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118-580: The name used by the Gros Ventre, ʔɔʔɔɔ̋ɔ́niinénnɔh means "White Clay People". It has a variety of transliterations, including A'aninin , Aaniiih , Haaninin , Aainen , Aa'ninena , and Aaninena . The French used the term Gros Ventre , which was mistakenly interpreted from sign language . They were once known as the "Gros Ventres of the Prairies", as the Hidatsa people were similarly called

236-652: A storm suddenly destroyed his fleet. On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards, commanded by Menéndez de Avilés, attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault. The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. However, at the beginning of the 17th century, France was more interested in fur from North America. The fur trading post of Tadoussac

354-488: A France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana , in 1626, 1635 (when the capital, Cayenne , was founded) and 1643. Twice a Compagnie de la France équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office, that France Équinoxiale became

472-542: A French expedition departed from Cancale , Brittany, France, under the command of Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de la Ravardière, and François de Razilly , admiral. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão . De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded

590-570: A brutal winter campaign against the Yakama tribe , led by Chief Kamiakin . This, along with his unjustified execution of the Nisqually chieftain Leschi , led to widespread pleas to President Pierce to remove Stevens from his post. Two men were particularly vocal in their opposition to Stevens and his policies, territorial judge Edward Lander and influential private citizen Ezra Meeker . While Meeker

708-653: A closely related Plains Algonquian language , much like the Arapaho, and is grouped as an Arapahoan language (Arapaho-Atsina) . There is evidence that, together with bands of Northern Arapaho , a southern tribal group, the Staetan , spoke the Besawunena dialect, which had speakers among the Northern Arapaho as recently as the late 1920s. In the early 18th century, the combined tribe came under pressure from

826-421: A descendant of early Puritan settlers from a gentry family that had produced several distinguished members of the clergy and military. He was a cousin of brothers Moses Tyler Stevens and Charles Abbot Stevens . As a young man, he was noted for his intelligence, particularly his mathematical acuity. His diminutive stature – in adulthood he stood 5 ft 3 in (1.60 m) tall – has been attributed to

944-498: A general in the U.S. Army and an author. Together with P. B. Van Trump , he participated in the first documented ascent of Mount Rainier in Washington State. A combination of an increasingly violent thunderstorm and unrelenting Confederate fire had slowed the advance of the 79th New York Regiment to a crawl. Five successive regimental color bearers had died leading the line. When Stevens saw that yet another soldier who

1062-539: A great military disadvantage against the British. The war between the colonies resumed in 1744, lasting until 1748. A final and decisive war began in 1754. The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans, but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield. On May 17, 1673, explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River, known to

1180-635: A haven for the Huguenots , and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567 . On November 1, 1555, French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon (1510–1575), a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta , who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution, led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in

1298-504: A man who stood just 5 ft 3 in (1.60 m) tall – overcame a troubled childhood and personal setbacks to graduate at the top of his class at West Point before embarking on a successful military career. He was a controversial and polarizing figure as governor of the Washington Territory, where he was both praised and condemned. He was described by one historian as the subject of more reflection and study than almost

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1416-611: A mental breakdown in his youth. Stevens graduated from the male prep school Phillips Academy in 1833 and was accepted to the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated in 1839 at the top of his class. Stevens was the adjutant of the Corps of Engineers during the Mexican–American War , seeing action at the siege of Vera Cruz and at Cerro Gordo , Contreras , and Churubusco . In

1534-492: A nephew of Villegagnon. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray , including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier. The new colonists, numbering around 300, included 5 young women to be wed, 10 boys to be trained as translators, as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin, and also Jean de Léry, who would later write an account of the colony. They arrived in March 1557. The relief fleet

1652-607: A new and more significant issue. Stevens' proclamation of martial law in Pierce County stated: Whereas in the prosecution of the Indian war circumstances have existed affording such grave cause of suspicion, such that certain evil disposed persons of Pierce county have given aid and comfort to the enemy, as that they have been placed under arrest and ordered to be tried by a military commission; and whereas, efforts are now being made to withdraw, by civil process, these persons from

1770-532: A period newspaper report, Stevens' body was recovered an hour after his death, his hands still clenched around the staff of the flag. He was buried in Island Cemetery in Newport, Rhode Island . Historians have generally viewed Stevens as a complicated figure. According to historian David Nicandri, the four years in which he ruled Washington "takes up a greater volume of concern and consciousness than

