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102-603: In Lakota spirituality , Wakan Tanka ( Standard Lakota Orthography : Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka ) is the term for the sacred or the divine . This is usually translated as the " Great Spirit " and occasionally as "Great Mystery". Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka can be interpreted as the power or the sacredness that resides in everything, resembling some animistic and pantheistic beliefs. This term describes every creature and object as wakȟáŋ ("holy") or having aspects that are wakȟáŋ . The element Tanka or Tȟáŋka corresponds to "Great" or "large". Before contact with European Christian missionaries,

204-596: A catechist , teaching others about Christianity. He married again and had more children with his second wife; they were also baptized and reared as Catholic. He said his children "had to live in this world." His first wife Katie died in 1903. Black Elk became a Catholic in 1904, when he was in his 40s. He was christened with the name of Nicholas and later served as a catechist in the church. After this, other medicine men, including his nephew Fools Crow , referred to him both as Black Elk and Nicholas Black Elk. The widower Black Elk married again in 1905 to Anna Brings White,

306-758: A myth or legend from North America is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Lakota religion Lakota religion or Lakota spirituality is the traditional Native American religion of the Lakota people . It is practiced primarily in the North American Great Plains , within Lakota communities on reservations in North Dakota and South Dakota . The tradition has no formal leadership or organizational structure and displays much internal variation. Central to Lakota religion

408-416: A saint . Black Elk's conversion to Roman Catholicism has confused many, both Indigenous and Catholic. Biographer Jon M. Sweeney addressed this duality in 2020, explaining, "Nick didn't see reason to disconnect from his vision life after converting to Catholicism.... Was Black Elk a true Lakota in the second half of his life? Yes.... Was he also a real Christian? Yes." He is now designated by Catholics as

510-485: A šicų spirit that has its own personal name. The šicų is invited into the stone through a ritual called the cʻaštʻų , or the Inktomi Iowanpi (Spider Sing). These stones are often referred to as a thuká , an abbreviation of the term thukášila , or alternatively as íya wakhá (holy stones). Šicų -inhabited stones are deemed to protect their keeper, and contribute to the latter's power. They are worn if

612-680: A " Servant of God ", a title indicating that his life and works are being investigated by the Pope and the Catholic Church for possible canonization. His work to share the Gospel with Native and non-Native people and harmonize the faith with Lakota culture were noted at the Mass where this was announced. Damian Costello writes that Black Elk's Lakota Catholic faith was uniquely anti-colonial, stemming from his Ghost Dance vision. In this he says it

714-401: A "religious-historical sense of place and continuity." Disrespect to the land is seen as an affront to Lakota spirituality. In the Lakota worldview, there are six directions, each with an associated color: west (black), north (red), east (yellow), south (white), the earth (green), and the sky (blue). The cross symbolism involving turning to the four directions is acted out in procedures such as

816-405: A ceremonial crying or wailing, followed by lifting the arms up with palms outstretched and then putting them towards the ground in a sign of respect and gratitude. A sacred space for communicating with the spirits is termed hócʽoka ( hocoka ). These are not permanent spaces and ceremonial rules only apply for the duration of the ritual; DeMallie noted that no "sharp distinction" is made between

918-788: A distinct nation composed of seven groups by the 19th century. Many of their religious traditions reflected commonalities with those of other Sioux nations as well as non-Sioux communities like the Cheyenne . In the 1860s and 1870s, the United States government relocated most of the Lakota to the Great Sioux Reservation , where concerted efforts were made to convert them to Christianity . Most Lakota ultimately converted, although many also continued to practice certain Lakota traditions. The U.S. government also implemented measures to suppress traditional rites, for instance banning

1020-434: A few grains of tobacco. The spirits are believed to take the essence of the tobacco back to their homes. Sage is often employed in Lakota ceremonies; it is deemed sacred to wakʽą beings, with the spirits enjoying its aroma. As well as being used in prayer, it is burned for purification and tied into bundles given as offerings. Those picking leaves will often request permission from the plant before doing so. Suffering

1122-596: A foci for ritual activity, each being associated with particular prayers, rituals, and songs. Historically, many Lakota men have also had a wótʻawe or war bundle, which may consist of weapons and herbal medicines to treat wounds. Stones are also deemed capable of having their own niyá and being animate; Lakota lore teaches that they can move of their own accord, dance, communicate with humans, and produce sparks or blue light. Certain stones, usually small and spherical or egg-shaped ones, are believed to possess particular power. These stones are regarded as being inhabited by

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1224-441: A harmonious balance, although it is considered fundamentally incomprehensible and beyond humanity's ability to know it fully. In Lakota, objects or people who are imbued with wakʽą force can also be termed wakʽą . Practitioners of Lakota religion hold that humanity can share in wakʽą through ritual. Both wakʽą itself, and the rituals that pertain to it, are considered to be wókʽokipʽe (dangerous), with Stephen E. Feraca,

