93-653: The following is a list of Mongol rulers . The list of states is chronological but follows the development of different dynasties. Before Kublai Khan announced the dynastic name "Great Yuan" in 1271, Khagans (Great Khans) of the Mongol Empire ( Ikh Mongol Uls ) already started to use the Chinese title of Emperor ( Chinese : 皇帝 ; pinyin : Huángdì ) practically in the Chinese language since Genghis Khan (as 成吉思皇帝 ; 'Genghis Emperor'). With
186-612: A Christian church in Gansu . Sorghaghtani bore Tolui at least four children. They included: In 1310, she was regarded as "Empress" in a ceremony that included a mass. Sorghaghtani was enshrined in a Christian church in Ganzhou in 1335, and sacrifices were ordered to be offered here. By 1480 a cult had been conducted for her memory at the orda that was kept by the Chahars . This ordo moved to Ordos City (in modern Inner Mongolia ) in
279-494: A basis and for the strengthening of these edifices laid such a foundation that no turban-wearer would have been capable of the like or could have dealt with these matters with the like brilliance. In any business which [Ogedei] Qa'an undertook, whether with regard to the weal of the Empire or the disposal of the army, he used first to consult and confer with her and would suffer no change or alteration of whatever she recommended... For
372-535: A ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River . Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from the killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger per a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai
465-732: A conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts. Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate , the Golden Horde , and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of
558-612: A decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there. From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song dynasty. Kublai heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng , and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts. Kublai also appointed
651-470: A decline in tax revenues. Kublai quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani Beki sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned. The most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Han culture . Kublai invited Haiyun,
744-455: A difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan. Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali emperor Duan Xingzhi ( 段興智 ) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer
837-742: A few months and Li Tan was executed. These armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. The incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to ethnic Han warlords. Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated
930-656: A grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants. Kublai's son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277,
1023-410: A group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids. Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened
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#17327720183251116-638: A large kurultai . However, he immediately set out to undermine his mother's power as well as that of Sorghaghtani, Alaqai Beki (the Ongud ruler and daughter of Genghis Khan) and Ebuskun (the wife of Chagatai Khan , regent for the Central Asian Empire). Meanwhile, the ambitious Sorghaghtani had secretly teamed up with Güyük's cousin Batu Khan , the senior male in the Borjigin and ruler of
1209-654: A legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan. Defections from Kublai's dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces. The Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese people to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists . The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song , were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took
1302-467: A peace agreement with Sidao. Kublai received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian Plateau. Before he arrived, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum , which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. Kublai and
1395-458: A personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye . Kublai succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports, and canals, and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign. Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai
1488-512: A punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Ariq Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on 21 August 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia. When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai , Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke , khan of
1581-430: Is a title), also written Sorkaktani , Sorkhokhtani , Sorkhogtani , Siyurkuktiti ( c. 1190 – 1 March 1252 ), posthumous name Empress Xianyi Zhuangsheng ( Chinese : 顯懿莊聖皇后 ; pinyin : Xiǎnyì Zhuāngshèng Huánghòu and Persian : سرقویتی بیگی , Sorghoiti Bigi ), was a Keraite princess and daughter-in-law of Genghis Khan . Married to Tolui , Genghis' youngest son, Sorghaghtani became one of
1674-521: Is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins. In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall. It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and
1767-520: The Borjigin lines except that of Jochi . This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on 15 April 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become Khan. This led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongol capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping, and won over several wavering generals. To secure
1860-556: The Golden Horde (north of the Caspian Sea to Bulgaria ). In 1248, when Güyük was setting out on a campaign to the Middle East (ostensibly for conquest, but possibly to defeat Batu Khan), he died under somewhat suspicious circumstances; some have speculated that Sorghaghtani may have taken "direct action against Güyük". After Güyük's death, Sorghaghtani sent her eldest son Möngke to Batu Khan. Batu and Sorghaghtani championed
1953-481: The Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam). In 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout , Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep
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#17327720183252046-592: The Golden Horde , at first accepted Kublai's invitation. However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai . Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters. The mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258) , and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. In 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of
2139-584: The House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin . When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in
2232-622: The Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic . In 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China proper . Kublai received the viceroyalty over northern China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia . During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted
2325-632: The South China Sea and the Indian Ocean . In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue for the government was the monopoly of salt production. The Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on. In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao ; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation,
2418-688: The Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed
2511-402: The censorate . Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission. In the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu ( Chinese : 大都 ; Wade–Giles : Ta-tu ; lit. 'Grand Capital', known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, modern Beijing)
2604-476: The " Muslim trebuchet " (or Huihui Pao ), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang . Although Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely ethnic Han in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak , Alan ( Asud ), and Russian units. Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under
2697-508: The 17th century. She is spoken of very highly both in the Secret History , as well as by Muslim, Chinese and Christian historians. If I were to see among the race of women another woman like this, I should say that the race of women was far superior to that of men. Among the Mongols this lady is the most renowned, with the exception of the emperor Güyük's mother Töregene. Extremely intelligent and able...the most intelligent woman in
2790-488: The Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members. Kublai Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai ,
2883-413: The Empire's administration, which meant she played a pivotal role in securing the lands won under Genghis Khan. Ögedei sought to link her realm to his and proposed marriage, which she declined; he then proposed that she marry his son Güyük (Mongol widows often married again within the family), but she refused, claiming that her four sons needed her attention. This decision later turned out to be one of
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2976-566: The Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde , established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai. Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued. Kublai Khan considered China his main base, realizing within
3069-534: The Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus . In 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrendered his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy. Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back. Kublai called two Iraqi siege engineers from
3162-530: The Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there. Kublai renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. When he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq , also called Dadu, in modern-day Beijing, there
3255-535: The Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns. Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin , where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and
3348-420: The Ilkhanate to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander. Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China. The census took place in all parts of
3441-467: The Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire. When Hulagu died on 8 February 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of
3534-544: The Middle East and Europe as Khagan. By 1279, the Yuan conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non- Han emperor to rule all of China proper . The imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the National Palace Museum collection in Taipei. White, the color of the imperial costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of
3627-556: The Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterward he was assassinated. Kublai encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjiào (玄教, "Mysterious Order"). Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Several Europeans visited
3720-720: The Mongol Empire promulgated the notion of state above religion while supporting all major religions of the time. Sorghaghtani also financed the construction of a madrasa in Bukhara and gave alms to both Christians and Muslims . Sorghaghtani's husband Tolui, whose appanages included eastern Mongolia, parts of Iran and northern China, died at the age of 41 in 1232. Ögedei Khan , Genghis's third son who had succeeded his father, gave her enduring authority to handle Tolui's estates. The Secret History suggests that Ögedei may have consulted Sorghaghtani on various matters, and he always held her in high regard. Ögedei appointed her in charge of
3813-624: The Mongols or Northern Yuan dynasty (rump state of Yuan dynasty until 1388): Independent Khalkha Mongol Khans (before Outer Mongolia merged into the Manchu Qing dynasty): Kublai Khan Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan , was the founder and first emperor of the Mongol -led Yuan dynasty of China. He proclaimed
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3906-646: The Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor , giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks . In 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script , he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer the affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet,
3999-511: The Yuan capitol). Kublai Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi . Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar. Muslim cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced
4092-462: The Yuan dynasty based on the Chinese philosophical concept of the Five Elements . Kublai Khan was the fourth son of Tolui , and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki . As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia , Genghis Khan performed
4185-923: The Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan Dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000. Yuan Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish ( kashrut ) or Muslim ( dhabihah ) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision
4278-517: The Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq. In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam ( dhabihah ) or Judaism ( kashrut ), which offended Mongolian custom. When Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After
4371-443: The agricultural output of Henan , and increased social welfare spending after receiving Xi'an . These acts received great acclaim from ethnic Han warlords and were essential to the founding of the Yuan dynasty. In 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his ethnic Han associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward
4464-490: The assassination of Ahmad Fanakati and execution of his sons, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor . Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke , Köchü , and Nogai, agreed to release two princes. The court of
4557-557: The beginning of the fragmentation of the empire. Kublai's real power was limited to the Yuan Empire, even though as Khagan he still influenced the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, the Golden Horde . In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty and formally claimed orthodox succession from prior Chinese dynasties. The Yuan dynasty came to rule over most of present-day China, Mongolia , Korea , southern Siberia, and other adjacent areas. He also amassed influence in