1888-547: A population of 1,700 people), Newfoundland and Hudson Bay . Under the Sovereign Council, the population of the colony grew faster. However, the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In the middle of the 18th century, New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people. This placed the colony at

2006-449: A possible congenital gland malfunction. Stevens resented his father, described by historian Kent Richards as a "stern taskmaster", whose unrelenting demands on his son pushed the young man to his breaking point. While working on the family farm, Stevens once nearly died of sunstroke . After Stevens' mother died in a carriage accident, his widowed father married a woman whom Stevens disliked. According to Stevens, he came close to suffering

2124-607: A reality. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France. Isaac Stevens Isaac Ingalls Stevens (March 25, 1818 – September 1, 1862) was an American military officer and politician who served as governor of the Territory of Washington from 1853 to 1857, and later as its delegate to the United States House of Representatives . During the American Civil War , he held several commands in

2242-659: A rebuke from the President of the United States . Nonetheless, his uncompromising decisiveness in the face of crisis was both applauded by his supporters and noted by historians. Isaac Stevens was the father of Hazard Stevens , the hero of the Battle of Suffolk and one of the first men to summit Mount Rainier . Stevens was born in North Andover, Massachusetts , to Isaac Stevens and Hannah Stevens (née Cummings),

2360-540: A rich and complex History as well as proud descendants far beyond Québec and Acadia original heartlands. A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola , where France established the colony of Saint-Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles", Saint-Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had

2478-560: A series of floods resulted in Bienville ordering that the settlement be relocated in 1711 several miles downriver to its present location at the confluence of the Mobile River and Mobile Bay . A new earth-and-palisade Fort Louis was constructed at the new site during this time. By 1712, when Antoine Crozat was appointed to take over administration of the colony, its population had reached 400 persons. The capital of La Louisiane

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2596-701: A total of 8 elected members of the council. The officers of the council are the President, Vice President, and Secretary-Treasurer, with the Secretary-Treasurer being appointed by the president and confirmed by the council. The secretary-treasurer, as the only appointed officer, may not vote on council matters. The constitution and bylaws of the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation were ratified on September 25, 1935, and adopted on October 19, 1935. French colonization of

2714-530: A village, which was named "Saint-Louis", in honor of the French king Louis IX . This later became São Luís in Portuguese,[1] the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, and the soldiers started building a fortress. An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants (see French Wars of Religion). The colony did not last long. A Portuguese army assembled in

2832-504: Is an overseas department of France, while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007. France Antarctique (formerly also spelled France antartique) was a French colony south of the Equator , in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio . The colony quickly became

2950-712: Is now known as Montreal . Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie (1668) and Saint Ignace (1671) and explored the Mississippi River . At the end of the 17th century, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River . Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but

3068-821: Is the Washington State University dormitory Stevens Hall. The Washington chapter of the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War is known as Isaac Stevens Camp No. 1. In addition, Stevensville, Montana , Stevens County, Minnesota , and Idaho 's Stevens Peak, Upper Stevens Lake, and Lower Stevens Lake are named in tribute to Stevens. The United States Army previously maintained two military posts named after Stevens: Fort Stevens in Washington, D.C., and Fort Stevens in Oregon. Hazard Stevens wrote

3186-583: Is today the province of Quebec, Canada, and for a very short period (12 years) also Antarctic France (France Antarctique, in French), in present-day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas . France équinoxiale started in 1612, when

3304-590: The Captaincy of Pernambuco , under the command of Alexandre de Moura, was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land. Thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery. French traders and colonists tried again to settle

3422-687: The Fort Belknap Agency was re-established, and the Gros Ventres, and remaining Assiniboines were again allowed to receive supplies at Fort Belknap. White Eagle, "the last major Chief of the Gros Ventre people", died "at the mouth of the Judith River " on February 9, 1881. In 1884, gold was discovered in the Little Rocky Mountains . Pressure from miners and mining companies forced the tribes to cede sections of

3540-531: The Fort Belknap Indian Reservation . By 1904, there were only 535 Gros Ventre tribe members remaining. The tribe has since revived, with a substantial increase in population. In March 2012, 63 American bison from Yellowstone National Park were transferred to prairie on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, to be released to a 2,100-acre game preserve 25 miles north of Poplar . There are numerous other bison herds outside Yellowstone, but

