Defunct
68-666: The Groschlag family was an ancient family of German nobility in the County of Mark , extinct in 1799. The knights of Groschlag were vogts (reeves) at Eppertshausen in the Carolingian Empire . In the 14th century, they were employed as castle officials in Dieburg in the Archbishopric of Mainz . They entered into a long-lasting territorial feud with the counts of Hanau . In the 1355 Weistum of Babenhausen ,
136-608: A customs union with Germany , but in 1931 this was denied by France and the countries of the Little Entente . Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss of the Christian Social Party took power in Austria on 20 May 1932, and moved the party and Austria towards dictatorship, centralisation and fascism , in part because fascist Italy was its strongest international ally against Germany. In March 1933, Dollfuss suspended
204-405: A coalition government without them. Despite the nation having a steady political party in power, the politics of the nation were fractious and violent, with both Social Democrat ( Republikanischer Schutzbund ) and right-wing ( Heimwehr ) political paramilitary forces clashing with each other. The country was divided between the conservative countryside population and Red Vienna controlled by
272-512: A family is about to die out or when a daughter inherits the family estate and marries a commoner, the Adelsrechtsausschuss can grant a dispensation from Salic law, allowing for a one-time transfer of a noble surname contrary to nobiliary law, to a person considered non-noble. The following criteria are most important in such cases: The Adelsrechtsausschuss does not recognize ennoblements made by heads of formerly ruling houses, but
340-405: A general strike which lasted four days. After the 1927 events, the conservative elements became stronger and the violence in Austria continued to escalate until the early 1930s when Engelbert Dollfuss became Chancellor. However the new state was difficult to control, as much of the former empire's important economic regions had been taken away with the foundation of new nation-states. The matter
408-490: A loan of 500 million Kronen to Austria. In 1922, in an effort to deal with post-war inflation, Chancellor Ignaz Seipel asked for foreign loans and introduced austerity policies. In October 1922 Britain, France, Italy and Czechoslovakia provided a loan of 650 million gold kronen after Seipel promised not to attempt Anschluss with Germany for the next 20 years and allowed the League of Nations to control Austria's economy. During
476-453: A major dowry. Most, but not all, surnames of the German nobility were preceded by or contained the preposition von (meaning "of") or zu (meaning "at") as a nobiliary particle . The two were occasionally combined into von und zu (meaning "of and at"). In general, the von form indicates the family's place of origin, while the zu form indicates the family's continued possession of
544-403: A man after an Adelsverlust were commoners and did not inherit the father's former nobility. Various organisations perpetuate the historical legacy of the former nobility, documenting genealogy, chronicling the history of noble families and sometimes declining to acknowledge persons who acquired noble surnames in ways impossible before 1919. Many German states, however, required a marriage to
612-400: A new upper class of wealthy common people had emerged following industrialization, marriages with commoners were becoming more widespread. However, with few exceptions, this did not apply to higher nobility, who largely continued to marry among themselves. Upwardly mobile German families typically followed marriage strategies involving men of lower rank marrying women of higher status who brought
680-428: A noble father, and these persons are not allowed to join a nobility association. Persons who bear a noble or noble-sounding surname without belonging to the historical nobility according to Salic law are classified as Nichtadelige Namensträger , 'non-noble name-carriers'. The inflation of fake nobility is one of the major concerns of the Adelsrechtsausschuss, and it is up to the commission to determine whether
748-502: A nobleman. Nobility was inherited equally by all legitimate descendants in the male line . German titles of nobility were usually inherited by all male-line descendants, although some descended by male primogeniture , especially in 19th and 20th century Prussia (e.g., Otto von Bismarck , born a baronial Junker (not a title), was granted the title of count ( Graf ) extending to all his male-line descendants, and later that of prince ( Fürst ) in primogeniture). Upon promulgation of
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#1732790214078816-540: A person should be considered noble or non-noble. For instance, the German-American businessman Frédéric Prinz von Anhalt was born as Hans Robert Lichtenberg in Germany. He was married with Zsa Zsa Gabor and was adopted by Princess Marie-Auguste of Anhalt in 1980, allegedly arranged by the title dealer Hans Hermann Weyer , hence he is one of the 'non-noble name-carriers'. In special cases, for example when