1326-469: A hollow wooden stem attached to a catlinite bowl. Catlinite is quarried from near Pipestone, Minnesota ; the Lakota term this iyanša (red stone), for in their mythology it formed from the blood of a people killed in a primordial flood. Additional material, such as eagle feathers, may be attached to the pipe. Smoking the pipe is a means of prayer; the Lakota word for pipe smoking and for prayer are both wacʽékiye . The substance smoked, kinnikinnick ,

1428-492: A mist arose and the man was reduced to bones. The other man treated her with respect, and she went on to teach his people how to use the sacred pipe, to perform seven ceremonies, and how to hunt buffalo. Lakota tradition holds that the White Buffalo Calf Woman will one day return to them from the east. Lakota religion draws a clear distinction between the physical body and a spiritual interior. It holds to

1530-531: A particular place, such as its former house or the tree in which it was buried. Ghosts bring problems for the living, causing sickness, anxiety, and death. Those who died unsatisfied are particularly prone to haunting the living; these may be appeased through ritual interventions. Ghosts are then driven away with incense or gunfire, or alternatively propitiated with offerings of tobacco or food. Lakota tradition holds that animals, spirits, rocks, trees, and medicine bundles are all persons with their own souls. Given

1632-410: A person is engaged in an important task or is in need of assistance from spirit beings. The bundle in which these stones are usually kept is called the wašícų tʻųká . Although generally supposed to be kept in the bundle when not in use, this is not always adhered to – Feraca encountered a large example which was used as a doorstop. The anthropologist Luis Kemnitzer noted that, for Lakota, land offers

1734-428: A person. Certain groups of spirits inhabit specific parts of the universe. The wakįyą ( wakinyan , "flying ones"), sometimes called thunder birds, are spirits of thunder and lightning deemed to live in the west. Although generally benevolent and thought capable of ridding evil with their cleansing rains, they require propitiaton to avoid their wrath. Other spirits include the ųktéĥipi ( unkteĥi ) water spirits,

1836-496: A puppy being selected, sometimes painted, and then strangled to death with a rope, after which its flesh will be prepared as the main dish of a religious feast. Once the dog meat is boiling in a pot, a ceremony called the Heyoka kaga is performed. This entails people dancing around the pot while singing songs to the heyoka spirits, plunging their hand into the boiling water intermittently. They then use forked sticks to try and remove

1938-506: A reaction against the Christian missionary use of the term "religion". The anthropologist David C. Posthumus suggested that the terms "religion" and "spirituality" could be used interchangeably when discussing Lakota traditions. A key concept in Lakota religion is wakʽą ( wakan ). This has been translated into English as "holy," "power," or "sacred." The anthropologist Raymond J. DeMallie described wakʽą as "the animating force of

2040-527: A regular basis". Black Elk came from a long lineage of medicine men and healers. His father was a medicine man, as were his paternal uncles. Black Elk was born into an Oglala Lakota family in December 1863 along the Little Powder River (at a site thought to be in the present-day state of Wyoming ). According to the Lakota way of measuring time (referred to as Winter counts ), Black Elk

2142-441: A relationship with them. In Lakota religion, prayer thus entails invoking a relationship with wakʽą beings, encouraging them to live up to the generosity expected of them as kin. Also part of wacʽékiye is the need to appear pitiful before the spirits, with Lakota prayers commonly featuring the expressions "pity me" and "pity us". For Lakota, prayer is also about placating the spirits and showing them respect. It usually entails

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2244-399: A rite according to custom can be seen as invalidating it and potentially causing harm. Conversely, Feraca observed a "lack of rigid standardization in Lakota ceremonialism." The right to lead a ceremony is typically deemed to derive from oral transmission from elders, from personal visions, or from an act of self-sacrifice such as fasting. Lakota will often believe that the authenticity of

2346-403: A sign of humility. According to a tradition recorded by Black Elk, seven rites were taught to the Lakota by White Buffalo Woman: the wanagi’yu hapi funerary rite, the isnati ca lowan rite of passage for girls, the tapa wankayeyapi ball game, the inipi sweat lodge, the hanble’ceya vision quest, the hunkapi adoption ceremony, and the wi’wanyang wacipi sun dance. Through ceremony,

2448-409: A state of wolakota , meaning balance or harmony. While some Lakota have emphasized the importance of correct procedure, others believe a practitioner's intention is the most important part of a rite. Some scholars have described Lakota traditional ceremonies as culturally conservative. DeMallie argued that ritual is more standardized than belief in Lakota religion and that the incorrect performance of

2550-648: A ticket to return home to Pine Ridge, arriving in the autumn of 1889. During his sojourn in Europe, Black Elk was given an "abundant opportunity to study the white man's way of life," and he learned to speak rudimentary English. Black Elk returned to the Pine Ridge Reservation after touring with the Wild West shows. He became involved with the Ghost Dance movement, bringing to the followers of

2652-477: A time when cloth was a highly esteemed item among Lakota communities. The flags appear in different colors, each representing a cardinal direction: black (west), red (north), yellow (east), and white (south). For certain rituals, like the yuwípis , two additional flags may be used: green (earth) and blue (sky). Small bits of tobacco are often tied in one corner of the cloth. The Čhalí wapháĥta ("tied tobacco pouches") consist of small squares of cloth that contain