3658-473: The Guanabara Bay , in front of present-day Rio de Janeiro, where they built a fort named Fort Coligny . The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny (then a Catholic statesman, who about a year later would become a Huguenot), an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his fellow believers. To the still largely undeveloped mainland village, Villegaignon gave

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3776-742: The Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies, the Iroquois . Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America, with canoes made from birch bark , to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries. In 1634, the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin. Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers,

3894-519: The Lesser Antilles at various times. Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica , Grenada , Guadeloupe , Marie-Galante , Martinique , St. Barthélemy , St. Croix , St. Kitts , St. Lucia , St. Martin , St. Vincent and Tobago . Control of many of these islands was contested between the French, the British and the Dutch; in the case of St. Martin,

4012-551: The Mobile River , as the first capital of the French colony of La Louisiane . It was founded by French Canadian brothers Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville , to establish control over France's claims to La Louisiane . Bienville was appointed as royal governor of French Louisiana in 1701. Mobile's Roman Catholic parish was established on July 20, 1703, by Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier , Bishop of Quebec . The parish

4130-595: The Ojibwe , and started a migration to the upper Missouri River Valley . During the migration, the large tribe split into the Arapaho and the Gros Ventre, possibly near Devil's Lake. These groups, along with the Cheyenne, were among the last to migrate into Montana, due to pressure from the Ojibwe . After they migrated to Montana, the Arapaho moved southwards to the Wyoming and Colorado area. The Cheyenne who migrated with

4248-679: The Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana . He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate. He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants, but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687. In 1698, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored

4366-539: The Treaty of Medicine Creek , Treaty of Hellgate , Treaty of Neah Bay , Treaty of Point Elliott , Point No Point Treaty , and Quinault Treaty . During this time, the Governor imposed martial law to better impose his will on the Indians and whites who opposed his views. The consequent political and legal battles would soon overshadow the Indian war. Stevens did not hesitate to use his troops for vengeance, and waged

4484-644: The Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701, when the two parties agreed on peace. Then, the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession . In 1690 and 1711, Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army. Nevertheless, the British took advantage of the second war. With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France ceded to Britain Acadia (with

4602-700: The Union Army . He was killed at the Battle of Chantilly , while at the head of his men and carrying the fallen colors of one of his regiments against Confederate positions. According to one account, at the hour of his death Stevens was being considered by President Abraham Lincoln for appointment to command the Army of Virginia . He was posthumously advanced to the rank of Major General. Several schools, towns, counties, and lakes are named in his honor. Descended from early American settlers in New England, Stevens –

4720-555: The United States Congress ) (2 vols., Washington, 1855–1860). Stevens was a controversial governor in his time. Historians consider him even more controversial, for his role in compelling the Native American tribes of Washington Territory by intimidation and force, into signing treaties that ceded most of their lands and rights to Stevens' government, likely forging some of the signatures. These included

4838-805: The Valley of Ohio , migrated into the Spanish territory West of the Mississippi and were instrumental in pushing further West toward the Pacific through their longer experience of the new continent and its native inhabitants. Only the islands of Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon are still in French hands. In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France, but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803. The French and their descendants left many toponyms ( Illinois , Vermont , Bayous ...) and ethnonyms ( Sioux , Coeur d'Alene , Nez Percé ...) in North America along with

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4956-436: The Washington Territory , signed a treaty (11  Stat.   657 ) to make peace between the United States and the Blackfoot, Flathead and Nez Perce tribes. The Gros Ventres signed the treaty as part of the Blackfoot Confederacy, whose territory near the Three Fork area became a common hunting ground for the combined peoples. A common hunting ground north of the Missouri River on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation included

5074-430: The "Gros Ventres of the Missouri". After their split from the Gros Ventres, the Arapaho, who considered the Gros Ventres inferior, called them Hitúnĕna , meaning "beggars." Other interpretations of the term have been "hunger," "waterfall," and "big bellies." The Gros Ventres are believed to have lived in the western Great Lakes region 3,000 years ago, where they lived an agrarian lifestyle, cultivating maize . With

5192-516: The Americas France began colonizing the Americas in the 16th century and continued into the following centuries as it established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere . France established colonies in much of eastern North America, on several Caribbean islands, and in South America. Most colonies were developed to export products such as fish, rice, sugar, and furs. The first French colonial empire stretched to over 10,000,000 km (3,900,000 sq mi) at its peak in 1710, which