884-588: A sentence, and then they are usually skipped, unless this creates confusion. In this, the German language practice differs from Dutch in the Netherlands, where the particle van is usually capitalised when mentioned without preceding given names or initials, or from Dutch in Belgium, where the name particle Van is always capitalised. Although nobility as a class is no longer recognised in Germany and enjoys no legal privileges, institutions exist that carry on
952-416: A small, landlocked country of about 6.5 million people, with 4 million Austrian Germans excluded from the new state and instead being placed against their declared will under Czechoslovak, Italian, and Yugoslav rule. Vienna , with its population of almost 2 million, was left as an imperial capital without an empire to feed it. Only 17.8 percent of Austria's land was arable; the vast majority of arable land in
1020-426: A specific title as heir to one of Germany's former thrones (e.g., Erbprinz ("hereditary prince"))—along with any heir to a title of nobility inherited via primogeniture, and their wives—were permitted to incorporate those titles into elements of the personal surname. However, these titles became extinct upon their deaths, not being heritable. With the demise of all persons styled "crown prince" before 1918,
1088-561: A woman of elevated social status in order for a nobleman to pass on his titles and privileges to his children. In this respect, the General State Laws for the Prussian States of 1794 spoke of marriage (and children) "to the right hand". This excluded marriages with women of the lower social classes, but did not mean a woman had to come from nobility herself. Especially towards the end of the 19th century and beyond, when
1156-534: Is no monarch who can ennoble anymore. However, dispensations are granted only in the most exceptional cases, as they infringe on the rights of a theoretical future monarch. When a person is granted a dispensation by the Adelsrechtsausschuss, he becomes the progenitor of a new noble family, which consists of all of his legitimate male-line descendants in accordance with nobiliary law. They are considered equal to nobles in all regards, and allowed to join nobility associations. A family whose nobility dates back to at least
1224-602: The Conservative Party . In August 1919, at the beginning of the Weimar Republic (1918–1933), Germany's new constitution officially abolished royalty and nobility, and the respective legal privileges and immunities appertaining to an individual, a family or any heirs. Today, German nobility is no longer conferred by the Federal Republic of Germany (1949–present), and constitutionally
1292-470: The Hochadel , the heads of their families being entitled to be addressed as Erlaucht ("Illustrious Highness"), rather than simply as Hochgeboren ("High-born"). There were also some German noble families, especially in Austria, Prussia and Bavaria, whose heads bore the titles of Fürst (prince) or Herzog (duke); however, never having exercised a degree of sovereignty, they were accounted members of
1360-489: The Hochadel, were considered part of the lower nobility or Niederer Adel . Most were untitled, only making use of the particle von in their surnames. Higher-ranking noble families of the Niederer Adel bore such hereditary titles as Edler (lord), Ritter (knight), Freiherr (or baron) and Graf . Although most German counts belonged officially to the lower nobility, those who were mediatised belonged to
1428-799: The July Putsch of 25 July 1934 (see Maiverfassung 1934 ). This assassination by the Austrian Nazis infuriated Austria's neighbour Fascist Italy under dictator Benito Mussolini . Fascist Italy had good relations with Austria under Dollfuss and Mussolini suspected German involvement and promised the Austrofascist regime military support if Germany were to invade, as the Nazis had claims on Italian-administered Tyrol. Italy's support helped save Austria from potential annexation in 1934. The successor to Dollfuss, Kurt Schuschnigg , maintained
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#17327902140781496-773: The July Revolt of 1927 and the Austrian Civil War of 1934. In September 1919, the rump state of German-Austria —now effectively reduced to the Alpine and Danubian crownlands of the Austrian Empire—was given reduced borders by the Treaty of Saint Germain , which ceded German-populated regions in Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia , German-populated South Tyrol to Italy and a portion of the Alpine provinces to
1564-496: The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes ( Kraljevina Srba, Hrvata i Slovenaca , or SHS, also known as Yugoslavia). Despite Austrian protests this treaty also forbade Anschluss , or union of Austria with Germany , without League of Nations consent. The Allies were not willing to allow a defeated Germany to expand its borders by absorbing what remained of Austria. With this route closed, German-Austria changed its official name to
1632-463: The Republic of Austria. The new state managed to block two land claims by its neighbours. The first was the south-eastern part of Carinthia , which was inhabited partly by Slovenians . It was prevented from being taken over by the new SHS-state through a Carinthian plebiscite on October 10, 1920, in which the majority of the population chose to remain with Austria. The second prevented land-claim
