Misplaced Pages

#55944

166-578: The Jiajing Emperor (16   September 1507 – 23   January 1567), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizong of Ming , personal name Zhu Houcong , art names Yaozhai , Leixuan , and Tianchi Diaosou , was the 12th emperor of the Ming dynasty , reigning from 1521 to 1567. He succeeded his cousin, the Zhengde Emperor . Zhu Houcong was born as a cousin of

332-477: A boy on 30 July 1470. For the next five years, the mother and child lived in secrecy with Lady Wu. The emperor, who was very enthusiastic about his son, recognized him and named him Zhu Youcheng . He then moved the child to safety under the protection of Empress Dowager Zhou. A month later, Lady Ji died under suspicious circumstances. The emperor then moved out of the palace occupied by Lady Wan and protected his heir from her. Empress Dowager Zhou even warned

498-654: A complex of palaces and Taoist temples in the West Park, drawing inspiration from the Taoist belief of the Land of Immortals . Within the West Park, he surrounded himself with a group of loyal eunuchs, Taoist monks, and trusted advisers (including Grand Secretaries and Ministers of Rites) who assisted him in managing the state bureaucracy. The Jiajing Emperor's team of advisers and Grand Secretaries were led by Zhang Fujing ( 張孚敬 ), Xia Yan , Yan Song , and Xu Jie in succession. At

664-544: A failure of his ceremonial and administrative reforms. Two years later, during civil service examinations , he asked candidates why there was still poverty in the country despite his efforts to faithfully follow Confucian teachings and observe ceremonies. After successfully resolving the Great Rites Controversy, the emperor proceeded to make changes to other rituals and ceremonies, despite facing opposition from some officials. These changes primarily affected

830-402: A fire on the way south to Anlu. In order to prolong the emperor's life, Tao Zhongwen offered him aphrodisiacs and elixirs of immortality made from surite and arsenic. In September 1540, the emperor announced his plans to withdraw into private life in the coming years to seek immortality. This caused great concern among officials, who criticized the preparations as toxic. Those who openly criticized

996-537: A flourishing trade on the southeast coast. Not only did Ming pottery regain its popularity in Asian and African markets, but it also made its way to Europe in the 1480s. The products from the Chenghua era of Jingdezhen are considered some of the finest examples of Ming porcelain in terms of design and decoration. Of particular significance is the development of doucai ( 鬥彩 ; literally meaning 'contrasted colors'), which

1162-423: A group of palace women attempted to strangle him. When the emperor had fallen asleep in one of his concubines' quarters, a serving girl led several palace women to start strangling him with a silk cord. However, one of the palace women panicked and alerted the eunuchs, who then informed Empress Fang . The emperor eventually woke up after being unconscious for eight hours but was unable to speak. Empress Fang ordered

1328-399: A lack of decisiveness on his part, as he would briefly align himself with one side or the other during government discussions. However, his efforts to reconcile differences among factions did help to reduce conflicts, although there was still some tension between northerners and southerners, with the emperor showing slight favoritism towards the latter. Out of the three Grand Secretaries during

1494-522: A more slender, southern appearance. As a child, Zhu Jianshen was slow to react and had a stutter. This caused Emperor Yingzong to have doubts about his intelligence and ability to rule. However, the Grand Secretaries, primarily Li Xian, convinced him to maintain the succession for his eldest son. Emperor Yingzong died on 23 February 1464. The following day, a twelve-member imperial council was appointed to discuss government policies and advise

1660-435: A negative attitude towards Buddhism and its methods of cultivating one's personality. This was exemplified by Hu Juren ( 胡居仁 ), a prominent Neo-Confucian during that period. Another influential figure in the intellectual community at the time was Chen Baisha , a scholar from Guangdong who mentored many significant scholars and officials. The Chenghua Emperor was known for his generosity and lack of desire for revenge, even for