2754-459: A triune conception of the human spirit or soul, comprising the niyá , nağí , and the šicų . The niyá is the life or breath; the nağí is the spirit or soul; the šicų is the guardian spirit. These are the wakʽą aspects of a person and are therefore immortal. Also important to a person's identity is the wacʽį (mind, will, consciousness), the cʽąté (feelings, emotions), and the wówaš'ake (strength, power). Lakota religion teaches that

2856-469: A widow with two daughters. Together they had three more children, whom they also had baptized as Catholic. The couple were together until her death in 1941. His son, Benjamin Black Elk (1899–1973), became known as the "Fifth Face of Mount Rushmore ", posing in the 1950s and 1960s for tourists at the memorial. In the early 1930s, Black Elk spoke with John Neihardt and Joseph Epes Brown , which led to

2958-404: A wolf skin or eagle feather, are deemed capable of transforming into that animal. In Lakota belief the šicų is deemed to be present in both animate and inanimate objects, as well as in supernatural beings and powers. At least one is embodied within the human body, having been given at birth by Táku Škąšką. Over the course of life, a person can acquire further šicųpi ; in Lakota belief, this

3060-562: A writer who worked at Pine Ridge Indian Reservation , relating that in Lakota religion, "fear and respect" were "virtually indistinguishable." The unified totality of wakʽą is termed Wakʽą Tʽąką ( Wakan Tanka ), a term translated as "the Great Mysterious," "the Great Mystery," "the great holy," "great incomprehensibility," or "the sum of all things unknown". DeMallie described Wakʽą Tʽąką as "the sum of all that

3162-463: Is "the dominant interpretative principle of Lakota culture". Lakota religion does not present humans as being superior to other lifeforms. Instead, humans are perceived as the least knowledgeable and least powerful of beings, requiring the aid and pity of other entities. Lakota mythology holds that humans have learned much from other animal species. The buffalo play a central role in traditional Lakota cosmology. They are regarded as being relatives of

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3264-416: Is a blend of various herbs, but primarily cancasa , the inner bark of red ossier dogwood . Practitioners believe that smoking renders their prayers more powerful and effective, for the smoke takes the prayers directly to Wakʽą Tʽąką . The smell is deemed pleasing to benevolent spirits and off-putting to malevolent ones. Pipe smoking ceremonies were historically found among various Plains peoples. Among

3366-401: Is a vital concept for Lakota communities, one that is regularly invoked to legitimate a link between contemporary practices and those of the past. Among the Lakota, there are difficulties in drawing boundaries between religion and other areas of culture; as is the case with many Native American religious traditions, Lakota religion permeates all areas of life. In the Lakota language , there

3468-474: Is an important element of Lakota religion. The sincere suffering of an individual during ritual is believed to attract the spirits' attention while also mediating the broader suffering of the community. As most people are deemed to have nothing to offer to the wakʽą forces but their own bodies, the sacrifice of a person's own flesh is deemed appropriate. In some ceremonies, participants cut small pieces of flesh out of their arms or legs, which are then offered to

3570-434: Is asleep, while after bodily death it returns to the nonhuman person or star from which it originally came. Through visions and dreams, over the course of their life a human may acquire additional šicųpi . Afterlife beliefs vary among the Lakota. The ghost of the deceased is termed a wanáği . Some Lakota believe that a person has multiple wanáği , one of which stays near to the deceased's body and their relatives, and

3672-592: Is best known for his interviews with poet John Neihardt , where he discussed his religious views, visions, and events from his life. Neihardt published these in his book Black Elk Speaks in 1932. This book has since been published in numerous editions, most recently in 2008. Near the end of his life, he also spoke to American ethnologist Joseph Epes Brown for his 1947 book The Sacred Pipe . There has been great interest in these works among diverse people interested in Native American religions , notably those in

3774-419: Is by referring to them with the honorific terms tʻukášila or thukášila ("paternal grandfather") or ųcí (grandmother), terms which invoke a family relationship. There is much variation in how Lakota religionists classify the wakʽąpi , as these classifications can derive from individual visions and experiences. One approach is to divide them into 16 categories, arranged hierarchically into groups of four:

3876-482: Is evident in Lakota religion, with change being observed since textual records of it were first made during the 18th century. Much of this adaptation is the result of visions experienced by its practitioners, but also reflects influences absorbed, directly or indirectly, from neighboring Plains peoples as well as those from the Eastern Woodlands , Subarctic , and Great Basin . At the same time, tradition

3978-435: Is how holy men increase their power, although they also lose them through their acts of healing. Those possessing such spirit helpers can become incredibly attached to them, regarding them as having become a part of themselves. Also infused with šicųpi are the wašicu , also known as ceremonial bundles or medicine bundles. Among the Lakota, stories have been recorded claiming that the process of creating ceremonial bundles

