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121-773: Zhu Gaochi was born on 16 August 1378, as the eldest son of Zhu Di , who was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor. After the Hongwu Emperor died, Zhu Di won a civil war against the Jianwen Emperor and became the Yongle Emperor in 1402. He ensured that his eldest son received a top-notch education rooted in Confucian principles. Zhu Gaochi served as a regent in Nanjing or Beijing while his father

242-635: A Confucian government that would serve as a model, with a morally upright emperor at the helm and wise and virtuous ministers. The relocation of the capital to Nanjing was also a clear indication of a departure from the Yongle Emperor's aggressive expansionist approach, which focused heavily on the northern border. Even after the death of the Hongxi Emperor, the empire was still governed by the Grand Secretaries and ministers he had chosen. They first served as advisors and ministers to his son,

363-468: A campaign to clear away disorders. At the start of the war, Zhu Di commanded a force of 100,000 soldiers and only held control over the immediate area surrounding Beiping. Despite the Nanjing government's larger number of armies and greater material resources, Zhu Di's soldiers were of higher quality and he possessed a strong Mongol cavalry. Most importantly, his military leadership skills were superior to

484-519: A defeat at Dongchang, but in April he was victorious at Jia River. The front continued to move back and forth for the rest of the year. In 1402, instead of launching another attack along the Grand Canal, Zhu Di advanced further west and bypassed Dezhou. He then conquered Xuzhou in early March. The government troops retreated south to Zhili and were repeatedly defeated. In July, the rebels reached

605-535: A new hereditary military nobility. While their income from the state treasury (2200–2500 shi of grain for dukes, 1500–800 for marquises, and 1000 for counts; with 1 shi being equivalent to 107 liters) was not particularly high, the prestige associated with their titles was more significant. They commanded armies in the emperor's name, without competition from the princes who had been stripped of their influence. The nobility also held immunity from punishment by local authorities. However, there were notable differences from

726-637: A result, the emperor punished his advisor, Yang Pu, and Grand Secretaries Huang Huai and Yang Shiqi by imprisoning them or removing them from their positions. Although Zhu Gaoxu's threat diminished after being sent to Shandong in 1417, the relationship between him and his father remained strained. However, Zhu Gaochi did not hold a grudge against his younger brother and even increased his income and gave his sons titles after becoming emperor. The Yongle Emperor died on 12 August 1424, while returning from his fifth Mongol campaign. Zhu Gaochi officially became emperor on 7 September 1424, and declared an amnesty. He adopted

847-537: A sharp reprimand from the emperor. In April 1398, Zhu Di's elder brother, the Prince of Jin, died, leaving Zhu Di as the undisputed leader of the northern border defense. Two months later, Zhu Di's father, the Hongwu Emperor, also died. After the death of the Hongwu Emperor, Zhu Yunwen ascended the throne as the Jianwen Emperor. His closest advisers immediately began reviewing the Hongwu Emperor's reforms, with

968-613: A successful attack on the Mongols in Liaodong, led by Feng Sheng . The following year, a Ming army led by Lan Yu made a foray into eastern Mongolia and defeated the Mongol khan Tögüs Temür , capturing many prisoners and horses. However, both generals were accused of mistreating captives and misappropriating booty, which was reported to the emperor by the prince. In January 1390, the emperor entrusted his sons with independent command for

1089-675: A total of seven era names during his reign. The Hongwu Emperor started the tradition of having only one era name for one monarch—known as the yí shì yì yuán zhì ( 一世一元制 ; lit. "one-era-name-for-a-reign system"). Thus, modern historians would frequently refer to monarchs of the Ming and Qing dynasties by their respective era name. Notable exceptions to this "one-era-name" tradition included Zhu Qizhen who proclaimed two era names for his two separate reigns, Aisin Gioro Hong Taiji who used two era names to reflect his position as khan of

1210-529: A traditional education in both military and Confucian studies. Due to his poor health and physical condition, he focused mainly on reading and discussing with his tutors. He was particularly skilled in the noble sport of archery. While his grandfather was impressed with his literary and administrative abilities, his father held his younger sons in higher regard due to their interest in military pursuits. Zhu Gaochi surrounded himself with scholars such as Yang Shiqi , Yang Rong , Yang Pu , and Huang Huai ( 黃淮 ). After

1331-454: A year using an era name only requires counting years from the first year of the era. For example, 609 CE was the fifth year of Daye ( 大業 ; lit. "great endeavour"), as the era began in 605 CE; traditional Chinese sources would therefore refer to 609 CE as Dàyè wǔ nián ( 大業五年 ). The numbering of the year would still increase on the first day of the Chinese calendar each year, regardless of

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1452-659: Is based on the era name system of Imperial China. Numerous attempts to reinstate monarchical rule in China had resulted in the declaration of additional era names after the founding of the Republic, but these regimes and their associated era names were short-lived. In 1949, the People's Republic of China was founded and the era was changed to the Common Era , for both internal and external affairs in mainland China . This notation

1573-506: Is commonly known by his era name as the Hongwu Emperor. After taking the throne, Zhu Di claimed to be the son of Zhu Yuanzhang's primary wife, Lady Ma , who had been empress since 1368. However, other sources suggest that his real mother was a concubine of the Hongwu Emperor with the title Consort Gong, who was either Mongolian (from the Khongirad tribe) or possibly Korean. After becoming emperor, Zhu Di attempted to present himself as

1694-581: Is conventionally regarded as the first ruler to declare an era name. Prior to the introduction of the first era name in 140 BCE, Chinese monarchs utilized the Qianyuan ( 前元 ), Zhongyuan ( 中元 ) and Houyuan ( 後元 ) systems to identify and number years. Prior to the Ming dynasty , it was common for Chinese sovereigns to change the era name during their reigns, resulting in the use of more than one era name for one ruler. For instance, Emperor Xuan of Han used