1700-477: The Weimar Constitution on 11 August 1919, all Germans were declared equal before the law. an exceptional practice regarding surnames borne by former members of the nobility: whereas the gender differentiation in German surnames , widespread until the 18th century and colloquially retained in some dialects, was abolished in Germany with the introduction of officially registered invariable surnames by
1768-755: The medieval society in Central Europe , which enjoyed certain privileges relative to other people under the laws and customs in the German-speaking area , until the beginning of the 20th century. Historically, German entities that recognized or conferred nobility included the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806), the German Confederation (1814–1866), and the German Empire (1871–1918). Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in
1836-452: The 14th century may be called Uradel , or Alter Adel ("ancient nobility", or "old nobility"). This contrasts with Briefadel ("patent nobility"): nobility granted by letters patent . The first known such document is from September 30, 1360, for Wyker Frosch in Mainz. The term Uradel was not without controversy, and the concept was seen by some as an arbitrary distinction invented by
1904-602: The Chancellor was elected by the National Council. As no political party ever gained a parliamentary majority, Austria was governed by coalitions of the conservative Christian Social Party and the right-wing Greater German People's Party or Landbund which were more conservative than the first government of Social Democrat Karl Renner of 1919–20, which had established a number of progressive socioeconomic and labour legislations. After 1920, Austria's government
1972-581: The Empire's formerly quasi-sovereign families whose domains had been mediatised within the German Confederation by 1815, yet preserved the legal right to continue royal intermarriage with still-reigning dynasties ( Ebenbürtigkeit ). These quasi-sovereign families comprised mostly princely and comital families, but included a few dukes also of Belgian and Dutch origin ( Arenberg , Croÿ , Looz-Corswarem). Information on these families constituted
2040-847: The Fatherland Front, with the proclamation of the authoritarian "May Constitution". The name of the country was changed from the "Republic of Austria" to the " Federal State of Austria ". The flag, coat of arms and anthem were changed, too. Federalism and the controlling powers of the Federal Council were curtailed, while elections for the National Council were abolished, its members nominated by four non-elective, corporatist -styled councils—the State Council ( Staatsrat ), Federal Culture Council ( Bundeskulturrat ), Federal Economic Council ( Bundeswirtschaftsrat ) and
2108-531: The German Empire had a policy of expanding his political base by ennobling nouveau riche industrialists and businessmen who had no noble ancestors. The nobility flourished during the dramatic industrialization and urbanization of Germany after 1850. Landowners modernized their estates, and oriented their business to an international market. Many younger sons were positioned in the rapidly growing national and regional civil service bureaucracies, as well as in
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2176-595: The German Empire was similar to nobility in the Austrian Empire ; both developed during the Holy Roman Empire and both ended in 1919 when they were abolished, and legal status and privileges were revoked. In April 1919, Austrian nobility was abolished under the First Austrian Republic (1919–1934) and, contrary to Germany, the subsequent use and legal recognition of hereditary titles and aristocratic particles and use as part of surnames
2244-592: The German Empire. In addition, the ruling families of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen were accorded the dynastic rights of a cadet branch of the Royal House of Prussia after yielding sovereignty to their royal kinsmen. The exiled heirs to Hanover and Nassau eventually regained sovereignty by being allowed to inherit, respectively, the crowns of Brunswick (1914) and Luxembourg (1890). Nobility that held legal privileges until 1918 greater than those enjoyed by commoners, but less than those enjoyed by
2312-416: The German nobility, however, inherited no titles, and were usually distinguishable only by the nobiliary particle von in their surnames. First Austrian Republic Timeline The First Austrian Republic ( German : Erste Österreichische Republik ), officially the Republic of Austria , was created after the signing of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 10 September 1919—the settlement after
2380-518: The German population in Austria who claimed that it violated the Fourteen Points laid out by United States President Woodrow Wilson during peace talks, specifically the right to "self-determination" of all nations. Many of them felt that with the loss of over 70% of the cisleithanian territory of the prewar empire , Austria was no longer economically and politically viable as a separate state without union with Germany. Austria now found itself