4080-517: Is no term cognate to the English word "religion", although Christian missionaries active among the Lakota have tried to devise one. Some Lakota prefer to refer to their religious traditions as a "way of life", while elsewhere some writers have referred to it as "Lakota spirituality." The latter reflects the fact that many Lakota, like certain other Native Americans, prefer to describe their traditional beliefs and practices as "spirituality", largely as

4182-568: Is one of the central prayers of Lakota spirituality. (Black Elk mentions this prayer for life nineteen times in The Sacred Pipe .) In her 1995 memoir, Hilda Neihardt wrote that just before his death, Black Elk took his pipe and told his daughter Lucy Looks Twice, "The only thing I really believe is the pipe religion." Since the 1970s, the book Black Elk Speaks has become popular with those interested in Native Americans in

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4284-501: Is regarded as having its own kinship rules, with its own warriors, hunters, holy men, and leaders. The Zįtkála Oyáte (Bird Nation), for example, is led by Wąblí Glešká (Spotted Eagle). Like human groups, the oyáte do not always interact peacefully with each other. There is for instance a war between Ųktéhpi (Horned Water Spirits) and the Wakíyąpi (Thunderbirds). Due to the underlying shared interiority of all beings, Lakota lore holds to

4386-424: Is the concept of wakʽą , an energy or power permeating the universe. The unified totality of wakʽą is termed Wakʽą Tʽąką and is regarded as the source of all things. Lakota religionists believe that, due to their shared possession of wakʽą , humans exist in a state of kinship with all life forms, a relationship that informs adherents' behavior. The Lakota worldview includes various supernatural wakʽą beings,

4488-599: The Wakan akanta , the Wakan kolaya , the Wakan kuya , and the Wakanlapi . The former two groups are considered to be Wakan kin ("the sacred"); the latter two called Taku wakan ("sacred things"). The Wakan akatna or "superior wakan " comprise four primordial characters: the sun, Wi , the sky, Škan , the Earth, Maka, and the rock, Inyan . The Wakan kolaya , or "those whom the wakan call friends or associates", include

4590-520: The išnatipi ("to live alone"), away from other community members. Historically, the winkte ("would-be woman") were males who experienced dreams of a wakan woman or the pte winkte hermaphroditic buffalo cow, and thus adopted the social role of women, sometimes marrying men. The winkte were responsible for naming children. Both public and private rituals permeate traditional Lakota life, with such rites typically being practical and goal-oriented in intent. They are designed to achieve and maintain

4692-407: The niyá is given to a person at birth by the sky, Táku Škąšką ("Something that Moves"). The niyá is believed to live on after bodily death as an immaterial thing, likened to smoke or a shadow. The nağí retains a person's idiosyncrasies. The šicų is a non-human potency or influence, believed to have been given to a person by Táku Škąšką. It can separate from the body and travel while a person

4794-553: The pan-Indian movement. Black Elk converted to Catholicism , becoming a catechist , but he also continued to practice Lakota ceremonies. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Rapid City opened an official cause for his beatification within the Roman Catholic Church in 2016. His grandson, George Looks Twice said, "He was comfortable praying with this pipe and his rosary , and participated in Mass and Lakota ceremonies on

4896-552: The peyote religion of the Native American Church . For these individuals, Wakʽą Tʽąką is often identified with the Christian God . Lakota traditions have also been adopted by many non-Native Americans, especially New Agers , a tendency condemned by some Lakota spokespeople as cultural appropriation . Their name deriving from a term meaning "allies", the Lakota comprise the seven westernmost groups of

4998-528: The peyotism of the Native American Church . Other Lakota identify themselves strictly with just one religion, with this particularly the case for Christian fundamentalists . They may perceive some conflict between the two; some Lakota will remove any Christian imagery from a room if a traditional ceremony is to be performed there. Native American religions have always adapted in response to environmental changes and interactions with other communities, including after encountering Christianity. This adaptation

5100-424: The sweat lodge purification ceremony, the vision quest , and the sun dance . A ritual specialist, usually called a wičháša wakhá ("holy man"), is responsible for healing and other tasks. The most common of these specialists is the yuwípi wičháša ( yuwípi man), whose yuwípi ritual typically invokes spirits for healing. One of the three main populations speaking a Sioux language , the Lakota had emerged as

5202-640: The unkcegila land spirits, the cʽąnáği ( canoti ) forest spirits, and the hoĥogica lodge spirits. These beings are potentially dangerous to humans and so are warded off through specific rituals and the aroma of sweetgrass and sage. A common origin story among the Lakota begins with Inyan (Rock). This Inyan opened up and the blue Mahpitayo (Sky) and green Maka Ina (Earth) bled from it, but were initially without motion. Inyan then opened again and released its spirit, taku skan skan , which imbued Mahpitayo and Maka Ina with life. Together, Mahpitayo and Maka Ina then created Taté (Wind), Wi (Sun), Hanhepi Wi (Moon) and