1815-580: The Four Great Books of Song from the 11th century. He also ordered the texts of the Neo-Confucians to be organized and used as textbooks for training future officials. The civil service examinations , held in a three-year cycle, produced qualified graduates who filled positions in the state apparatus. The emperor was known for his strict punishments for failures, but also for quickly promoting successful servants. While he, like his father,

1936-624: The Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan ). Most Chinese era names consisted of two Chinese characters , even though era names with three, four and six characters also existed. Shijianguo ( 始建國 ; lit. "the beginning of establishing a country") of the Xin dynasty , Tiancewansui ( 天冊萬歲 ; lit. "Heaven-conferred longevity") of the Wu Zhou , and Tiancilishengguoqing ( 天賜禮盛國慶 ; lit. "Heaven-bestowed ritualistic richness, nationally celebrated") of

2057-617: The Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei took the throne. On the other hand, the era name Tianxian ( 天顯 ; lit. "heavenly intent") was originally proclaimed by the Emperor Taizu of Liao but its usage was continued by the Emperor Taizong of Liao upon assuming the throne. There were numerous era names that saw repeated use throughout Chinese history. For instance, the era name Taiping ( 太平 ; lit. "great peace")

2178-533: The Jianwen Emperor , and launched a civil war known as the Jingnan campaign , or the campaign to clear away disorders. After three years of intense fighting, he emerged victorious and declared himself emperor in 1402. After ascending the throne, he adopted the era name Yongle, which means "perpetual happiness". His reign is often referred to as the "second founding" of the Ming dynasty, as he made significant changes to his father's political policies. Upon ascending

2299-753: The Later Jin and later as emperor of the Qing dynasty, as well as Aisin Gioro Puyi who adopted three era names in his capacity as emperor of the Qing dynasty and subsequently as ruler of Manchukuo . With the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 CE, the Chinese era name system was superseded by the Republic of China calendar which remains in official use in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu Islands . The Republic of China calendar, while not an era name,

2420-486: The Western Xia are examples of Chinese era names that bore more than two characters. Era names were symbols of political orthodoxy and legitimacy. Hence, most Chinese monarchs would proclaim a new era upon the founding of a new dynasty. Rebel leaders who sought to establish independence and legitimacy also declared their own era names. Often, vassal states and tributary states of Imperial China would officially adopt

2541-471: The era name Hongxi, which means "vastly bright". A few days prior, he had secured the safety of the capital and sent the eunuch Wang Guitong ( 王貴通 , formerly known as Wang Jinghong) to Nanjing as grand defender. He also released from prison the arrested ministers, Xia Yuanji (who had been imprisoned since April 1422), and Wu Zhong ( 吳中 ). On 8 September, Xia Yuanji resumed his role as Minister of Revenue, and Wu Zhong also returned to his ministerial position at

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2662-417: The 1350s and 1360s and was experiencing growth. Along with the hundreds of thousands of soldiers stationed in the region, the city was also home to officials administering the province, as well as artisans and laborers from all over the country. The main concern of the local authorities was providing enough food for the population. Peasants were relocated to the north, soldiers and convicts were sent to cultivate

2783-575: The Era System, their treaties with other countries are in the Dionysian Era ( AD ) system. In modern times, only Republic of China and Japan still continue to use the ancient Chinese era naming system. Even in the domestic arena, the era system can present difficult dilemmas. For example, in Japan, it is difficult to keep track of the age of people who were born in the previous era. Also, while

2904-514: The Grand Secretaries from 1435 until her death in 1442, during the minority of her grandson, Emperor Yingzong .) Three days later, he named his eldest son, Zhu Zhanji , as crown prince and his other sons as princes. He also raised the incomes of members of the imperial family, but maintained their exclusion from involvement in state affairs. By the end of 1424, officials who were redundant, incompetent, or too old were dismissed, while those who were successful were promoted. Censors were sent throughout

3025-562: The Grand Secretaries quickly gained dominance in the civil administration. The Grand Secretariat was established in August 1402, when the emperor began to address current administrative issues during a working dinner with Huang Huai and Xie Jin after the evening audience. In September 1402, he appointed five additional Grand Secretaries. These Grand Secretaries were all from the south or southeast and were highly educated and skilled in administration, having previously served in lower positions in

3146-504: The Hongwu Emperor's legitimate successor by declaring himself and his fifth son, Zhu Su , as the only sons of Empress Ma in the 1403 edition of the official Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu . This was clearly absurd, as it was unlikely that a son of the empress would not be named as successor during the Hongwu Emperor's lifetime. Therefore, in the later version of 1418, all five of the Hongwu Emperor's sons were recognized as her descendants. Zhu Di spent his childhood in Nanjing, where he

3267-551: The Hongwu era. During that time, the generals, who were former comrades-in-arms of the emperor, held a higher status, had their own followers, and wielded considerable power in their assigned areas. This eventually posed a threat to the emperor, leading to their elimination. Under the Yongle Emperor, members of the nobility did not participate in regional or civil administration, nor were they assigned permanent military units. Instead, they were given ad hoc assembled armies. Additionally,

3388-434: The Hongxi Emperor's rule, which was influenced by Confucian ideals, continued to persist. He was seen as a moderate emperor, surrounded by educated ministers and sympathetic to the people, and served as a model for future generations. Chinese historians, who shared Confucian values with the bureaucracy, praised the Hongxi Emperor as an exemplary ruler who consolidated the empire by reversing the costly and unpopular programs of

3509-535: The Hongxi Emperor's successor, the Xuande Emperor, pardoned the outstanding taxes and reduced the taxes. Forthwith issue it [grain] in relief! What would loans accomplish! Relieving people's poverty ought to be handled as though one were rescuing them from fire or saving them from drowing. One cannot hesitate. The Hongxi Emperor's order to officials to give the people grain during famine He waived taxes for areas that were impacted by disasters and oversaw