5310-405: The Assiniboine and Sioux. In 1861, the Gros Ventres left the Blackfoot Confederacy. Allying with the Crow , the Gros Ventres fought the Blackfoot but in 1867, they were defeated. In 1868, the United States government established a trading post called Fort Browning near the mouth of Peoples Creek on the Milk River . This trading post was built for the Gros Ventres and Assiniboines, but because it

5428-428: The Boroughs Queens and Brooklyn from the upper and lower parts of the harbor until 1609 when the British and the Dutch came to take control of it from the French Verrazzano. He would later give the names Francesca and Nova Gall to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests. In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore

5546-435: The British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632. Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates . Following the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye , France took possession of the colony in 1632. The city of Trois-Rivières was founded in 1634. In 1642, the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville-Marie (later Montreal ) which

5664-499: The Cree and Assiniboine in what is now Saskatchewan . In 1832, the Gros Ventre made contact with the German explorer and naturalist, Prince Maximilian . Along with the naturalist painter Karl Bodmer , the Europeans painted portraits and recorded their meeting with the Gros Ventre, near the Missouri River in Montana. The Gros Ventres joined the Blackfoot Confederacy , after which they moved to north-central Montana and southern Canada. In 1855, Isaac Stevens , Territorial Governor of

5782-445: The French and Indians were usually peaceful. As the 19th-century historian Francis Parkman stated: "Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him." To boost the French population, Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered "natural Frenchmen" by the Ordonnance of 1627: "The descendants of

5900-476: The French who have accustomed to this country [New France], together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization." Louis XIV also tried to increase

6018-494: The Gros Ventre and Arapaho also migrated onwards. The Gros Ventre were reported living in two north–south tribal groups – the so-called Fall Indians (Canadian or northern group, Hahá-tonwan ) of 260 tipis (2,500 population) traded with the North West Company on the Upper Saskatchewan River and roamed between the Missouri and Bow River , and the so-called Staetan tribe (American or southern group) of 40 tipis (400 population) living in close contact with bands (which would become

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6136-464: The Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702. From 1699 to 1702, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713. He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743. In 1718, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans, in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans . The architect Adrian de Pauger drew

6254-454: The Illinois River, along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France. In 1686 de Tonti left 6 men near the Quapaw village of Osotouy, creating the settlement of Arkansas Post. De Tonti's Arkansas Post would be the first European settlement in the Lower Mississippi River valley. La Salle returned to France and won over

6372-427: The Mississippi River to Britain. This area was made a part of the expanded British West Florida colony. The British changed the name of Fort Condé to Fort Charlotte , after Queen Charlotte . The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people . Relations between

6490-408: The New World as travelers seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France . In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. He would find parts of New York Harbor . The French would take narrow land ports of

6608-434: The Recent Work of Major Ripley (New York, 1851). He superintended fortifications on the New England coast from 1841 until 1849. He was given command of the U.S. Coast Survey office in Washington, D.C., working closely with the Survey's superintendent Alexander D. Bache . Stevens served in that role until March 1853. Stevens was a firm supporter of former brigadier general Franklin Pierce 's candidacy for President of

6726-412: The Sioux as does Tongo, or to the Miami-Illinois as missisipioui ( the great river ). They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river, after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea (Pacific Ocean). In 1682, the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta. They left from Fort Crevecoeur on

6844-442: The Spanish from St. Augustine . An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time. In 1599, a sixteen-person trading post was established in Tadoussac (in present-day Quebec ), of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604 Pierre Du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded a short-lived French colony, the first in Acadia , on Saint Croix Island , presently part of

6962-406: The United States in 1852, as both men had served in the Mexican–American War. Stevens was rewarded by President Pierce on March 17, 1853 by being named governor of the newly created Washington Territory . (The position also included the title of Superintendent of Indian Affairs for that region). Stevens chose to add one more duty as he traveled west to the territory he would govern: the government

7080-452: The ancestors of the Arapaho , they formed a single Algonquian -speaking people who lived along the Red River Valley in present-day Minnesota and North Dakota. In Ojibwa oral history they are known as the "men of the olden time" that occupied the lands surrounding the head waters of the Mississippi River . They were closely associated with the ancestors of the Cheyenne . They spoke the now nearly extinct Gros Ventre language (Atsina) ,