1826-458: A personal audience with him. During the 15th century, the number of eunuchs in the imperial palace increased significantly, with a growing number of them serving in both civil and military roles, as well as in the provinces. By the end of the century, there were over 10,000 eunuchs in service, nearly equaling the number of regular civil servants. In the following century, their numbers even surpassed those of regular civil servants. Eunuchs held

SECTION 10

#1732765555056

1992-494: A result, Emperor Yingzong was deposed and his younger brother, the new Jingtai Emperor , took over the throne. Emperor Yingzong was eventually released from captivity, but was forced into seclusion and house arrest. During this time, Zhu Jianshen was named crown prince, but he was removed from this position after only three years. It was not until 1457, when the Jingtai Emperor was overthrown and died, that Emperor Yingzong

2158-506: A result, coins began to disappear from circulation and the government, similar to earlier banknotes, attempted to support their value by requiring payments to be made in them. Starting in 1465, it became possible to pay commercial fees in both banknotes and coins. However, the government refused to release coins from the treasury or mint new ones. The issue of money also had a significant impact on foreign trade during this time. The Japanese missions of 1468, 1477, and 1483 were characterized by

2324-426: A result, silk was woven in "every village" around Lake Tai . This resulting economic boom brought about significant changes, including the expansion of cities and commerce, particularly in the southern and southeastern regions. This was further supported by the increase in foreign trade after 1470 and the influx of Japanese silver. As a result of this economic growth, the economy became increasingly monetized. Since

2490-479: A result, the emperor grew distant from Xia Yan, partly due to his reserved attitude towards Taoist rituals and prayers. In contrast, Yan Song strongly supported the emperor's interest in Taoism. In February 1548, Xia Yan supported a campaign to Ordos without informing Yan Song, making him solely responsible for it. When the emperor withdrew his support for the campaign due to unfavorable omens and reports of discontent in

2656-419: A significant role in military affairs, overseeing the purchase of horses from abroad and the majority of (tributary) foreign trade, as well as the production of weapons, state production of silk, brocade, and porcelain, procurement and transportation of court supplies, management of the palace and imperial tombs. They also controlled the secret service, whose actions often gave rise to complaints. Protests against

2822-576: A strong and effective force. The Yao rebellion in Guangxi, led by tribal leader Hou Dagou ( 侯大狗 ), had been brewing since the 1450s and broke out in 1464. At the same time, the Miao and Zhuang also rebelled. The center of the rebellion was in the mountainous landscape 120–160 km northwest of the seat of Xunzhou Prefecture (present-day Guiping ). The rebels surprised the Chinese by bringing the fighting from

2988-472: Is an adjective, chosen to reflect the circumstances of the monarch's reign. The vocabulary may overlap with that of the posthumous names' adjectives; however, for one sovereign, the temple name's adjective character usually does not repeat as one of the many adjective characters in his posthumous name. The last character is either "祖" or "宗": Chenghua Emperor The Chenghua Emperor (9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), also known by his temple name as

3154-573: The Emperor Xianzong of Ming , personal name Zhu Jianshen , changed to Zhu Jianru in 1457, was the ninth emperor of the Ming dynasty , who reigned from 1464 to 1487. He succeeded his father, Emperor Yingzong . Zhu Jianshen was born in 1447 as the son of Emperor Yingzong. However, when he was only two years old, his father was captured by the Mongols during the Battle of Tumu Fortress . As

3320-575: The Goryeo (until AD 1274) and Joseon dynasties, and Vietnamese rulers of the Lý , Trần , and Later Lê dynasties (with the Hồ and Later Trần dynasties as exceptions). Numerous individuals who did not rule as monarch during their lifetime were posthumously elevated to the position of monarch by their descendants and honored with temple names. For example, Cao Cao was posthumously honored as an emperor and given

3486-608: The Hanlin Academy , from influential positions. This resulted in a purge of the Beijing authorities in 1527–1528 and a significant change in personnel at the academy. In addition, Zhang Fujing and Gui E worked to limit the influence of Senior Grand Secretary, Fei Hong ( 費宏 ), in the Grand Secretariat. To balance this, they brought back Yang Yiqing , who had previously served in the Grand Secretariat in 1515–1516. In