3630-411: The Jianwen Emperor administration. Despite their relatively low status (at most fifth rank), they were given high titles in the crown prince's household. Over time, they evolved from subordinate assistants responsible for organizing correspondence and formulating responses to becoming influential politicians who proposed solutions to problems. Their close proximity to the emperor gave them an advantage over

3751-714: The Jianwen era and extending the Hongwu era until the end of 1402. In addition, Zhu Di abolished the reforms and laws implemented by the Jianwen government, restored the titles and privileges of the princes, and destroyed government archives (with the exception of financial and military records). He also attempted to involve respected supporters of the Jianwen Emperor, such as Fang Xiaoru and Liu Jing ( 劉璟 ), in his administration. However, they refused and were subsequently executed. Similarly, Huang Zicheng and Qi Tai were executed, along with their family members, teachers, students, and followers. Many others were imprisoned or deported to

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3872-585: The Ming dynasty's defeat, as he was highly experienced and respected in the province. One month before his death, the Hongxi Emperor made a bold decision to move the capital back to Nanjing. This move was primarily influenced by Xia Yuanji and other high-ranking officials due to financial concerns. The emperor himself preferred Nanjing over the northern region. On 16 April 1425, he declared the Beijing authorities as "temporary" ( 行在 , xingzai ) and two weeks later, he sent his successor, Zhu Zhanji, to Nanjing. However,

3993-470: The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty , Beiping served as the capital of China. After being conquered by the Ming dynasty in 1368, it became a crucial stronghold for the troops guarding the northern border of China and was also designated as the capital of the province with the same name. At that time, Zhu Di was given his own household, with adviser Hua Yunlong and tutor Gao Xian at its head. Gao Xian spent

4114-742: The ROC and Japan both continue to use the ancient Chinese era system, since they have partially adopted the Gregorian calendar for non-governmental use, it is more difficult to track down dates that fall on February 29 leap year in the Western calendar. Furthermore, in Japan, in theory it is difficult to mention future dates since it is sometimes hard to tell whether the current emperor will live long enough for its citizens to use that era name. However, in practice, documents like driver's licenses and 50-year leases use era dates without regard to this problem. On

4235-411: The Xuande Emperor, and later under the leadership of his widow, Empress Zhang. However, they gradually died out in the first half of the 1440s. Due to his untimely death, the Hongxi Emperor was unable to fully achieve his goals. The Confucian-educated officials were not able to completely gain the support of other groups within the Ming elites. They were also unable to eliminate the independent agencies of

4356-488: The Yongle Emperor's reign, four out of the six ministries ( Personnel , Revenue , Rites , and Works ) were headed by the same minister. This continuity of leadership continued even after the emperor's death, with many ministers remaining in their positions. Chinese era name Chinese era names , also known as reign mottos , were titles used by various Chinese dynasties and regimes in Imperial China for

4477-489: The acquisition and transportation of materials and supplies for warfare. It was during this period that his organizational skills began to emerge, which he later utilized effectively in his battles. He also took the opportunity to disguise himself as a regular soldier and immerse himself in the lives of ordinary people. Looking back, he considered his time in Fengyang to be the happiest days of his life. In 1376, Li Wenzhong,

4598-535: The authority of the Grand Secretariat , the highest governing body. He abandoned his father's unpopular militaristic policies, made changes to the financial and tax system, abolished many mandatory provisions, and encouraged the return of displaced peasants, particularly in the lower regions of the Yangtze River . His Confucian ideals influenced the style of governance for the next century. He made

4719-533: The border, resulting in a purge that affected tens of thousands of people. After Zhu Di ascended to the imperial throne, the Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu were rewritten. The original version, created in 1402 at the court of the Jianwen Emperor, was deemed unacceptable by the new regime. In late 1402, the authors of the original version began to revise their work, completing it in July 1403. However,

4840-501: The city with 10,000 soldiers against Li Jinglong 's stronger forces. The Yongle Emperor recognized Zhu Gaochi's efforts in defending Beijing, but he continued to favor his younger sons who were more inclined towards military matters. In May 1404, his father created him as crown prince, following the requests of Xie Jin and Huang Huai. During the Yongle Emperor's absence from the capital, mainly due to campaigns in Mongolia, he governed

4961-401: The city, a decision that would have consequences during the civil war when his son, Li Jinglong , unsuccessfully attempted to besiege Beiping in 1399. In April 1380, at the age of twenty, he moved to Beiping. He encountered a strong Mongolian influence, which the government tried to suppress by banning Mongolian customs, clothing, and names. The city had recovered from the famine and wars of

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5082-584: The civilian administration, gaining the support of officials who had often served under the previous government. He restored the administrative structure of the Hongwu era, while also making some changes. First and foremost, in 1402, the Grand Secretariat was created to act as an intermediary between the emperor and the government, partially replacing the Central Secretariat that had been abolished in 1380. Despite their informal position,

5203-579: The concept of era name as a result of Chinese politico-cultural influence. Chinese era names were titles adopted for the purpose of identifying and numbering years in Imperial China. Era names originated as mottos or slogans chosen by the reigning monarch and usually reflected the political, economic and/or social landscapes at the time. For instance, the first era name proclaimed by the Emperor Wu of Han , Jianyuan ( 建元 ; lit. "establishing

5324-436: The corrupt Liu Quan ( 劉觀 ) remained as the chief censor, and he was not the only corrupt official who was not removed. Confucian morality was emphasized during this time. In February 1425, Zheng He was appointed as the grand defender of Nanjing; however, generally, the eunuchs were generally kept under close observation. The changes also affected the civil service exams, as there was a significant preponderance of candidates from

5445-403: The court in August and December 1399, as well as through a public statement. In his letters and statements, he repeatedly asserted that he had no desire for the throne. However, as the eldest living son of the deceased emperor, he felt a duty to restore the laws and order that had been dismantled by the new government. He explained that this was out of respect for his late father. He also accused