2448-993: The Kingdom of Prussia. Hochadel ("upper nobility", or "high nobility") were those noble houses which ruled sovereign states within the Holy Roman Empire and, later, in the German Confederation and the German Empire . They were royalty ; the heads of these families were entitled to be addressed by some form of "Majesty" or "Highness". These were the families of kings (Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, and Württemberg ), grand dukes (Baden, Hesse and by Rhine, Luxembourg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg and Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach), reigning dukes (Anhalt, Brunswick, Schleswig-Holstein, Nassau, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen), and reigning princes (Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Liechtenstein, Lippe, Reuss, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg, and Waldeck-Pyrmont). The Hochadel also included
2516-692: The Social Democrats. In 1927, during a political clash in Schattendorf , an old man and a child were shot and killed by the Heimwehr. On 14 July 1927 the shooters were acquitted and left-wing supporters began a massive protest during which the Ministry of Justice building was burned. To restore order, the police and army shot and killed 89 people and injured 600. The huge protest is known as the July Revolt of 1927 . Social Democrats called for
2584-569: The States' Council ( Länderrat ), supposedly providing their best opinions on respective areas. In practice all legislation and appointments were exercised from above by the Federal Chancellor's and President's decree. The state took complete control of employer–employee relations, known as Ständestaat, and began to crack down on pro-Nazi and pro–German-unification sympathizers. The Nazis responded by assassinating Engelbert Dollfuss during
2652-404: The associations of the formerly ruling and mediatized houses of Germany send representatives to the commission. This so-called (Nichtbeanstandung) , 'Non-Objection' results in the factual ennoblement of the recipient (even though the term is not applied), making Germany one of the few republics where it is still possible for non-nobles to join the ranks of the nobility even though there
2720-828: The counts of Hanau are represented as the highest-ranking nobility of the Mark, with the knights of Groschlag following in second place. In the 17th century, the Groschlag family married into the powerful Schönborn aristocracy, rising to higher status in the principality of Mainz. The male line of the Groschlags was extinct in 1799, with a surviving daughter, Countess Maria Anna Philippine Walburga of Lerchenfeld-Köfering (1775-1854), who served as lady in waiting to Queen Caroline of Bavaria , inheriting Eppertshausen . German nobility Defunct The German nobility ( deutscher Adel ) and royalty were status groups of
2788-532: The descendants of German noble families do not enjoy legal privileges. Hereditary titles are permitted as part of the surname (e.g., the aristocratic particles von and zu ), and these surnames can then be inherited by a person's children. Later developments distinguished the Austrian nobility , which came to be associated with the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary . The nobility system of
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2856-483: The dynasty's origin might have been called of A-Town [{and at} A-Town] furthermore, while a new, junior branch could then have adopted the style of, say, of A-town [and] at B-ville , sometimes even dropping [and] at , simply hyphenating the names of the two places. Other forms also exist as combinations with the definite article: e.g. " von der " or von dem → " vom " ("of the"), zu der → " zur " or zu dem → " zum " ("of the", "in the", "at the"). Particularly between
2924-681: The end of World War I which ended the Habsburg rump state of Republic of German-Austria —and ended with the establishment of the Austrofascist Federal State of Austria based upon a dictatorship of Engelbert Dollfuss and the Fatherland's Front in 1934. The Republic's constitution was enacted on 1 October 1920 and amended on 7 December 1929. The republican period was increasingly marked by violent strife between those with left-wing and right-wing views, leading to
2992-402: The estate from which the surname is drawn. Therefore, von und zu indicates a family which is both named for and continues to own their original feudal holding or residence. However, the zu particle can also hint to the split of a dynasty, as providing information on the adopted new home of one split-off branch: For instance, a senior branch owning and maybe even still residing at the place of
3060-423: The former Austrian half of the empire was now part of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The new constitution created a bi-cameral legislature with the upper house—the Federal Council —formed by representatives from federal states and the lower house—the National Council —to which deputies were elected in universal elections. The Federal President was elected for a four-year term in a full session of both houses, while
3128-536: The former royal families of Prussia and Bavaria were allowed use of Prinz/Prinzessin ; or Herzog/Herzogin. In the cases of the former kings/queens of Saxony and Württemberg, the ducal title borne by non-ruling cadets of their dynasties before 1919, or Herzog/Herzogin for the six deposed grand dukes (i.e., the former rulers of Baden , Hesse , Mecklenburg-Schwerin , Mecklenburg-Strelitz , Oldenburg , and Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach ) and their consorts were retained. Any dynasty who did not reign prior to 1918 but had held