SECTION 20

#1732765555056

3652-657: The Hanlin Academy . In 1530, the Jiajing Emperor published the biography of Empress Ma , the Gao huanghou chuan ( 高皇后傳 ), and the Household Instructions of Empress Xu under the title Nüxun ( 女訓 ; 'Instructions for women', in 12 volumes). The work was attributed to the emperor's mother. Empress Ma was the wife of the Hongwu Emperor , the founder of the dynasty, and Empress Xu was the wife of

3818-624: The Ming dynasty from 1464 to 1487. His mother, Lady Shao, was one of the emperor's concubines. Zhu Houcong's mother, surnamed Jiang, was the daughter of Jiang Xiao of Daxing in North Zhili . Jiang Xiao was an officer of the Beijing garrison. Zhu Houcong's parents from 1494 lived in Anlu zhou (present-day Zhongxiang ) in Huguang in central China, where Zhu Houcong was born. His father, Zhu Youyuan,

3984-681: The Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty was originally honored as Taizong by the Hongxi Emperor , but his temple name was later amended to Chengzu by the Jiajing Emperor . There were also instances of individuals ruling as the sovereign of a particular realm but being accorded a temple name by another realm, as was the case for Möngke of the Mongol Empire , who was later honored as Xianzong by Emperor Shizu of

4150-470: The Yongle Emperor , the first monarch in the new branch of the dynasty. Additionally, the emperor changed the Yongle Emperor's temple name from "Taizong" to "Chengzu". It is believed that the Jiajing Emperor's interest in the Yongle Emperor stemmed from the precedent of starting a new branch of the dynasty. The emperor also suggested transferring his father's remains from the mausoleum in Huguang to

4316-570: The Yuan dynasty . The "temple" in "temple name" (廟號) refers to the grand temples (太廟) built by each dynasty for the purpose of ancestor worship. The temple name of each monarch was recorded on their respective ancestral tablet placed within the grand temple. Temple names trace their origins to the Shang dynasty of China. In earlier times, temple names were exclusively assigned to competent rulers after their death. The temple name system established during

4482-613: The 1440s, eunuchs sometimes represented the emperor in meetings, and under the Chenghua Emperor's reign, their influence continued to increase and they did not hesitate to assert their opinions against the Grand Secretaries and officials in these meetings. The Chenghua Emperor looked up to his military-minded grandfather and father, the emperors Xuande and Yingzong , as his role models. He followed an active military policy and generously rewarded his generals, appointing nine counts and one marquis for their achievements. During

4648-436: The 1460s, and soaring food prices—by the early 1470s, rice was two and a half times more expensive than it was in the 1430s. Banditry also became a major issue, even on the outskirts of the capital. In an effort to assist the population, the government implemented measures such as constructing irrigation canals and providing millet from state reserves during the famine in the Beijing area. They also offered displaced peasants

4814-607: The 1520s. However, piracy and related violence continued to escalate throughout the 1540s and reached its peak in the 1550s. It was not until the 1560s, particularly after 1567 when the Longqing Emperor relaxed laws against maritime trade with foreign countries, that the problem began to be gradually suppressed. In 1556, northern China was struck by a devastating natural disaster— the deadliest earthquake in human history , with its epicenter in Shaanxi . The earthquake claimed

4980-531: The 1530s, groundnut cultivation was documented in Jiangnan, having spread there from Fujian . It is believed that Fujian peasants acquired it from Portuguese sailors. Sweet potatoes were documented in Yunnan at the beginning of the 1560s, having arrived via Burma. Their presence on the southeast coast (Fujian and Guangdong) was only mentioned by authors of the time in the last decades of the 16th century, during

5146-405: The 1540s, the annual silver expenditure increased to 3.47 million liang , resulting in a deficit of 1.4 million. The Ministry of Revenue attempted to address this issue by implementing stricter monitoring of income and expenses, as well as requiring final accounts to be presented at the end of each year. Despite these efforts, the deficits persisted. In 1541, 1.2 million shi of grain surplus, which