5566-422: The current emperor and his advisors of withholding information about his father's illness and preventing him from attending the funeral. Furthermore, he condemned their unjust treatment of the emperor's uncles, who were his own younger brothers. He justified his actions as necessary self-defense, not against the emperor himself, but against his corrupt ministers. He referred to these actions as the Jingnan campaign ,

5687-886: The daughter of Xu Da , who was ranked first among all of the early Ming generals. She was two years younger than him. Lady Xu was known for her intelligence, decisiveness, and energy. The couple welcomed their first son, Zhu Gaochi , on 16 August 1378, followed by their second son, Zhu Gaoxu , in 1380. Their third son, Zhu Gaosui , was born three years later. A few weeks after the wedding, he traveled to Fengyang (then known as Zhongdu—the Central Capital) where he underwent seven months of military training alongside his elder brothers, Zhu Shuang and Zhu Gang. Two years later, he returned to Fengyang with his younger brothers, Zhu Su, Zhu Zhen, and Zhu Fu, and stayed for an additional two years. During this time, he not only trained in command and combat, but also gained knowledge in logistics and

5808-414: The death of the Hongwu Emperor in 1398, Zhu Di emerged victorious in the Jingnan campaign , a civil war, and took over the throne as the Yongle Emperor in 1402. While Zhu Di and his younger sons were engaged in the civil war, Zhu Gaochi managed his father's territory. In late 1399, during the siege of Beijing, Zhu Gaochi displayed his exceptional organizational and military abilities by successfully defending

5929-493: The decision to relocate the capital back to Nanjing. However, just a month later, in May 1425, he died, most likely due to a heart attack . His 26-year-old son, Zhu Zhanji , assumed the throne and carried on his father's progressive policies, leaving a lasting influence. Zhu Gaochi was born on 16 August 1378, the eldest son of Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, and his principal consort, Lady Xu . He received

6050-453: The dignitaries who had defected to his side before the fall of Nanjing—Li Jinglong, Chen Xuan ( 陳瑄 ), Ru Chang ( 茹瑺 ), and Wang Zuo ( 王佐 ). In June 1403, an additional nine generals from the civil war were appointed as marquises or counts. In the following years, meritorious military leaders from the campaign against the Mongols were also granted titles of dukes, marquises, and counts, including those of Mongolian origin. The emperor established

6171-652: The distribution of food from government reserves. In these situations, he also lessened the burden of taxes and fees on the people, and eliminated additional taxes on resources such as wood, gold, and silver. He reprimanded officials who did not demonstrate enough effort in aiding the population. The Hongxi Emperor halted military campaigns into Mongolia and focused on strengthening the empire's northern outposts. He put an end to long-distance voyages, but maintained normal relations with other countries, such as those in Central Asia. The Hongxi government's main military concern

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6292-632: The eastern Mongols and western Oirats were problematic. Ming China alternately supported and opposed them. The Yongle Emperor personally led five campaigns into Mongolia, and the decision to move the capital from Nanjing to Beijing was motivated by the need to keep a close eye on the restless northern neighbors. The Yongle Emperor was a skilled military leader and placed great emphasis on the strength of his army. However, his wars were ultimately unsuccessful. The war in Jiaozhi (present-day northern Vietnam ), which began with an invasion in 1407, lasted until

6413-414: The economy, the emperor promoted food and textile production and utilized uncultivated land, particularly in the prosperous Yangtze Delta region. Additionally, he made the decision to elevate Beijing to the capital in 1403, reducing the significance of Nanjing . The construction of the new capital, which took place from 1407 to 1420, employed hundreds of thousands of workers daily. At the heart of Beijing

6534-455: The education of his sons, enlisting the help of prominent scholars from the empire. Initially, Song Lian was appointed as the teacher for the crown prince, and also gave lectures to the other princes. Song Lian's successor, Kong Keren ( 孔克仁 ), had a significant influence on Zhu Di, teaching him philosophy and ethics. However, Zhu Di's favorite subject was the history of the Han dynasty , particularly

6655-446: The emperor and approval from the prince. Meanwhile, the prince had the freedom to train and deploy his own guard. In 1381, Zhu Di had his first experience in the field when he joined Xu Da's campaign against the Mongols, led by Nayur Buqa. In the 1380s, Zhu Di served in border defense under the leadership of his father-in-law, Xu Da. After Su's death in 1385, Fu Youde , Xu's deputy, took over leadership. In 1387, Zhu Di participated in

6776-462: The emperor of his loyalty. He even asked for mercy for his friend Zhu Su and begged for permission to return his sons, who had been staying in Nanjing since the funeral of the Hongwu Emperor. This was done by the government as a precaution, effectively holding them as hostages. However, in June 1399, the emperor's adviser, Huang Zicheng , convinced the emperor that releasing Zhu Di's sons would help calm

6897-404: The emperor often personally led campaigns accompanied by the nobility, strengthening their personal relationships. As a result, the military nobility was closely tied to the emperor and remained loyal. There was no need for purges, and any isolated cases of punishment were due to the failures and shortcomings of those involved. Overall, the nobility elevated the emperor's prestige and contributed to

7018-402: The emperor ultimately prevailed and Fang Bin committed suicide, while Wu Zhong and Xia Yuanji were imprisoned. However, after the Yongle Emperor's death, they were exonerated and returned to their positions of authority. Other notable ministers who served for many years included Jian Yi ( 蹇義 ), Song Li ( 宋禮 ), Liu Quan ( 劉觀 ), and Zhao Hong, who held various ministerial positions. During most of

7139-402: The emperor was dissatisfied with the revised version and in 1411, he ordered a new version to be prepared. This new version was completed in June 1418, and changes focused primarily on Zhu Di's claim to the throne. It included claims that he was the son of Empress Ma, that the Hongwu Emperor had considered appointing him as successor, that he was to be the regent of the Jianwen Emperor, and that he