7198-412: The area around the mouth of the Mississippi. He stopped between Isle-aux-Chats (now Cat Island) and Isle Surgeres (renamed Isle-aux-Vascular or Ship Island) on February 13, 1699, and continued his explorations to the mainland, with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi . He built a precarious fort, called 'Maurepas' (later 'Old Biloxi'), before returning to France. He returned twice in

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7316-422: The banner of Saint Andrew's Cross , Stevens was struck in the temple by a bullet and died instantly. He was buried in Newport, Rhode Island , at Island Cemetery . In March 1863, he was posthumously promoted to major general , backdated to July 18, 1862. Stevens had married. His son, Hazard Stevens , had become a career officer and was also injured in the Battle of Chantilly. He survived and eventually became

7434-401: The city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1, 1565, and fought the Frenchmen for two more years. Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle, on January 20, 1567, he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil, but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle. Coligny's and Villegaignon's dream had lasted a mere 12 years. Equinoctial France was

7552-443: The coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River . He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula . The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap-Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers but

7670-418: The colony by calling for more colonists in 1556. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge , to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support, three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte,

7788-531: The condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana. The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation. In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721. The Mississippi Company arranged for hundreds of German immigrants to move to Louisiana by ships in 1721. Charles Frederick d'Arensbourg

7906-453: The contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America, around the line of Equator, before "tropical" had fully gained its modern meaning: Equinoctial means in Latin "of equal nights", i.e., on the Equator, where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round. The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France (Nouvelle France) in North America, particularly in what

8024-404: The defending Louisianans to fall back into the woods. Stevens led his men over the abandoned Confederate ramparts, pursuing the retreating Confederate forces into the forest. At that moment, a Confederate bullet struck Stevens in the head, killing him instantly. As he collapsed, his body twisted, wrapping itself in the flag that he was still carrying and staining it with his blood. According to

8142-482: The enemy (in many cases because they had married into local tribes) and placing them in the military's custody. Governor Stevens declared martial law in Pierce County in order to conduct a military trial of those settlers. He next declared martial law in Thurston County. But only the territorial legislature had the authority to declare martial law, and representatives fought Stevens' effort to abrogate their authority. A bitter political and legal battle ensued. Stevens

8260-473: The entire balance of the territorial officialdom up until the time Washington becomes a state in 1889". Accounts of Stevens' tenure have been highly polarized. Writing in 1972, Richards observed that nearly all accounts of his tenure have either "condemned" or "uncritically applauded" him. Ezra Meeker , a historian, settler, and contemporary opponent of Stevens, described him as one who would "take no counsel, nor brook opposition to his will". In March 1863, at

8378-474: The future when Stevens left Washington State for good in 1857. In January 1856, Governor Stevens declared to the territorial House of Representatives in Olympia that "war shall be prosecuted until the last hostile Indian is exterminated", although there is uncertainty among historians about whether this was a call for genocide or instead for war crimes against certain "hostile Indians". In April 1856, Governor Stevens removed settlers whom he believed to be aiding

8496-434: The herd transferred is one of the very few not cross-bred with cattle . Many celebrated the move, over a century after bison were nearly made extinct by White settlers and the government. The Assiniboine and Gros Ventre tribes at the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation also received a portion of the herd. The reservation government of Fort Belknap has an elected community council with 4 Gros Ventre members and 4 Assiniboine, for

8614-584: The highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere. A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution , led to freedom for the colony's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti . France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic . During the 17th and 18th centuries, France ruled much of

8732-569: The island was divided in two, a situation that persists to this day. Great Britain captured some of France's islands during the Seven Years' War and the Napoleonic Wars . Following the latter conflict, France retained control of Guadeloupe , Martinique , Marie-Galante , St. Barthélemy , and its portion of St. Martin ; all remain part of France today. Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante and other nearby islands) and Martinique each

8850-758: The later Northern Arapaho ) and roamed the headwaters of the Loup River , a branch of the North Platte River (Lewis and Clark 1806). The Gros Ventre acquired horses in the mid-18th century. The earliest known contact of Gros Ventre with settlers was around 1754, between the north and south forks of the Saskatchewan River . Exposure to smallpox severely reduced their numbers. Around 1793, in response to attacks by well-armed Cree and Assiniboines, large groups of Gros Ventre burned two Hudson's Bay Company trading posts that were providing guns to