Jiajing Emperor - Misplaced Pages Continue

5312-538: The 1550s, state expenditures, both regular and extraordinary, increased significantly. The cost of maintaining military garrisons on the northern border doubled, and the state faced additional financial burdens due to the earthquake of 1556 and the fire that destroyed three audience palaces and the southern gate of the Forbidden City in 1557. The reconstruction of these palaces took five years and cost hundreds of thousands of liang of silver. Unfortunately, in 1561,

5478-636: The 15th century. This was largely due to the increase in precious metal mining, which saw a slight rise in China, Southeast Asia, and West Africa, and a significant increase in Europe. As a result, there was a surge in the import of Eastern goods such as pepper, spices, and porcelain to Central Asia , the Middle East, and Europe. In China, the Jingdezhen porcelain factories resumed production, leading to

5644-421: The Chenghua Emperor's ascension to the throne, only Li Xian was from the north, while Chen Wen and Peng Shi were from Jiangxi. After 1464, the most influential position in the government was held by Grand Secretary Li Xian, who continued to hold significant power even during the final years of Emperor Yingzong's reign. Li Xian strategically appointed capable and respected individuals to important positions within

5810-488: The Chenghua Emperor's ascension to the throne, she was 34 years old, twice the age of the seventeen-year-old emperor. Conflicts among women within the Forbidden City had a negative impact on the emperor's reputation. The first incident occurred on the day of his enthronement, when a dispute arose over the title of Emperor Yingzong's widow, Empress Qian . According to regulations, the title should have been given to

5976-571: The Chenghua era, the Ming army was organized into approximately 500 guards ( wei ) under the Weisuo system, with each guard consisting of battalions ( suo ) spread throughout the empire. Theoretically, these guards were supposed to have 3 million soldiers, but in reality, the number was only about half of that. These guards were overseen by Five Chief Military Commissions. Additionally, there were over 70 guard units of Imperial Guards stationed in and around Beijing, theoretically adding another million men to

6142-475: The Directorate of Ceremonial in the Forbidden City and Empress Dowager Zhang (the late emperor's mother), issued an edict calling for the prince to arrive in Beijing and ascend the throne. However, there was uncertainty surrounding this matter due to the Ming succession law. According to this law, although Ming emperors were allowed to have multiple wives, only the sons of the first wife, the empress, had

6308-603: The East Asian cultural sphere|Sinosphere, including those based on the Korean Peninsula and in Vietnam. Japan, while having adopted both posthumous names and era names from China, did not assign temple names to its monarchs. Most temple names consist of two Chinese characters, unlike the more elaborate posthumous names. In extremely rare cases, temple names could consist of three characters. The first character

6474-405: The Forbidden City. This relocation to the West Park also resulted in the transfer of the administrative center of the empire, further isolating the emperor from the bureaucracy. In fact, as early as 1534, he ceased holding imperial audiences. Instead, his decisions were conveyed to the ministries and other authorities through a select group of advisors who had direct access to him. This group included

6640-461: The Grand Secretariat, the emperor withdrew from the Forbidden City to the West Park, neglecting his public duties but still maintaining control over the government. During this time, Ming China used military force to intimidate neighboring countries, successfully in the case of Đại Việt, but falling in the attempt to recapture Ordos, resulting in Xia Yan's death in 1548. In the following period, during

6806-455: The Grand Secretaries, the Minister of Rites, and several military commanders. However, the discontinuation of audiences did not indicate a lack of interest in governing; the emperor diligently read reports and submissions from officials and often worked late into the night. From the beginning of his reign, the Jiajing Emperor was drawn to the Taoist faith, with its focus on supernaturalism and

Jiajing Emperor - Misplaced Pages Continue

6972-501: The Han era that other adjectives aside from the four listed above began appearing in temple names. Numerous Han emperors had their temple names removed by Emperor Xian of Han, Liu Xie, in AD 190. Initially, in deciding whether a monarch should be honored as "祖" ( zǔ ; "progenitor") or "宗" ( zōng ; "ancestor"), a principle was strictly adhered to: "祖" was to be given to accomplished rulers while "宗"