7260-412: The emperor, his empress, and his son. On 17 July 1402, Zhu Di ascended the throne, officially succeeding his father, the Hongwu Emperor. However, even as late as the summer of 1402, the new emperor was still dealing with the followers of the Jianwen Emperor. These followers denied the legitimacy of Zhu Di's rule and he responded by erasing the Jianwen Emperor's reign from history. This included abolishing

7381-470: The emperors Gaozu and Wudi . In fact, he often referenced examples from the life of Qin Shi Huang in his decrees. On 22 April 1370, the emperor's sons, with the exception of the crown prince, were granted princely titles. Zhu Di was bestowed with the title of Prince of Yan. Yan was a region located in the northeast of China, with its most significant city being Beiping (present-day Beijing ). During

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7502-469: The empire to investigate abuse of power and corruption, and to find capable individuals to fill vacant positions. On 18 October 1424, Grand Secretaries Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Jin Youzi, along with Minister of Personnel, Jian Yi ( 蹇義 ), were given the authority to confidentially report any misconduct by other officials to the emperor. At the end of the year, Xia Yuanji was also granted this privilege. However,

7623-407: The empire with the help of authorized ministers and Grand Secretaries. However, his policies were influenced by the Grand Secretaries and ministers, causing them to deviate from his father's. Additionally, he faced hostility from his younger brothers, Zhu Gaoxu and Zhu Gaosui . In September 1414, when the Yongle Emperor returned from Mongolia, Zhu Gaoxu accused Zhu Gaochi of neglecting his duties. As

7744-456: The end of his reign, the princes had lost much of their political influence. One of the Yongle Emperor's first actions upon assuming the throne was to reorganize the military command. He promoted loyal generals and granted them titles and ranks. In October 1402, he appointed two dukes ( gong ; 公 )— Qiu Fu and Zhu Neng ( 朱能 ), thirteen marquises ( hou ; 侯 ), and nine counts ( bo ; 伯 ). Among these appointments were one duke and three counts from

7865-538: The end of his reign. Four years after his death, the Ming army was forced to retreat back to China. Despite his efforts, the Yongle Emperor's Mongol campaigns did not significantly alter the balance of power or ensure the security of the northern border. The Yongle Emperor died in 1424 and was buried in the Chang Mausoleum, the largest of the tombs of the Ming emperors located near Beijing. Zhu Di

7986-620: The era name of the reigning Chinese monarch as a sign of subordination—a practice known as fèng zhēng shuò ( 奉正朔 ; lit. "following the first month of the year and the first day of the month"). For example, Korean regimes such as Silla , Goryeo , and Joseon at various times formally adopted the era names of the Tang , Wu Zhou, Later Liang , Later Tang , Later Jin , Later Han , Later Zhou , Northern Song , Liao , Jin , Yuan , Northern Yuan , Ming , and Qing dynasties of China for both domestic and diplomatic purposes. The Emperor Wu of Han

8107-405: The eunuchs and prevent their growth under the Xuande Emperor and his successors. Although the policy of returning to Nanjing was officially abandoned in 1441, none of the emperors actually wanted to go back. Despite this, they remained the dominant group in the Ming government and were responsible for managing the day-to-day affairs of the state until the end of the dynasty. As a result, the spirit of

8228-456: The first time. The princes of Jin (Zhu Gang), Yan (Zhu Di), and Qi (Zhu Fu) were given the task of leading a punitive expedition against the Mongol commanders Nayur Buqa and Alu Temür, who were threatening Shanxi and Gansu . Zhu Di demonstrated excellent command skills when he defeated and captured both Mongol commanders in battle. They then served under him with their troops. The emperor himself appreciated Zhu Di's success, which contrasted with

8349-471: The following year, just two months after its initiation. When a new monarch ascended to the throne, he could either declare a new era immediately or inherit the usage of the existing era name from his predecessor. For example, the era name Wutai ( 武泰 ; lit. "exalted martial") of the Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei was immediately replaced with Jianyi ( 建義 ; lit. "establishing justice") when

8470-485: The hesitancy of the Prince of Jin. Zhu Di continued to lead armies into battle against the Mongols repeatedly and with great success. In 1392, the emperor's eldest son and crown prince, Zhu Biao , died. The court then discussed who would succeed him, and ultimately, the primogeniture viewpoint, advocated by scholars from the Hanlin Academy and high officials, prevailed. As a result, Zhu Biao's son, Zhu Yunwen ,

8591-456: The homeless to return to their homes and settle down. Many people had left their homes because of the heavy state taxes and demands of the Yongle government. The Hongxi Emperor promised a two-year tax and work obligation exemption for those who returned. He also dispatched a special investigative commission, led by Zhou Gan ( 周干 ), to Jiangnan (where desertion was prevalent). Based on their reports,

8712-484: The indecisiveness and lack of coordination displayed by the government's generals. In September 1399, a government army of 130,000 soldiers, led by the experienced veteran general Geng Bingwen , marched towards Zhending , a city located southwest of Beiping. However, by the end of the month, they were defeated. In response, the court appointed a new commander, Li Jinglong , who then led a new army to besiege Beiping on 12 November. Zhu Di, who had been gathering troops in

8833-433: The judicial mistakes made by the previous government. Several cases were reevaluated, and by late 1424, the families of officials who had been executed for their loyalty to the Jianwen Emperor were vindicated and their confiscated property was returned. The emperor also reversed some of his own rulings, acknowledging that they had been made in a fit of anger without considering the circumstances. The aim of his economic policy

8954-433: The judiciary, and routine tasks. As a result, the atomization of administration that was characteristic of the Hongwu Emperor's rule diminished, allowing the emperor to focus less on routine details. The political influence of the bureaucratic apparatus gradually increased, and under the Yongle Emperor's rule, ministers were able to challenge the emperor, even at the cost of their freedom or lives. The most significant change