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5304-417: The wakʽąpi , who may be benevolent or malevolent towards humanity. Prayers are given to the wakʽąpi to secure their assistance, often facilitated through the smoking of a sacred pipe or the provision of offerings, usually cotton flags or tobacco. Various rituals are important to Lakota life, seven of them presented as having been given by a benevolent wakʽą spirit, White Buffalo Calf Woman . These include

5406-461: The Calf Pipe was given to the Lakota by White Buffalo Woman. Many Lakota attribute much of their community's traditional religion to the acquisition of this pipe, sometimes believing that all other pipes originate from it, or derive their power from it. The Buffalo Calf Pipe is kept within a sacred bundle and entrusted to a keeper within the community. The scholar of religion Suzanne Owen called

5508-525: The Lakota wakʽą are evident in the orenda of the Iroquois and the pokunt of the Shoshone . Displaying a holistic view of the universe, Lakota religionists believe that wakʽą flows through the cosmos, animating all things, and that all beings thus share the same essence. It incorporates evil aspects of the universe, described as wakan šica ("evil sacred"). The universe is deemed to exist in

5610-532: The Lakota and a source of life, having historically provided the meat and hide that Lakota used for food, clothing, and shelter. Traditionally, the hunting and butchery of buffalo had ceremonial elements. In Lakota belief, each species forms its own oyáte , a people, nation, or tribe. The oyáte categories are based on physical attributes, for instance the two-legged, the four-legged, the winged, those who swim, those who crawl, and those who burrow. There are further subdivisions within these categories. Each oyáte

5712-402: The Lakota belief that "other species share an interiority or soul that is similar or identical to that of human beings", Posthumus argued that the religion was animistic . Due to the unifying presence of wakʽą , in the Lakota worldview all life-forms as thought to be related, thus having reciprocal obligations and responsibilities to one another. Lakota religionists express this notion with

5814-593: The Lakota used Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka to refer to an organization or group of sacred entities whose ways were mysterious: thus, "The Great Mystery". Activist Russell Means also promoted the translation "Great Mystery" and the view that Lakota spirituality is not monotheistic . Siouan : Wakan Tanka or Wakan is also known as Wakanda in the Omaha-Ponca , Ioway-Otoe-Missouri , Kansa and Osage languages ; and Wakatakeh in Quapaw . This article relating to

5916-429: The Lakota, it is integral to most major rituals, although is not regarded as one of the seven rites given by White Buffalo Woman. In Lakota pipe smoking ceremonies, the pipe will be unwrapped, assembled, and then held aloft to each of the four directions while prayers are offered. It may also be passed around all assembled persons, so that each may pray in turn. Those menstruating are barred from smoking. When not in use,

6018-588: The Lakota: sharing and generosity, fortitude, wisdom, and bravery. The traditional goal of Lakota life was to life in harmony with wakʽą and to attain wicʽózani (health, wellness). The traditional Lakota concept of wolakota refers to living life in a manner that maintains a balanced relationship with other entities. Crawford noted that to "assure personal and communal health," it is important for Lakota traditionalists to honor their relatives, remain faithful to their bonds of kinship, and to affirm relationships with

6120-656: The Pipe's keeper "one of the most important roles among the Lakota". For several generations the Pipe has been in the custody of the same family, residing at Green Grass Village on the Cheyenne River Reservation in South Dakota. Before the keeper dies, they will pass the task on to a blood relative, a decision they are guided to make through visions. The Sacred Calf Bundle will be opened for ceremonies on special occasions. Black Elk Black Elk

6222-544: The Pté Otayé (Buffalo Nation), who were the first people, as well as the ancestors of the Lakota. The first members of the Pté Otayé were Wazi (Old Man) and Wakanka (Old Woman), and they had a daughter, Ité , who then married Taté, giving birth to East Wind, West Wind, North Wind, South Wind, and Whirlwind. The trickster, Iktomi (Spider) then convinced Anpetu Wito to fall in love with Ité, encouraging them to sit next to each other, breaking established decorum. To deal with

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6324-491: The Pté Otayé entered the earth in the midst of a harsh winter, where they were taught how to survive by Wazi and Wakanka. The seven couples established the seven sacred fires, or Oceti Šakowin, of the Pté Otayé. The Pté Otayé on earth lived a harsh existence, and one winter were desperate for help. Two young men encountered a woman on the Plains, White Buffalo Calf Woman . One of them men lusted after her and sought to rape her;

6426-626: The Saône. Lakota religion has been described as an indigenous religion , and as a primal religion. There is no centralized authority in control of the religion, which is non-dogmatic, with no specific creeds. The tradition is transmitted orally, being open to individual interpretation, and displaying internal variation in its practice. Some practitioners have an attitude of religious pluralism and thus involve themselves in other religious traditions. This usually means types of Christianity, especially Catholicism or Episcopalianism , or sometimes

6528-744: The Sioux peoples . Other terms for the Lakota include the Western Sioux, Teton Sioux, Tetons, Teton Dakotas, or the Thíthuwa (Prairie Dwellers). The Lakota had formed into seven subdivisions by the 19th century. The two southern groups are the Oglálas and the Sičháŋǧu , while the five northern groups are the Itázipčho , Húŋkpapȟa , Mnikȟówožu , Sihásapa , and Oóhenuŋpa , sometimes collectively termed