7138-530: The Heavens. This was the basis of his respect for his parents and his rejection of adoption in the Great Rites Controversy. The day after the Zhengde Emperor's death, a delegation of high-ranking dignitaries left Beijing for Anlu to inform the prince of the situation. They arrived in Anlu on 2 May. Zhu Houcong accepted them, familiarized himself with the edict of the empress dowager, and agreed to ascend

7304-522: The Japanese viewed as theft. As a result, coins were mainly obtained in Japan through fraudulent trade. Despite advancements in trade, crafts, and urbanization, agriculture in the Ming dynasty was struggling. The population was rapidly growing, but a colder climate in the late 15th century hindered the success of peasant farmers. This led to widespread famines in northern and central China, particularly in

7470-416: The Japanese's persistent efforts to return to the conditions of Yongle's rule, when they were able to exchange their goods for coppers at a more favorable rate than what was available in the market. However, the Ming authorities had a different goal—to minimize payments in coins and instead use silk and other goods as currency. They also tried to force the Japanese to accept the "new coins" at face value, which

7636-472: The Jiajing Emperor placed great importance on ceremonies, which were seen as essential in maintaining order and promoting a sense of superiority over non-Chinese peoples, according to Confucian beliefs. The refinement and organization of these ceremonies aimed to showcase the Ming dynasty as a model for surrounding countries and the world. The emperor received significant assistance from his Senior Grand Secretary, Zhang Fujing. However, during Xia Yan's dominance in

7802-419: The Jingtai Emperor in 1449, was not acceptable to Yingzong. Zhu Jianshen was often depicted by painters as robustly built, with full cheeks, sharp eyes, large earlobes, and a trimmed mustache and beard. These Central Asian features were also seen in portraits of his ancestors, going back to his great-great-grandfather. His son and successor, while also bearded, was smaller in stature, and other emperors were of

7968-548: The Jingtai Emperor's only son, died in 1453. The succession question remained open and Zhu Jianshen's position was uncertain until the Jingtai Emperor fell ill in late 1456. This uncertainty was exploited by Emperor Yingzong's followers, who staged a coup in February 1457 and restored Yingzong to the throne. On 1 March 1457, Zhu Jianshen was created crown prince by his father. At the same time, he changed his name from Jianshen to Jianru, possibly because his original name, chosen by

8134-488: The Lantern Festival. This was a rare occurrence, as the Chenghua Emperor generally did not resort to physical punishment for dignitaries, unlike other emperors of the dynasty. In both military and civilian affairs, he relied on the advice of the Grand Secretaries and ministers. He highly valued honest and capable officials, but unfortunately, he also allowed Lady Wan to promote unsuitable individuals. This led to

8300-426: The Miao and Yao also rebelled in different parts of southwestern China. General Li Zhen ( 李震 ) repeatedly defeated them on the border of Guizhou and Huguang, instilling fear and terror among the subjugated areas. In 1467 and again in 1475–1476, he and his army slaughtered thousands of Miao rebels. Another rebellion occurred on the border of Guizhou and Sichuan from 1466 to 1468, and the Minister of War, Cheng Xin ( 程信 ),

8466-417: The Ming dynasty. The rebellion was named after the prefectures of Jingzhou and Xiangyang , located in the northwestern region of Huguang. During the early Ming period, the prefectures of Jingzhou and Xiangyang were largely uninhabited. However, starting in the 1430s, they began to see an influx of illegal immigrants. In the 1460s, famines repeatedly struck northern China and the lower and middle regions of

SECTION 50

#1732765555056

8632-452: The Minister of Revenue proposed an additional tax of two million liang to be imposed on the wealthy prefectures of Jiangnan . The emperor agreed and this procedure was repeated. However, during the 1550s, Jiangnan was frequently attacked by pirates and also suffered from natural disasters, making it difficult to collect even the usual taxes. The local authorities were exhausted and lacked the resources to deal with floods and crop failures, and