9075-416: The land, and merchants were granted licenses to trade salt in exchange for bringing grain to the region. The government also transported food supplies to the city. Zhu Di's interest in the military was put into practice when he personally trained his own guard. He used his detachments as a means of balancing the power of the provincial commander, who was unable to mobilize troops without authorization from

9196-404: The latter half of his reign, the Yongle Emperor accused many of these princes of committing crimes and punished them by removing their personal guards. Interestingly, he had previously condemned the same actions when they were carried out by the Jianwen Emperor. In order to reduce political threats, the Yongle Emperor relocated several border princes from the north to central and southern China. By

9317-444: The military successes of his reign. Grand Secretaries during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, from 1402–1424. The first two were appointed in August 1402, while the rest were appointed a month later. At the head of the Grand Secretariat stood briefly in 1402 Huang Huai, followed by Xie Jin, and from 1407 by Hu Guang until his death in 1418, when Yang Rong took over until the end of the Yongle Emperor's reign. The emperor reorganized

9438-410: The ministers. The emperor kept his Grand Secretaries with him, and some even accompanied him on his Mongol campaigns. During this period, the empire was governed by the crown prince with the assistance of other Grand Secretaries and selected ministers. The crown prince developed a close relationship with the Grand Secretaries and became the de facto representative of the officials. The Yongle Emperor

9559-479: The month in which the era name was adopted. For example, as the Emperor Daizong of Tang replaced the era name Yongtai ( 永泰 ; lit. "perpetual peace") with Dali ( 大曆 ; lit. "great era") in the eleventh month of the Chinese calendar in 766 CE, the first year of Dali thus only consisted of the last two months of that particular year; the second year of Dali began on the first day of the Chinese calendar

9680-408: The most dangerous of all the princes. He was an experienced military leader and the oldest surviving descendant of the Hongwu Emperor. Due to this, the government treated him with caution and limited his power. They replaced military commanders in the northeast with generals loyal to the Jianwen Emperor and transferred Zhu Di's personal guard outside of Beiping. Despite this, Zhu Di managed to convince

9801-401: The most significant change being an attempt to limit and eventually eliminate the princes who were the sons of the Hongwu Emperor and served as the emperor's support and controlled a significant portion of the military power during his reign. The government employed various methods to remove the five princes, including exile, house arrest, and even driving them to suicide. Zhu Di was considered

9922-457: The nephew and adopted son of the Hongwu Emperor, who was responsible for defending the north, was given the responsibility of preparing the prince's palace in Beijing. He utilized the former palaces of the Yuan emperors, providing Zhu Di with a larger and more fortified residence compared to his brothers, some of whom resided in converted temples or county offices. General Li also focused on fortifying

10043-560: The next four to five years lecturing him on Confucian classics, history, agriculture, and irrigation. He also trained the prince in poetry and prose writing, and explained the rules of governance and the selection of subordinates. After Hua's death and Gao's dismissal, Fei Yu, Qiu Guang, Wang Wuban, and Zhu Fu took over Zhu Di's education. Despite receiving a comprehensive education from esteemed teachers, Zhu Di's true passion always lay in military pursuits rather than scholarly pursuits and palace discussions. In early 1376, he married Lady Xu ,

10164-410: The north bank of the Yangtze River . The commander of the government fleet defected to Zhu Di's side, allowing the rebel army to cross the river without resistance and advance on Nanjing. Due to the betrayal of Li Jinglong and Zhu Hui, Zhu Di's younger brother, the capital city was captured on 13 July 1402, with little resistance. During the clashes, the palace was set on fire, resulting in the deaths of

10285-587: The northeast, swiftly returned and defeated the surprised Li army. The soldiers from the south, who were not accustomed to the cold weather, were forced to retreat to Dezhou in Shandong. In 1400, there were battles in the southern part of Beiping province and northwestern Shandong , with varying levels of success. In the spring, Zhu Di led a successful attack into Datong , defeating Li Jinglong near Baoding in May and outside Dezhou in June. However, due to concerns about potential enemy reinforcements, Zhu Di ended

10406-590: The northern border, Zhu Di was the second oldest but also the most capable. He had operated in a vast territory, stretching from Liaodong to the bend of the Yellow River. He was not afraid to take risks, as demonstrated by his defeat of the Mongols led by Polin Temür at Daning in the summer of 1396. He also went on a raid with the Prince of Jin several hundred kilometers north of the Great Wall, which earned them

10527-468: The origin"), was reflective of its status as the first era name. Similarly, the era name Jianzhongjingguo ( 建中靖國 ; lit. "establishing a moderate and peaceful country") used by the Emperor Huizong of Song was indicative of Huizong's idealism towards moderating the rivalry among the conservative and progressive factions regarding political and social reforms. The process of declaring an era name

10648-541: The other hand, others suggest that the AD system has too much Christian connotation behind it and it is a form of cultural imperialism when an essentially European system of dating is forced upon other civilizations with their own long-used and equally legitimate dating systems. However, with globalization, the AD system is becoming more acceptable in Japan and the ROC. Modern history researchers do not care about era names except for supporting other arguments, such as figuring out

10769-415: The previous government. Although he was occasionally criticized for his impulsiveness in punishing officials who displeased him, he was able to acknowledge his mistakes and apologize for them. His faults were balanced by his humanity and sincere pursuit of the public interest. The emperor had ten sons and seven daughters, but only nine sons and four daughters survived to adulthood. The eldest son, Zhu Zhanji,

10890-423: The prince was cautious not to give any reason for criticism. For example, he did not object to the execution of his generals Nayur Buqa and Alu Temür, who were accused of treason. He also exercised caution in diplomatic relations, such as when he welcomed Korean delegations passing through Beiping, to avoid any indication of disrespect towards the emperor's authority. Out of the six princes responsible for guarding