6630-506: The United States . With the rise of Native American activism , there was increasing interest among many in Native American religions . Within the American Indian Movement , especially among non-Natives and urban descendants who had not been raised in a traditional culture, Black Elk Speaks was a popular book among those newly seeking religious and spiritual inspiration. However, critics have stated that John Neihardt, as

6732-490: The [Lakota] sought to (re)establish relationship and to placate, and appease ambiguous, powerful, and often frightening and dangerous spirits. Generally, they wanted to be left alone, free of anxiety, misfortune, sickness, and death. Honoring, respect, and reverence[...] are more appropriate from [Lakota] perspectives than worship. — Anthropologist David C. Posthumus The Lakota term wacʽékiye ( wacekiye ) denotes prayer , but also means to call on someone's aid or to claim

6834-472: The author and editor, may have exaggerated, altered, or invented some of the content either to make it more marketable to the intended white audience of the 1930s, or because he did not fully understand the Lakota culture. On August 11, 2016, the US Board on Geographic Names officially renamed Harney Peak, the highest point in South Dakota, Black Elk Peak in honor of Nicholas Black Elk and in recognition of

6936-481: The battlefield] I got tired looking around. I could smell nothing but blood, and I got sick of it. So I went back home with some others. I was not sorry at all. I was a happy boy. In 1887, Black Elk traveled to England with Buffalo Bill's Wild West , an experience he described to Neihardt and which appeared in chapter twenty of Black Elk Speaks . On May 11, 1887, the troupe put on a command performance for Queen Victoria , whom they called "Grandmother England." He

7038-531: The center of the Earth, and to the central mountain of the world. Mythologist Joseph Campbell notes that an " axis mundi , the central point, the pole around which all revolves ... the point where stillness and movement are together   ..." is a theme in several other religions, as well. Campbell viewed Black Elk's statement as one key to understanding worldwide religious myth and symbols in general. From DeMallie's book: And while I stood there I saw more than I can tell and understood more than I saw; for I

7140-486: The cosmos and to wakʽą forces. It has been argued that the Lakota traditional belief that all things are kin has contributed to a conservationist ethos among 21st century Lakota. Lakota culture features a notion of imminent justice or retribution termed wakhúza , with Lakota religionists believing that a person's bad conduct will bring repercussions both for them as an individual and for their relatives, sometimes impacting multiple generations. This will be imposed by

7242-470: The latter being a European-derived category. In Lakota belief, the wakʽąpi are immortal. Much of the information about them derives from Lakota mythology, with these spirits playing a role in creating and controlling the universe. They display a range of emotions, although their motives are often difficult to determine. Morally ambiguous in their approach to humanity, they can behave either benevolently or malevolently to humans. If offended by humans,

7344-452: The meat, which is subsequently shared and eaten. Other dishes traditionally eaten at Lakota feasts include the wahanpi buffalo or beef stew, a chokeberry dish called wojapi , and frybread . At feasts, a plate is often set aside and either buried, burned, or placed in a secluded place, intended to be eaten by ghosts. An important sacred object for the Lakota is the cʽąnųpa wakʽą ( chanupa wakan ) or sacred pipe. It usually consists of

7446-401: The moon, Hąwí (Hanwi), the wind, Tʽaté (Tate), and the falling star, Wóĥpe (Woĥpe). The Wakan kuya are the "lower, or lesser, wakan ", and include the buffalo, Tatanka, the two-legged (including both bears and humans), Hununpa, the four winds, Tatetob, and the whirlwind, Yumni. The Wakanlapi , "those similar to wakan ", include niyá , nağí , and the šicų , the eternal inner components of

7548-420: The movement a special Ghost Dance shirt , after seeing his ancestors in vision who instructed him, "We will give you something that you shall carry back to your people, and with it they shall come to see their loved ones". The Ghost Dance brought hope: The white man would soon disappear; the buffalo herds would return; people would be reunited with loved ones who had since passed away; the old way of living before

7650-406: The other which travels on the wanáği tʽacʽáku (ghost road) towards the wanáği tʽamákʽocʽe (ghost world). Others believe that there is only one wanáği , which remains near the corpse for a set time, often four days, before departing on the wanáği tʽacʽáku . According to one tradition, this road is bisected by a river that must be crossed on a log. By the crossing is an old woman who only permits

7752-529: The pipe will be dissembled into its bowl and stem so as to limit its power and potential danger arising from that. Any Lakota may possess a pipe, but there are certain examples, owned by particular families, that are well-known and highly regarded. The most important for the Lakota is the Buffalo Calf Pipe or Ptehícala Čhanúpa. This is the community's "most sacred possession," described as "the very soul of their religious life". In Lakota tradition,