8798-506: The Shang period utilized only four adjectives: Chinese monarchs of the Zhou dynasty were given posthumous names but not temple names. During the Qin dynasty , the practices both of assigning temple names and posthumous names was abandoned. The Han dynasty reintroduced both titles, although temple names were assigned sporadically and remained more exclusive than posthumous names. It was also during

8964-464: The Wanli era. Maize cultivation was documented as early as the 1550s in inland Henan, but it was most likely acquired from Europeans several decades earlier. It was also sent by Yunnan natives to Beijing as part of tribute before the mid-16th century. However, maize was not well-liked by the Chinese and its cultivation remained the concern of minority peoples in southwest China for nearly three centuries. It

9130-530: The Yangtze River, and the salt trade. In 1483, one of her eunuchs was so arrogant while purchasing antiques in Suzhou that local officials and gentry were almost provoked to take up arms. Upon learning of his misconduct, the emperor had him executed. Her chief eunuch, Liang Fang ( 梁芳 ), was in charge of the imperial warehouse in Beijing, giving him the opportunity to sell goods at inflated prices to cover up

9296-533: The Yangtze River, leading to an increase in the number of refugees in the Jingxiang region. It is estimated that there were less than two million refugees living independently from the state. These refugees were led by Liu Tong ( 劉通 ), who united small bands of robbers and declared himself the King of Han. He then proceeded to establish his own administration and organize an army of ten thousand soldiers. In response,

9462-568: The Yao during battles with Hou Dagou. However, by the end of the 15th century, the Zhuangs had rebelled twice against Ming rule. The Jingxiang rebellion of 1465–1476 was the most significant uprising in China during the 15th century. It was also considered the most significant social upheaval in the Ming state between the civil war of 1399–1402 and the Li Zicheng rebellion in the final years of

9628-427: The abolition of nunneries and temples, the confiscation of their property, and the return of Buddhist and Taoist nuns and priests to secular life. The emperor signed the decree that was prepared. However, as the Jiajing Emperor had no heir in the first ten years of his reign, some high-ranking officials suggested that Taoist prayers and rituals could solve the problem. This piqued his interest, which only intensified after

9794-491: The abuses of the secret service, which caused fear of arrest and torture among officials, merchants, and ordinary citizens in the capital, were unsuccessful. On the contrary, they furthered the careers of minister Xiang Zhong and Grand Secretary Shang Lu. The above matters were managed by the eunuch bureaucracy independently from the civilian authorities. Under the Chenghua Emperor'reign, it expanded and strengthened and its power began to be formally recognized—an example of this

9960-414: The administration. His influence was not perceived as excessive, as he prioritized open discussion when making decisions. He consistently sought input from both civil servants and military officers when making personnel decisions. The original Grand Secretaries were gradually replaced by the brilliant scholars Liu Tingzhi ( 劉定之 ; d. 1469) and Shang Lu (dismissed in 1477). However, the emperor also appointed

10126-399: The advice of Peng Shi, they remained in Beijing, as he was concerned about the safety of the civilian population if they were deployed. Despite this, small detachments were still sent to combat the insurgent Yao tribes in Guangxi. As time went on, the corps began to weaken as it was used for both public and private labor, leading to criticism. However, during the early Chenghua era, it remained

SECTION 60

#1732765555056

10292-596: The appropriate ministries and authorities. For example, the Ministry of Rites was responsible for dealing with the Mongols, while the Ministry of War handled their expulsion. However, Yan Song avoided getting involved in the government's biggest issue at the time—state finances—leaving it to the Ministries of Revenue and Works. He only maintained control over personnel matters and selected political issues. Despite facing criticism for corruption and selling offices, Yan Song

10458-611: The army. However, their actual numbers were much lower, as many of their soldiers were employed as laborers and tens of thousands of supernumerary officers were appointed and paid. Unlike the guards under the Five Chief Military Commissions, the Imperial Guards were not subject to their authority. They were also exempt from the nine defense areas along the northern border, which had approximately 300,000 soldiers who were better trained and supplied than