4650-574: The capital of the Golden Horde. The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime. Kublai also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana , the empress of the Chagatai Khanate , who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death. Prince Kaidu of
4743-535: The charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali . Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates. Mongol and Han units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in southern China. Effective assimilation of
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#17327720183254836-527: The crumbling Southern Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated invasions of Japan . Kublai Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships. Sorghaghtani Beki Sorghaghtani Beki ( Mongolian : Сорхагтани Бэхи / ᠰᠤᠷᠬᠠᠭᠲᠠᠨᠢ ᠪᠡᠬᠢ ; Chinese : 唆魯禾帖尼 ) or Bekhi ( Bek(h)i
4929-553: The currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state-sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually, a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. It was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan
5022-557: The death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan , near the Yangtze . While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang , Uryankhadai joined him. The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states. Kublai declined at first but later reached
5115-724: The disintegration of the Ilkhanate raised their own candidates as claimants. Claimants from eastern Persia (Khurasan): The Chagatai Khanate was split into two parts, the Western Chagatai Khanate and the Eastern Chagatai Khanate (Moghulistan). From 1370 on, the Western Chagatai Khans were puppets of Timur. Moghulistan was split into the Turpan Khanate and Yarkent Khanate in the late 15th century. . Khagans of
5208-494: The dynastic name "Great Yuan" in 1271, and ruled Yuan China until his death in 1294. Kublai was the second son of Tolui by his chief wife Sorghaghtani Beki , and a grandson of Genghis Khan . He was almost 12 when Genghis Khan died in 1227. He had succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked
5301-468: The east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel. This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died
5394-618: The eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu , killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified. Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo on the Korean Peninsula and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan. Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of
5487-483: The elder of the daughters, Ibaqa Beki (later handed over to the general Jürchedei ), and gave young Sorghaghtani, who was still a teenager, to his son Tolui . Sorghaghtani's father Jakha was killed by Jürchedei when the Keraites revolted against Genghis Khan after 1204. Like most Mongol women of the time, Sorghaghtani wielded great authority at home. Mongol women had far more rights than in many other cultures at
5580-691: The empire, notably the Italian explorer Marco Polo in the 1270s, who was appointed to serve as Khan's foreign emissary throughout the empire and lived in the emperor's lands for 17 years. During the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu , Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou , while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until
5673-465: The establishment of the Yuan dynasty in 1271, the Kublaids became Yuan emperors, who took on a dual identity of Khagan for the Mongols and Huangdi for ethnic Han . Ögedei Khanete Kaydu Ulus Yenisei Kingdom Actual rulers of the Golden Horde (Jochid Ulus, Kipchak Khanate) were members of the House of Batu until 1361. After the murder of Arpa, the regional states established during
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#17327720183255766-437: The following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu ( Chinese : 上都 ; lit. 'Upper Capital', also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor ). To unify China, Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into
5859-431: The fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu , opposed this. Kublai's ethnic Han staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in northern China and Manchuria supported his candidacy. Upon returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all
5952-527: The head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum . Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Han officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission
6045-421: The introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, the war against the Southern Song dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding. Within Kublai's court, his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongol, Semu , Korean, Hui, and Han peoples. Because the Wokou extended support to
6138-556: The knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants. Muslim physicians organized hospitals and had their institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu . In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna 's works were also published in China during that period. Muslim mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry , Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China. Kublai brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented
6231-522: The leading Buddhist monk in northern China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold ). Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist) , and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing. Kublai soon added
6324-407: The legacy of their grandfather. Given her enormous impact at such a critical point of the mighty Mongol Empire, she is likely one of the most influential and powerful women in history. Sorghaghtani was a Christian, specifically a member of the Church of the East (often misleadingly referred to as "Nestorianism"). As a moving spirit behind the Mongol Empire , Sorghaghtani is responsible for much of
6417-729: The most important ones in the formation of the Mongol Empire, as all four of Sorghaghtani's sons (grandsons of Genghis) became important leaders in their own right. When Sorghaghtani asked for part of Hebei as her appanage in 1236 after the end of the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty , Ögedei hesitated, but not for long. She shunned him into compliance by pointing out that the place was hers by right anyway because her husband had conquered it. However, Ögedei also expanded his appanage, seizing some territories of Tolui and taking most of Sorghaghtani's soldiers. After Ögedei Khan died in 1241, his wife Töregene Khatun ruled as regent until 1246, when she managed to get her son Güyük elected as Khagan at
6510-407: The most powerful and competent people in the Mongol Empire . She made policy decisions at a pivotal moment that led to the transition of the Mongol Empire towards a more cosmopolitan and sophisticated style of administration. She raised her sons to be leaders and maneuvered the family politics so that all four of her sons, Möngke Khan , Hulagu Khan , Ariq Böke , and Kublai Khan , went on to inherit