7854-535: The possibility of physical metamorphosis . In Lakota myth, the Wakíyą can take the form of both birds and humans, while the Buffalo People similarly can take either buffalo or human form. Prominent mythological figures can also take different forms; White Buffalo Calf Woman for instance appears as both a buffalo cow and as a young woman. In various rituals, humans wearing something from another species, such as

7956-408: The problem, Mahpitayo ordered Anpetu Wi and Hanhepi Wi to keep from each other, resulting in the sun and moon appearing at different times. Wazi, Wakanka, and Ité were banished to wander the earth, while the rest of the Pté Otayé remained in the spirit realm. Lonely on earth, Ité – who was now renamed Anog-Iné – conspired with Iktomi to lure other members of the Pté Otayé to join her. Seven couples from

8058-638: The publication of Neihardt's books. His son Ben translated Black Elk's stories into English as he spoke. Neihardt's daughter Enid recorded these accounts. She later arranged them in chronological order for Neihardt's use. Thus the process had many steps and involved more people than Black Elk and Neihardt in the recounting and recording. After Black Elk spoke with Neihardt over the course of several days, Neihardt asked why Black Elk had "put aside" his old religion and baptized his children. According to [Neihardt's daughter] Hilda, Black Elk replied, "My children had to live in this world." "To live" according to Black Elk,

8160-409: The quest for knowledge of wakʽą has been a largely male concern. Sex could be detrimental to a man's power and thus men were expected to refrain from it before hunting or going to war. While menstruating, women are prohibited from certain rituals like the yuwipi , with tradition maintaining that their blood would offend the spirits. During menstruation, women were historically expected to retreat to

8262-447: The rite derives from its following of protocol as well as the ethnicity of the person leading it; Lakota practitioners disagree on the extent to which non-Native Americans can participate in such rites. Since the mid-20th century there have also been debates regarding which ritual roles women should be permitted to hold. Generally, menstruating women are asked not to attend ritual. Participants will usually remove shoes for ceremonies, as

8364-578: The sacred Black Hills . Neihardt writes that, unlike the Wild West shows , used to glorify Native American warfare, Black Elk created a show to teach tourists about Lakota culture and traditional sacred rituals, including the Sun Dance . Black Elk's first wife Katie converted to Roman Catholicism , and they had their three children baptized as Catholics . After Katie's death, in 1904 Black Elk, then in his 40s, converted to Catholicism. He also became

8466-449: The sacred and the profane in Lakota tradition. Bison skulls are often used as temporary altars, as are rocks or boulders typically painted with red earth. Offerings to the spirits may also be tied to trees, left at the base of a tree, or placed on hillsides. These places become means through which to communicate with wakʽą . Cloth flags erected as offerings are called a wa’úyapi ( wanunyanpi ; "offerings"). These became prominent at

8568-427: The saying mitákuye oyás’į ( Mitakuye Oyasin ), meaning "all my relations" or "relatives all", something often repeated at ceremonial and social gatherings. Humans—who in Lakota are called Wicaša akantula ("men on top") —are deemed to be connected to all other living things through these bonds of kinship . Feraca described Lakota religion as "very strongly kinship oriented", while Posthumus suggested that kinship

8670-502: The significance of the mountain to Native Americans. In August 2016, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rapid City opened an official cause for his beatification within the Roman Catholic Church. On October 21, 2017, the cause for canonization for Nicholas Black Elk was formally opened by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rapid City , South Dakota, paving the way for the possibility of him eventually being recognized as

8772-460: The smoking of the pipe or the vison quest. The sacred hoop, or cʽągléška wakʽą ( cangleska wakan ), is historically conceived as a camp circle formed by a ring of tipis. At some point, it came to symbolise the idea of all nations living in harmony, as well as the notion that all life is connected, including humanity's relationship with the buffalo and the wider universe. The anthropologist Beatrice Medicine referred to four main virtues among

8874-446: The spirits can inflict misfortune, hardship, and even death. Their appearance is thought to sometimes be marked by white or blue flashing lights, but they can typically take any form and thus Lakota religionists believe they might encounter such entities in daily life without knowing it. The wakʽąpi are not worshipped by Lakota religionists, but the latter do try to placate and influence them. A key way of showing these spirits respect

8976-437: The spirits, although it is ultimately caused by a person's own actions themselves. The torture or needless killing of animals is also regarded as a moral transgression. Feraca described the traditional Lakota worldview as being fatalistic . Traditional Lakota society clearly defines and separates the roles for men and women, with Medicine referring to the "complementarity of the sex roles in Lakota life". In Lakota religion,

9078-418: The spirits, especially if the supplicant wishes to get the spirits' aid in healing a sick person. Dog sacrifice is also practiced in Lakota religion, an act generally seen as repugnant by many other Native American groups and European Americans. One explanation given for this act is that the dog's spirit will receive a vision, which it can then relay back to a ritual specialist. The sacrifice usually entails