8968-500: The latter fight, he caught the attention of his superiors, who rewarded him with the brevet rank of captain . He was again cited and breveted for gallantry at the Battle of Chapultepec , this time to the rank of major . Stevens participated in combat at Molino del Rey , and the Battle for Mexico City , where he was severely wounded. He later wrote a book on his adventures, Campaigns of the Rio Grande and Mexico, with Notices of

9086-626: The leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which would take the name of the French Florida . They discovered the sound and Port Royal Island, which would be called Parris Island in South Carolina , on which he built a fort named Charlesfort . The group, led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière , moved to

9204-531: The limited number of men at his disposal. He determined that the white population should be concentrated at specific strongly protected points. For that reason, the volunteers under Stevens' command built a series of forts and blockhouses along the Snoqualmie , White, and Nisqually rivers. Once completed, Stevens ordered the settler population to leave their claims and take temporary residence in these safer areas. Once Stevens proclaimed martial law, he raised

9322-417: The mountains in 1885. Jesuits came to Fort Belknap in 1862 to convert the Gros Ventre people to Roman Catholicism . In 1887, St. Paul's Mission was established at the foot of the Little Rocky Mountains , near Hays . Much of the traditional ceremonies were lost through the course of time following the establishment of the mission. Two sacred pipes, The Feathered Pipe and The Flat Pipe, still remain central to

9440-524: The name of Henriville, in honour of Henry II , the King of France , who also knew of and approved the expedition, and had provided the fleet for the trip. Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese. Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who initially took little notice of his landing, Villegaignon endeavoured to expand

9558-548: The new Governor-General of Brazil, received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French. With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers, on 15 March 1560, he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days, but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders, because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians, where they continued to live and to work. Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with

9676-457: The occasion of the importation of the first African slaves , transported aboard a French supply ship from the French colony of Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean , where they had first been held. The population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years, growing to 279 persons by 1708, yet shrinking to 178 persons two years later due to disease. These additional outbreaks of disease and

9794-410: The only factual related evidence was that on Christmas Day, a party of Indians had visited McLeod's cabin and had forced him to give them food. Gibbs and Goldsborough declared that: The sole object of the proclamation was to get half a dozen obscure individuals into his absolute control, and to demonstrate that he, Isaac I. Stevens, could, on the field offered by a small Territory, enact, at second hand,

9912-834: The orthogonal plane of the Old Square . In 1718, there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana. The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. John Law encouraged Germans , particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule , and the Swiss to emigrate. Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards, under

10030-472: The part of Napoleon . The territorial organic act designated the governor as "commander-in-chief of the militia thereof," but there were not a regularly constituted militia. Stevens assumed his powers from his control of local volunteer troops, which had been organized to meet the necessities of the situation. These had not been authorized either by the federal government or by the territorial legislature. Stevens' position as Superintendent of Indian Affairs for

10148-570: The population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the " King's Daughters ". However, the low density of the population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1. France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America, (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War ). In 1562, Charles IX , under

10266-597: The population, Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 ' King's Daughters ' to become the wives of French settlers. The population of New France reached subsequently 7,000 in 1674 and 15,000 in 1689. From 1689 to 1713, the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars . From 1689 to 1697, they fought the British in the Nine Years' War . The war against the Iroquois continued even after

10384-741: The prairie, surveying the way to Washington Territory. There Stevens met George McClellan 's party, which had surveyed the line between the Puget Sound and the Spokane River . He took up his post at Olympia as governor in November that year. As a result of his expedition, Stevens wrote a third book, Report of Explorations for a Route for the Pacific Railroad near the 47th and 49th Parallels of North Latitude, from St. Paul, Minnesota, to Puget Sound , (commissioned and published by

10502-493: The purview of the said commission. Therefore, as the war is now being actively prosecuted through- out nearly the whole of the said county, and great injury to the public, and the plans of the campaign be frustrated, if the alleged designs of these persons be not arrested, I, Isaac I. Stevens, Governor of the Territory of Washington, do hereby proclaim Martial Law over the said county of Pierce, and do by these presents suspend for

10620-489: The religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group (see French Wars of Religion). Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá, named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega , and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios, Mem de Sá ordered his nephew, Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force. Estácio de Sá founded

10738-672: The request of President Abraham Lincoln , the United States Senate posthumously advanced Stevens to the rank of Major General . According to George Cullum's Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy "at the very hour of his death, the President and Secretary of War were considering the advisability of placing Stevens in command of the Army in which he

