi traditions and foundations that marked Islam in West Africa, and had been linked to the idea of an “ Islam noir ” by French colonial administrators, they opposed

17152-445: Was drafted in May 1990 as an outgrowth of the national political conference in March–April and later revised by a constitutional committee. Among its provisions were a Western-style bill of rights , creation of a National Council of Democracy to oversee the guarantee of those rights, a governmental advisory board on economic and social issues, and an independent judiciary. After approval by the National Assembly, PDG Central Committee, and

17286-487: Was elected for his sixth term. He won re-election, and opponents claim that the balloting process was marred by irregularities. There were some instances of violence following the announcement of his win. National Assembly elections were held in December 2006. Some seats contested because of voting irregularities were overturned by the Constitutional Court , and the subsequent run-off elections in 2007 yielded

17420-531: Was elected president in February 1975; in April 1975, the position of vice president was abolished and replaced by the position of prime minister, who had no right to automatic succession. Bongo was re-elected President in December 1979 and November 1986 to 7-year terms. In 1990, economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked demonstrations and strikes by students and workers. In response to grievances by workers, Bongo negotiated with them on

17554-826: Was involved in the continuing D.R.C. peace process, and played a role in mediating the crisis in Ivory Coast . Gabon is a member of the United Nations (UN) and some of its specialized and related agencies, and of the World Bank ; the IMF ; the African Union (AU); the Central African Customs Union/Central African Economic and Monetary Community (UDEAC/CEMAC); EU/ACP association under the Lomé Convention ;

17688-536: Was officially re-elected for a third term. General Brice Oligui Nguema was appointed as the transitional leader. This event marked the eighth instance of military intervention in the region since 2020, raising concerns about democratic stability. Since independence, Gabon has followed a nonaligned policy, advocating dialogue in international affairs and recognizing each side of divided countries. In intra-African affairs, it espouses development by evolution rather than revolution and favours regulated private enterprise as

17822-429: Was seen as shirk . This also extended to locations, with reformers opposing the central role of the holy city of Touba and the Mouride tradition of spending significant amounts of money to transport dead relatives to be buried in the city. On a more popular level, the eccentricities of the Baye Fall have also been associated with the Mourides as a whole and been used to criticise them by various non-Mourides. However,

17956-525: Was the one to introduce the conduct with which a disciple should interact with his Shaykh, based on the example of the Sahabas and concepts presented in the 49th chapter of the Quran Al-Hujurat . Ibrahima Fall was responsible for guiding many of Bamba's more eccentric followers and new converts to Islam. His followers were the precursor to a subgroup of the Mouride brotherhood today referred to as

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