3196-501: The growing Austrian Nazi party , which wanted Austria to join Germany. Dollfuss's Austrofascism tied Austrian identity to the Roman Catholic Church as an argument against a union of Austria with predominantly Protestant Germany. Political violence escalated into the Austrian Civil War of February 1934, between Social Democrats and government forces. On 1 May 1934, Dollfuss created a one-party state , to be led by
3264-635: The late 18th and early 20th century when an increasing number of unlanded commoners were ennobled, the " von " was typically simply put in front of a person's surname. When a person by the common occupational surname of " Meyer " received nobility, they would thus simply become " von Meyer ". When sorting noble—as well as non-noble—names in alphabetic sequence, any prepositions or (former) title are ignored. Name elements which have developed from honorary functions, such as Schenk (short for Mundschenk , i.e., " cup-bearer "), are also overlooked. Nobiliary particles are not capitalised unless they begin
3332-399: The late 19th century, former noble titles transformed into parts of the surname in 1919 continue to appear in female and male forms. Altogether abolished were titles of sovereigns, such as emperor/empress, king/queen, grand duke/grand duchess, etc. However, former titles shared and inherited by all members of the family were retained but incorporated into the surname. For instance, members of
3400-420: The laws. Whereas the title previously prefixed the given and surname (e.g., Graf Kasimir von der Recke ), the legal usage moves the former title to the surname (i.e., Kasimir Graf von der Recke ). However, the pre-1919 style sometimes continues in colloquial usage. In Austria, by contrast, not only were the privileges of the nobility abolished, but their titles and nobiliary particles as well. German nobility
3468-793: The legal tradition of pre-1919 nobiliary law, which in Germany today is subsumed under Sonderprivatrecht , 'special private law'. The Deutscher Adelsrechtsausschuss , 'German Commission on Nobiliary Law' can decide matters such as lineage, legitimacy, and a person's right to bear a name of nobility, in accordance with codified nobiliary law as it existed prior to 1919. The Commission's rulings are generally non-binding for individuals and establish no rights or privileges that German authorities or courts would have to consider or observe. However, they are binding for all German nobility associations recognized by CILANE ( Commission d'information et de liaison des associations nobles d'Europe ). In 1919, nobiliary particles and titles became part of
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#17327902140783536-527: The legitimate, male-line descendants of the ennobled person. Families that had been considered noble as early as pre-1400s Germany (i.e., the Uradel or "ancient nobility") were usually eventually recognised by a sovereign, confirming their entitlement to whatever legal privileges nobles enjoyed in that sovereign's realm. Noble rank was usually granted to men by letters patent (see Briefadel ), whereas women were members of nobility by descent or by marriage to
3604-472: The lower nobility (e.g., Bismarck , Blücher , Putbus , Hanau , Henckel von Donnersmarck , Pless , Wrede ). The titles of elector , grand duke , archduke , duke , landgrave , margrave , count palatine , prince and Reichsgraf were borne by rulers who belonged to Germany's Hochadel . Other counts, as well as barons ( Freiherren/Barons ) , lords ( Herren ), Landed knights ( Ritter ) were borne by noble, non-reigning families. The vast majority of
3672-747: The next two years the state budget was stabilized and international supervision over finances ended in March 1926. Austria's central bank Oesterreichische Nationalbank was re-established in 1923, a sales tax was introduced in 1923, and the Austrian Schilling replaced the Krone in December 1924. The Great Depression hit Austria hard and in May 1931 the largest bank in Austria, Creditanstalt Bank, collapsed. To improve its economy, Austria wanted to conclude
3740-472: The officer corps of the military. They acquired not only the technical skills but the necessary education in high prestige German universities that facilitated their success. Many became political leaders of new reform organizations such as agrarian leagues, and pressure groups. The Roman Catholic nobility played a major role in forming the new Centre Party in resistance to Bismarck's anti-Catholic Kulturkampf , while Protestant nobles were similarly active in
3808-603: The opposition until 1934, when they were banned by Dollfuss. The Christian Socials won 85, Social Democrats 69, Greater Germany Party 20 and Peasants Union 8 seats. Michael Hainisch was elected Federal President. After the October 1923 elections Ignaz Seipel stayed in power and resigned in November 1924 when he was succeeded by Rudolf Ramek . In December 1928 the Christian Social Wilhelm Miklas
3876-483: The parliament , which gave him the opportunity to establish an authoritarian government without a parliament. In May 1933 he created the Fatherland Front ( German : Vaterländische Front ). While outwardly fascist, it was mostly Catholic and influenced by the papal encyclical Quadragesimo anno of 1931 which refuted liberalism and socialism in favour of corporatism . The government was in competition with