11011-489: The purpose of year identification and numbering . The first monarch to adopt era names was the Emperor Wu of Han in 140 BCE, and this system remained the official method of year identification and numbering until the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 CE, when the era name system was superseded by the Republic of China calendar . Other polities in the Sinosphere — Korea , Vietnam and Japan —also adopted

11132-490: The same time. The reorganization of the Grand Secretariat occurred on 9 September. Huang Huai and Yang Pu, who had been imprisoned since 1414, were appointed to it. Yang Shiqi, who was promoted to Senior Grand Secretary, Yang Rong, who remained Grand Secretary, and Jin Youzi ( 金幼孜 ) also remained in it. The Grand Secretaries were given the high ranks of vice ministers, elevating their formal status to match their actual influence. Later, they received an even higher first rank and

11253-528: The siege of Jinan in September and retreated to Beiping. Li Jinglong's lackluster performance led the government to appoint Sheng Yong as the new commander of the counterinsurgency army. In 1401, Zhu Di attempted to weaken the enemy by attacking smaller units, which disrupted the supply of government troops. Both sides then focused on breaking through along the Grand Canal . In January, Zhu Di suffered

11374-454: The situation. Unfortunately, the result was the exact opposite. In early August 1399, Zhu Di used the arrest of two of his officials as a pretext for rebellion. He claimed that he was rising up to protect the emperor from the corrupt court officials. With the support of Beijing dignitaries, he gained control of the city's garrison and occupied the surrounding prefectures and counties. He attempted to justify his actions through letters sent to

11495-542: The southern provinces, which outnumbered the northern provinces in terms of population and level of education. The emperor, therefore, decided that 40% of the successful candidates in the metropolitan examinations would be from the North in order to increase the representation of Northerners in the civil service. This policy was maintained by his successors and adopted by the Qing dynasty . The Hongxi Emperor made efforts to rectify

11616-519: The supernumerary title of minister (of War, Yang Shiqi; of Works, Yang Rong; and of Revenue, Huang Huai), which allowed them to directly participate in government affairs. The emperor worked closely with the Grand Secretaries and ministers, encouraging them to openly discuss matters in meetings. Decisions were made through collective discussion, resulting in the cancellation of the Yongle Emperor's unpopular programs. On 29 October, he elevated his wife, Lady Zhang , to empress. (She served as regent alongside

11737-449: The throne, he faced the aftermath of a civil war that had devastated the rural areas of northern China and weakened the economy due to a lack of manpower. In order to stabilize and strengthen the economy, the emperor first had to suppress any resistance. He purged the state administration of supporters of the Jianwen Emperor as well as corrupt and disloyal officials. The government also took action against secret societies and bandits. To boost

11858-422: The transfer did not actually take place as the emperor died and his successor, who was more aligned with the policies of the Yongle Emperor and did not share the Hongxi Emperor's disapproval of the northern focus of government, cancelled the plan. The Hongxi Emperor died suddenly in Beijing on 29 May 1425, most likely from a heart attack. This is not surprising considering his obesity and difficulty with walking. He

11979-568: The two capitals, similar to the Yuan emperors. He also frequently led military campaigns into Mongolia. However, this behavior was opposed by officials who felt threatened by the growing influence of eunuchs and military elites. These groups relied on imperial favor for their power. The emperor also made significant efforts to strengthen and consolidate the empire's hegemonic position in East Asia through foreign policy. Diplomatic messages and military expeditions were sent to "all four corners of

12100-441: The use of era names today. While the era system is a more traditional system of dating that preserves Chinese and Japanese culture, it presents a problem for the more globalized Asian society and for everyday life. For example, even though within the nation people will know what era they are in, it is relatively meaningless for other nations. In addition, while the Republic of China (ROC) and Japan only recognize documents dated in

12221-614: The world". Missions were sent to countries near and far, including Manchuria , Korea , Japan , the Philippines , and the Timurid Empire in Central Asia. Zheng He's famous voyages even reached the shores of Southeast Asia , India , Persia , and East Africa . A major threat to the security of the empire was posed by the Mongols, who were divided into three groups—the Uriankhai in the southeast were mostly loyal, while

12342-491: Was an exceptionally talented military leader who was highly favored by his father. In contrast to the frequent changes in offices during the Hongwu Emperor's reign, the high levels of the Yongle Emperor's administration remained stable. While the emperor did occasionally imprison a minister, the mass purges seen in the Hongwu era did not occur again. The most significant political matters were overseen by eunuchs and generals, while officials were responsible for managing finances,

12463-417: Was appointed as the new successor. Generals Feng Sheng, Fu Youde, and Lan Yu (who were related to the successor by blood) were chosen as his tutors and teachers. However, due to a recommendation from Zhu Di, the Hongwu Emperor began to suspect the three generals of treason. It is worth noting that Zhu Di did not have a good relationship with Lan Yu, and according to historian Wang Shizhen ( 王世貞 ; 1526–1590), he

12584-465: Was away on military campaigns. As soon as Zhu Gaochi ascended to the throne, he discontinued Zheng He 's overseas expeditions , halted the trade of tea for horses with Asian nations, and put an end to the gold and pearl missions to Yunnan and Jiaozhi (present-day northern Vietnam ). He pardoned officials who had been disgraced by the previous regime and restructured the government, appointing his trusted advisors to key positions. He also strengthened

12705-565: Was born on 2 May 1360, as the fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang . At the time, Zhu Yuanzhang was based in Nanjing and was an independent general of the Han Song dynasty. This dynasty was one of the states formed during the Red Turban Rebellion , which was a rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty that controlled China. In the 1360s, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered China, established the Ming dynasty , and declared himself emperor. He

12826-417: Was deeply affected by the death of his two eldest sons and the strained relations between his remaining sons and the heir, made the decision to revise the rules governing the imperial family for the fourth time. The new edition significantly limited the rights of the princes. However, these changes had little impact on Zhu Di's status as they did not affect his main area of expertise—the military. Furthermore,