9180-518: The sun dance in 1883, although traditional perspectives were documented in the 19th and early 20th centuries by practitioners like Black Elk . Encouraged by the American Indian Movement , the 1960s and 1970s saw revitalization efforts to revive Lakota traditional religion. In the late 20th century, Lakota practices increasingly influenced other Native American religions across North America. Many Lakota practice their traditional religion alongside Christianity, typically Catholicism , Episcopalianism , or

9282-551: The universe," and "the creative universal force." Similarly, the scholar of religion Suzanne Crawford termed it an "invisible energy or life-force," while Posthumus described it as an "incomprehensible, mysterious, nonhuman instrumental power or energy". Many Lakota have stressed the incomprehensibility of wakʽą ; the Oglála man Good Seat described wakʽą as "anything that was hard to understand." The term wakʽą also has connotations of being ancient and enduring. Ideas similar to

9384-593: The white man would return. This was not just a religious movement but a response to the gradual cultural destruction. Black Elk was present at the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, which occurred due to fear by US settlers of the large interest in the Ghost Dance by Plains tribes . While on horseback, he said he charged soldiers and helped to rescue some of the wounded, arriving after many of Spotted Elk 's (Big Foot's) band of people had been shot. He

9486-461: The worthy to pass. The spirit world is presented as being made up of villages or camps and as being full of bison and other game. It is a realm without hunger or pain and the inhabitants feast and dance, thus producing the northern lights . Another Lakota tradition is that a wanáği who fails to enter the ghost world will wander aimlessly, where it can sometimes be seen materialized in human form or heard whistling and moaning. This ghost may haunt

9588-513: Was 17, Black Elk told a medicine man, Black Road, about the vision in detail. Black Road and the other medicine men of the village were "astonished by the greatness of the vision." Late in his life, Black Elk told Neihardt about his vision. He also envisioned a great tree that symbolized the life of the Earth and all people. Neihardt later wrote about this in Black Elk Speaks. In one of his visions, Black Elk describes being taken to

9690-590: Was among the crowd at her golden jubilee . In the spring of 1888, Buffalo Bill's Wild West set sail for the United States. Black Elk became separated from the group, and the ship left without him, stranding him with three other Lakota . They subsequently joined another wild west show and he spent the next year touring in Germany , France , and Italy . When Buffalo Bill arrived in Paris in May 1889, Black Elk obtained

9792-634: Was born in "the Winter When the Four Crows Were Killed on Tongue River ." When Black Elk was nine years old, he was suddenly taken ill; he reported lying prone and unresponsive for several days. During this time he said he had a great vision in which he was visited by the Thunder Beings ( Wakinyan ) "...   spirits were represented as kind and loving, full of years and wisdom, like revered human grandfathers." When he

9894-580: Was considered mysterious, powerful, or sacred". Wakʽą Tʽąką is deemed to be eternal, both creating and constituting the universe. The term Wakʽą Tʽąką has been used as a Lakota translation for the English word "God", including by Christian missionaries, with some Lakota equating Wakʽą Tʽąką with the Christian deity . Although the scholar of religion Åke Hultkrantz suggested that Wakʽą Tʽąką could be regarded as "a personal, delimited Supreme Being", various other scholars have cautioned that Wakʽą Tʽąką

9996-607: Was grazed by a bullet to his hip. Lakota leader Red Cloud convinced him to stop fighting after being wounded, and he remained on the Pine Ridge Reservation, where he could convert to Catholicism. For at least a decade, beginning in 1934, Black Elk returned to work related to his performances earlier in life with Buffalo Bill . He organized an Indian show to be held at the Sitting Bull Crystal Cavern Dance Pavilion in

10098-531: Was present at the Battle of the Little Bighorn , and described his experience to John Neihardt : There was a soldier on the ground and he was still kicking. A Lakota [Sioux] rode up and said to me, 'Boy, get off and scalp him.' I got off and started to do it. He had short hair and my knife was not very sharp. He ground his teeth. Then I shot him in the forehead and got his scalp. ... After awhile [on

10200-411: Was seeing in a sacred manner the shapes of all things in the spirit, and the shape of all shapes as they must live together like one being. And I saw that the sacred hoop of my people was one of many hoops that made one circle, wide as daylight and as starlight, and in the center grew one mighty flowering tree to shelter all the children of one mother and one father. And I saw that it was holy. Black Elk

10302-628: Was taught either by Ųktéhi or Táku Škąšką; Posthumus suggested that the competing notions derived from different stages in Lakota history, the former story arising when they lived by the eastern lakes and the latter when they migrated to the Plains in the 17th and 18th centuries. Lakota traditionalists may place objects into a bundle that are based on images they have received in a vision. For practitioners, these bundles are "material manifestations of sacred power," regarded as life-forms or persons. If they are offended, they are thought to refuse to assist their keeper or even bring them harm. These bundles are

10404-403: Was unlikely to have been seen as a personified divinity prior to the influence of Christianization. The wakʽąpi ( wakampi ) are beings made from wakʽą . In English, such entities are commonly called "the spirits". The anthropologist William K. Powers characterized these as "supernatural beings and powers," although Lakota belief draws no distinction between the natural and the supernatural,

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