6603-410: The name of Möngke, who had fought along with Batu in the European campaign , as Khagan. Möngke was named Great Khan at a kurultai organized by Batu in Siberia sometime before 1250, but this was contested as not being properly in Mongolia. However, the ancient Mongol homeland where Genghis was born was in her regency, so she organized a kurultai here which was attended by Batu's brother Berke . Möngke
6696-484: The naval techniques of the Han people allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song. In 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted , attacking Sakya monasteries . The Chagatayid Khan, Duwa , helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin . Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in
6789-410: The next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu. Meanwhile, Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado . Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite
6882-484: The old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. Kublai decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268. After the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to
6975-522: The report of her wisdom and prudence and the fame of her counsel and sagacity had spread to all parts, and none would gainsay her word. Furthermore, in the management of her household and in the ceremonial of her court she laid for kinsmen and stranger such a foundation as the khans of the world had not been capable of." Sorghaghtani was the niece of the powerful Keraite leader of the Mongols , Ong Khan (often known simply as Toghrul). To Europeans, Toghrul
7068-399: The rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there. After Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of
7161-562: The sea and ending the Song dynasty . Most of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor. This included China proper , Manchuria , Mongolia , and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula. The Central Region ( Chinese : 腹裏 ) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China . It
7254-425: The southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou , but Jia broke his promise and arrested them. Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate . Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu , crowned khan of Chagatai 's territory. In the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar
7347-535: The throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Han Confucian-trained officials. In 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he tried to ask the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys . The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took
7440-409: The time when they became qa'ans and rulers through the efforts and endeavors of their mother and as the result of her ability and intelligence. Now in the management and education of all her sons, in the administration of affairs of state, in the maintenance of dignity and prestige and in the execution of business, [Sorghaghtani] Beki, by the nicety of her judgment and discrimination, constructed such
7533-409: The time, especially since the men were often away and they were the ones responsible for the home. Although she herself was illiterate, she recognized the value of literacy in running such a far-flung empire. Each of her sons learned a different language for different regions. Sorghaghtani, a Christian, respected other religions. Her sons, like Genghis, were all very tolerant in matters of religion, and
7626-536: The trade openings and intellectual exchange of the largest contiguous empire in world history. Sorghaghtani was the daughter of Jakha Gambhu, the younger brother of the powerful Keraite leader Toghrul , also known as Ong Khan. According to the Secret History of the Mongols , around 1203, when Toghrul was a more powerful leader than Temüjin, Temüjin proposed to Toghrul that Temüjin's eldest son Jochi might marry Toghrul's daughter or granddaughter, thus binding
7719-547: The tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongol army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan . Kublai was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian (1231–1280)
7812-544: The two groups. Toghrul refused this alliance and later attempted to kill the increasingly powerful Temüjin through an invitation to discuss this proposal. Temüjin discovered this plan and they escaped at the last moment. Eventually, the Keraites were routed in the ensuing war and Toghrul was killed, possibly by the Naimans . Unlike his brother, Jakha usually supported Temüjin and gave his two daughters to him and one more daughter to Genghis Khan's oldest son Jochi. Genghis married
7905-572: The world. There is no doubt that it was through her intelligence and ability that she raised the station of her sons above that of their cousins and caused them to attain to the rank of qa'ans and emperors. The bringing of the Khanate to the house of Tolui Khan and the placing of the right in its due place were due to the competence and shrewdness of Sorqoqtani Beki and the help and assistance of Batu, because of their friendship for one another...Sorqoqtani Beki, and his sons after his [Tolui's] death until
7998-626: Was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei , was enthroned as Khagan in 1229. After the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty , in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of ethnic Han peasants to flee, which led to
8091-500: Was abolished. Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke , who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him. The Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples . Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory. Kublai called
8184-669: Was also strictly forbidden. Thirty Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan. Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar , who became administrator of Yunnan . He was a well-learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China . Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of
8277-488: Was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?" Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be
8370-580: Was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs . Kublai promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal , repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of
8463-645: Was formally named the Great Khan. The Ögedei and Güyük families attempted to overthrow him but failed. Möngke arrested and drowned Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish , and many other members of Ögedei's family. Sorghaghtani fell ill and died in February or March 1252 around Tsagaan Sar , the Lunar New Year festival in the Mongolian calendar , a few months after Möngke's accession ceremony. She was buried in
8556-423: Was in a position to look beyond China. However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258) , Sakhalin (1264) , Burma (1277) , Champa (1282) , and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1281), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–88) , and the invasion of Java (1293) failed. At the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form
8649-551: Was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. Kublai cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan , son of Ögedei Khan . Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just
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