10856-538: The rest of the territory's 19th-century history combined. Stevens' marathon diplomacy with Native American tribes sought to avoid military conflict in Washington; however, when the Yakama War broke out as Native Americans resisted European encroachment, he prosecuted it mercilessly. His decision to rule by martial law , jail judges who opposed him, and raise a de facto personal army led to his conviction for contempt of court, for which he famously pardoned himself, and

10974-402: The settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort , but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France. Fort Caroline established in present-day Jacksonville, Florida , in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by

11092-644: The south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John's river in Florida on June 22, 1564. This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons. In 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine , 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline. Fearing a Spanish attack, Ribault planned to move the colony but

11210-455: The spring of 1604, conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts . It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island , the first French settlement in the New World, which would be given up the following winter. The expedition then founded the colony of Port-Royal . In 1608, Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec , which would become the capital of New France. In Quebec, Champlain forged alliances between France and

11328-596: The state of Maine , which was much plagued by illness, perhaps scurvy. The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal , located in present-day Nova Scotia . Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec (1608) and explored the Great Lakes . In 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants (present-day Green Bay ), which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois-Rivières. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve , founded Fort Ville-Marie which

11446-642: The territory had a broad administrative responsibility but possessed no direct military power. On May 24, 1856, following a legal opinion rendered by Judge Chenoweth, ruling that Stevens had no legal power to declare martial law, Governor Stevens rescinded his proclamation in Pierce and Thurston counties. After the Civil War began in 1861, and following the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run , Stevens

11564-603: The time being and till further notice, the functions of all civil officers in said county. On May 11, 1856, attorneys George Gibbs and H. A. Goldsborough sent a letter to the Secretary of State denying that the war situation throughout the territory, and especially in Pierce County, was as grave as Governor Stevens had declared at the time of proclaiming martial law. They said that Stevens' allegations made against Charles Wren, John McLeod, John McField, Lyon A. Smith, and Henry Smith, were based wholly on suspicion. They asserted that

11682-671: The traditional spiritual beliefs of the Gros Ventres. In 1888, the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation was established by an act of Congress on May 1, 1888 (Stat., L., XXV, 113). The Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, and Assiniboine tribes ceded a combined 17,500,000 acres of their joint reservation and agreed to live on three smaller reservations. These are now known as the Blackfoot Confederacy , the Fort Peck Indian Reservation and

11800-554: Was a leader of the settlement called the German Coast . By the end of 1720, the Mississippi Company failed. Later, more Germans immigrated to Louisiana during the 1750s and 1770s. The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France , with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain , although mainly absent. French colonists descendants or "Canadiens" that had settled in

11918-472: Was a warehouse and an issue building, where the tribe received their rations and annuity goods. In 1876, the fort was discontinued and the Gros Ventre and Assiniboine people receiving annuities at the post were instructed to go to the agency at Fort Peck and Wolf Point . The Assiniboines readily did so, but the Gros Ventres refused, fearing coming into conflict with the nearby Sioux . They chose to forfeit their annuities rather than move to Fort Peck. In 1878,

12036-485: Was at that time, a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks (the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667). Despite this rapid expansion, the colony developed very slowly. The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony. In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government , the population of New France was only 2,500 European inhabitants. That year, to increase

12154-458: Was calling for a surveyor to map an appropriate railroad route across the northern United States , hoping that a transcontinental railroad would open up Asian markets. With Stevens' engineering experience (and likely the favor of Pierce yet again, as well as Secretary of War Jefferson Davis ), he won the bid. His party, which included George Suckley , John Mullan and Fred Burr, son of David H. Burr , spent most of 1853 moving slowly across

12272-441: Was carrying the regimental flag had been shot, he raced from his position in the rear, through the panicked body of his men, to wrench the flag from the wounded man's grasp. According to witnesses, the injured color bearer - knowing the regimental flag would be a target - yelled at Stevens "for God's sake, General, don't take the colors!" Stevens ignored the man's appeal and seized the colors, at which point his own son, Hazard, who

12390-689: Was commissioned in the army again. He was appointed as colonel of the 79th New York Volunteers , known as the "Cameron Highlanders." He was promoted to a brigadier general on September 28, 1861, and fought at Port Royal . He led the Second Brigade of the Expeditionary Forces sent to attack the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina . He led a division at the Battle of Secessionville , where he led an attack on Fort Lamar, in which 25% of his men were casualties. Stevens

12508-716: Was composed of: Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558, when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry , and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant. In 1560 Mem de Sá ,