12947-423: Was extended to Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in 1999 (de facto extended in 1966) through Annex III of Hong Kong Basic Law and Macau Basic Law , thus eliminating the ROC calendar in these areas. The concept of era name also saw its adoption by neighboring Korea and Vietnam since the middle of the 6th century CE, and by Japan since the middle of the 7th century CE. Notably, Japan still officially retains

13068-414: Was given the posthumous name Emperor Zhao ( 昭帝 ; 'Luminous Emperor') and the temple name Renzong ( 仁宗 ; 'Benevolent Ancestor'). His Xian Mausoleum, located near Beijing, was built in a simple and austere style, reflecting the manner of his reign. The main objective of the Hongxi Emperor was to put an end to the actions of the Yongle government that he deemed incorrect and un-Confucian. He aimed to create

13189-487: Was meticulous in his selection of the top officials for the state apparatus, including the members of the Grand Secretariat and the ministers. He placed particular trust in those who had served him during the civil war, such as Jin Zhong ( 金忠 ), Guo Zi, Lü Zhen ( 呂震 ), and Wu Zhong ( 吳中 ). These ministers came from all over China, but were all highly educated and capable administrators. Among them, Minister of Revenue Xia Yuanji

13310-411: Was not afraid to use violence against opponents when necessary, he differed from his father in his abandonment of frequent purges. As a result, ministers held their posts for longer periods of time, leading to a more professional and stable state administration. However, it was not just officials who enjoyed the emperor's favor and support. He ruled the empire primarily "from horseback", traveling between

13431-503: Was raised with a strong emphasis on discipline and modesty, along with the other children of Zhu Yuanzhang. Out of all his siblings, he had a special fondness for Princess Ningguo ( 寧國公主 ), Zhu Fu ( 朱榑 ), and Zhu Su, who was only 15 months younger. Despite their contrasting personalities, Zhu Di and Zhu Su became the closest of friends. While Zhu Di enjoyed activities such as archery and horseback riding, Zhu Su preferred studying literature and tending to plants. The emperor took great care in

13552-488: Was referred to in traditional Chinese historical texts as jiànyuán ( 建元 ). Proclaiming a new era name to replace an existing era name was known as gǎiyuán ( 改元 ; lit. "change the origin"). Instituting a new era name would reset the numbering of the year back to year one, known as yuán nián ( 元年 ; lit. "year of origin"). On the first day of the Chinese calendar , the numbering of the year would increase by one. To name

13673-619: Was responsible for Lan Yu's execution in March 1393. The other two generals also died under unclear circumstances at the turn of 1394 and 1395. In their place, princes were appointed. For example, in 1393, the Prince of Jin was given command of all the troops in Shanxi province, and the Prince of Yan was given command in Beiping province. Additionally, Zhu Shuang, Prince of Qin, was in charge of Shaanxi , but he died in 1395. The Hongwu Emperor, who

13794-561: Was the crown prince from November 1424. He was the son of Empress Zhang . When the Hongxi Emperor died, Zhu Zhanji became the Xuande Emperor and took over the throne. Consorts and issue: Zhu Di The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming , personal name Zhu Di , was the third emperor of the Ming dynasty , reigning from 1402 to 1424. He

13915-408: Was the emergence of the Grand Secretariat , which played a crucial role in the politics of the Yongle Emperor's successors. Led by the Grand Secretaries, officials gained control of the government. The emperor restored the titles of the princes of Zhou, Qi, and Min, which had been abolished by the Jianwen Emperor. However, these titles did not come with the same power and authority as before. During

14036-438: Was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor , the founder and first emperor of the dynasty. In 1370, he was granted the title of Prince of Yan. By 1380, he had relocated to Beijing and was responsible for protecting the northeastern borderlands. In the 1380s and 1390s, he proved himself to be a skilled military leader, gaining popularity among soldiers and achieving success as a statesman. In 1399, he rebelled against his nephew,

14157-430: Was the most trusted by the emperor. Xia advocated for moderation in spending and using resources for the benefit of the population, which earned him the respect of the Yongle Emperor for his honesty and transparency. Xia held this position for nineteen years until 1421, when he, along with Minister of Justice Wu Zhong and Minister of War Fang Bin, protested against the costly campaign into Mongolia. Despite their objections,

14278-557: Was the official Imperial City, with the Forbidden City serving as the palace residence for the emperor and his family. The emperor also oversaw the reconstruction of the Grand Canal , which was crucial for supplying the capital and the armies in the north. The emperor was a strong supporter of both Confucianism and Buddhism. He supported the compilation of the massive Yongle Encyclopedia by employing two thousand scholars. This encyclopedia surpassed all previous ones, including

14399-458: Was the ongoing war in Jiaozhi. The emperor recalled Huang Fu ( 黃福 ) from his position in Jiaozhi (where he had been the head of civil administration and surveillance commissioner since 1407) and replaced him with Chen Zhi ( 陳智 ), Earl of Yongchang. However, the army was not reinforced and the Viet rebellion continued. Historians view Huang Fu's recall negatively and consider it to be the main reason for

14520-478: Was to lessen the tax burden on the population, which had significantly increased under the Yongle Emperor due to the expenses of foreign policy. On the day of his enthronement, he put an end to long-distance overseas voyages that had been halted for several years, the trade of tea for horses on the western and northern borders, and the excessive logging in Yunnan and Jiaozhi . His administration encouraged vagrants and

14641-518: Was used on at least ten occasions in China. In such cases, Chinese sources would often affix the name of the dynasty or the ruler before the era name for the purpose of disambiguation. For example, when referencing the year 410 CE, Chinese sources could either render it as Běi Yān Tàipíng èr nián ( 北燕太平二年 ; lit. "second year of Taiping of the Northern Yan ") or Běi Yān Wéngchéng Dì Tàipíng èr nián ( 北燕文成帝太平二年 ; lit. "second year of Taiping of

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