3944-487: The second section of Justus Perthes ’ entries on reigning, princely, and ducal families in the Almanach de Gotha . During the unification of Germany, mainly from 1866 to 1871, the states of Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (in 1850), Schleswig-Holstein and Nassau were absorbed into Prussia. The former ruling houses of these states were still considered Hochadel under laws adopted by
4012-495: The status of nobility"). Until the late 19th century, for example, it was usually forbidden for nobles, theoretically on pain of Adelsverlust , to marry persons "of low birth". Moreover, nobles employed in menial labour and lowly trades or wage labour could lose their nobility, as could nobles convicted of capital crimes . Adelsverlust only concerned the individual who had violated nobility codes of conduct. Their kin, spouse, and living children were not affected, but children born to
4080-505: The surname. Therefore, they can be transmitted according to civil law, for example from wife to husband, to illegitimate children and by way of adoption. The only difference to normal surnames is that noble surnames are deflected according to gender. Some impoverished nobles offered adoptions for money in the 20th century, and the adoptees adopts extensively themselves, creating a "flood" of fake nobility. A noble or noble-sounding surname does not convey nobility to those not born legitimately of
4148-422: The term Kronprinz no longer exists as a legal surname element. Traditional titles exclusively used for unmarried noblewomen, such as Baronesse , Freiin and Freifräulein , were also transformed into parts of the legal surname, subject to change at marriage or upon request. All other former titles and nobiliary particles are now inherited as part of the surname, and remain protected as private names under
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#17327902140784216-734: Was Hungary's claim to Burgenland , which, under the name "Western Hungary", had been part of the Hungarian kingdom since 907. It was inhabited mostly by a German-speaking population, but had also Croat- and Hungarian-speaking minorities. Through the Treaty of St. Germain it became part of the Austrian Republic in 1921. However, after a plebiscite which was disputed by Austria, the provincial capital city of Sopron (German Ödenburg) remained in Hungary. The Treaty of Saint Germain angered
4284-477: Was banned. Today, Austrian nobility is no longer conferred by the Republic of Austria (1945–present), and the public or official use of noble titles as title or part of the surname, is a minor offence under Austrian law for Austrian citizens. In Germany, nobility and titles pertaining to it were recognised or bestowed upon individuals by emperors, kings and lesser ruling royalty, and were then inherited by
4352-494: Was dominated by the anti-Anschluss Christian Social Party which retained close ties to the Roman Catholic Church . The party's first Chancellor Ignaz Seipel came to power in May 1922 and attempted to forge a political alliance between wealthy industrialists and the Roman Catholic Church. After the legislative elections of October 17, 1920, the Social Democrats lost the parliamentary majority and remained in
4420-628: Was elected to the post of Federal President and on 7 December 1929 the Constitution was amended, reducing the rights of the Parliament, making the Federal President electable by a popular vote and giving him the right to appoint the federal government and to issue emergency laws. After the 1930 legislative elections the Social Democrats emerged as the largest party with 72 seats, but Christian Social Chancellor Otto Ender created
4488-445: Was further complicated by the fact that a number of these new nation-states were still dependent on Vienna's banks, but business was hampered by the newly erected borders and tariffs. The landlocked Austria was barely able to support itself with food and lacked a developed industrial basis. In addition, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Italy had imposed a trade blockade and refused to sell food and coal to Austria, which eventually
4556-625: Was not simply distinguished by noble ranks and titles, but was also seen as a distinctive ethos. Title 9, §1 of the General State Laws for the Prussian States declared that the nobility's responsibility "as the first social class in the state" was "the defence of the country, as well as the supporting of the exterior dignity and the interior constitution thereof" . Most German states had strict laws concerning proper conduct, employment, or marriage of nobles. Violating these laws could result in temporary or permanent Adelsverlust ("loss of
4624-487: Was saved by aid and support from the Western Allies. By 1922 one US dollar was worth 19,000 kronen and half the population was unemployed. In December 1921 the Treaty of Lana between Austria and Czechoslovakia was signed in which Austria recognized the new state borders and relinquished claims to represent ethnic Germans living on the territory of the newly created Czechoslovakia. In return Czechoslovakia provided
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