12626-625: Was forced to repeal the declaration and fight subsequent calls for his removal. His decision to use martial law was the result of his determination to enforce a blockhouse policy in the war against the Indians of the Puget Sound region. Indian raids on scattered settlements and an intimidating attack on the city of Seattle in February 1856 resulted in Governor Stevens concluding that he needed to concentrate on defensive measures, given

12744-496: Was founded in 1600. Four years later, Champlain made his first trip to Canada on a trade mission for fur. Although he had no formal mandate on this trip, he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing, on his return to France, a report entitled Savages (relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac). Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV . He participated in another expedition to New France in

12862-505: Was gone by 1688. Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (modern-day Detroit ) in 1701 and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans ( New Orleans ) in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719. The European settlement of Mobile, Alabama began with French colonists, who in 1702 constructed Fort Louis de la Louisiane , at Twenty-seven Mile Bluff on

12980-440: Was ignored, Lander was arrested by Stevens' forces due to his opposition. Pierce refused to remove Stevens from his position, but eventually sent word to the governor expressing his disapproval. Any opposition eventually died down, as most white settlers in Washington Territory felt that Stevens was on "their side", while they considered Meeker to be too sympathetic to Native Americans. As a result of this public perception, Stevens

13098-415: Was moved in 1720 to Biloxi , leaving Mobile to serve as a regional military and trading center. In 1723 the construction of a new brick fort with a stone foundation began and it was renamed Fort Condé in honor of Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon . In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years' War , which Britain won, defeating France. By this treaty, France ceded its territories east of

13216-509: Was on a favorite hunting ground of the Sioux , it was abandoned in 1871. The government then built Fort Belknap , which was established on the south side of the Milk River, about one mile southwest of the present town site of Harlem, Montana . Fort Belknap was a substation post, with half of the structure being a trading post. A block house stood to the left of the stockade gate. At the right

13334-479: Was popular enough to be elected as the territory's delegate to the United States Congress in 1857 and 1858. The tensions between whites and Native Americans would be left for others to resolve. Stevens is often charged with responsibility for the later conflicts in eastern Washington and Idaho , especially the war fought by the United States against Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce , These events were decades in

13452-536: Was serving in the regiment, was shot and injured by a Confederate volley. Hazard Stevens cried out to his father for help, to which the general replied, "I can't attend to you now, Hazard. Corporal Thompson, see to my boy". Stevens turned to his men and yelled, "Follow your General!" Facing the Confederate line and waving the recovered regimental colors, Stevens proceeded to charge the Confederate positions, his men following in close order. The renewed advance forced

13570-450: Was serving". A marker at Ox Hill Battlefield Park , site of the Battle of Chantilly , commemorates the approximate place where Stevens fell while leading his men. In Washington, Stevens County is named in his honor, as is Lake Stevens . Several Washington public schools, including Seattle's Isaac I. Stevens Elementary School, Port Angeles' Stevens Middle School, and Pasco's Isaac Stevens Middle School, are also named in his honor, as

13688-512: Was the first French Catholic parish established on the Gulf Coast of the United States . In 1704 the ship Pélican delivered 23 French women to the colony; passengers had contracted yellow fever at a stop in Havana . Though most of the " Pélican girls" recovered, numerous colonists and neighboring Native Americans contracted the disease in turn and many died. This early period was also

13806-1056: Was the second largest colonial empire in the world, after the Spanish Empire . As they colonized the New World, the French established forts and settlements that would become such cities as Quebec , Trois-Rivières and Montreal in Canada; Detroit , Green Bay , St. Louis , Cape Girardeau , Mobile , Biloxi , Baton Rouge and New Orleans in the United States; and Port-au-Prince , Cap-Haïtien (founded as Cap-Français ) in Haiti , Saint-Pierre and Fort Saint-Louis (formerly as Fort Royal ) in Martinique , Castries (founded as Carénage ) in Saint Lucia , Cayenne in French Guiana and São Luís (founded as Saint-Louis de Maragnan ) in Brazil. The French first came to

13924-556: Was transferred with his IX Corps division to Virginia to serve under Major General John Pope in the Northern Virginia Campaign and the Second Battle of Bull Run . He was killed in action at the Battle of Chantilly on September 1, 1862, after picking up the fallen regimental colors of his old regiment, shouting "Highlanders, my Highlanders, follow your general!" Charging with his troops while carrying

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