10624-471: The assassination in 1542. The Jiajing Emperor spared no expense or time for Taoist ceremonies. The Taoists requested, among other things, tens of kilograms of gold dust for their prayers. The emperor even had temples built for them, which required a lot of wood to be transported from distant Sichuan . Additionally, he gave them valuable items. Among the Taoists, Shao Yuanjie ( 邵元節 )was particularly favored by

10790-415: The audience hall, the opposition was beaten at court. 17 officials died from their wounds, and the rest were exiled to the provinces by the emperor. During the dispute, the Jiajing Emperor asserted his independence from the Grand Secretaries and made decisions based on his own judgment, rather than consulting with them or simply approving their proposals. This was seen as a despotic approach that went against

10956-426: The circulation of these memoranda but did not have the authority to make decisions. The Jiajing Emperor emphasized the importance of discussing important decisions at court and encouraged officials to express their opinions, particularly in the case of high-ranking government officials, to the obligee. However, in the early Ming period, this system often served to justify the decisions of the emperors (especially after

11122-473: The closure of the mints in the 1430s, there has been a shortage of copper coins. This created an opportunity for counterfeiters to thrive. Although there were occasional proposals to combat private coinage by resuming state minting, they were ultimately rejected. As a result, illegal mints flourished and their "new coins" began to replace the old Yongle coppers in Beijing markets. These private coins were of poorer quality, often containing tin or iron admixture that

11288-517: The conflict between the mother and stepmother, the emperor allowed the officials to express their opinions and secretly encouraged them to do so. However, he openly acted with apparent reluctance. Following the suggestions of Peng Shi and Li Xian, both women were given the title of empress dowager, with the addition of the characters Ciyi ( 慈懿 ) before it for Empress Qian. However, Lady Zhou perceived this as discrimination and consistently pushed for her equal rights. The young emperor eventually fled from

11454-591: The conflicts of the 1550s in the north and on the coast, Yan Song pursued a policy of compromise and negotiation, which was accompanied by corruption. After the fall of Yan Song in 1562, the emperor's interest in good governance was rekindled under the influence of the capable and energetic Grand Secretary, Xu Jie. Thus, the Jiajing Emperor's rule after the overthrow of Yang Tinghe can be divided into four phases: Zhang Fujing's strict adherence to ideology, Xia Yan's aggressive expansionism, Yan Song's complacent corruption, and Xu Jie's corrective reforms. One important aspect of

11620-463: The country and were brutally suppressed. The emperor ruled with increasing autocracy, bolstering the secret police to monitor the sentiments of the people. Wan Zhen'er , a palace lady who was 17 years older than the Chenghua Emperor, held significant sway over the emperor and eventually became his favorite. This was especially true after she gave birth to a son in 1464, although the child died shortly after. Despite this, Lady Wan maintained her hold over

11786-661: The country to search for and send magical herbs. However, after Tao Zhongwen's death in November 1560, the emperor struggled to find a Taoist adept who could meet his needs. In addition to Taoist prayers, the literary form of qingci ( 青詞 ), a poetic style of prayer full of allusions, was revived and developed. The emperor's favor with officials was often based on their skill in writing in this style, rather than their statesmanship. Yan Song and Xia Yan, who were particularly skilled in this style, were often referred to contemptuously as qingci zaixiang ( 青詞宰相 ; 'Qingci premiers'). During

11952-547: The court and the Forbidden City. He moved to the Yongshou Palace (Palace of Eternal Life) in the West Park of the Imperial City, where he occasionally stayed starting in 1539. The West Park was located in the western third of the Imperial City, separated from it and the Forbidden City by a system of three lakes called Taiye Lake . These lakes stretched over two kilometers from north to south and occupied half of

12118-768: The crisis of 1380 ), as there was no social basis for diverse attitudes. However, as the crises of the mid-15th century emerged, the situation changed, and the need for political changes became apparent. The emergence of officials with merchant-family backgrounds also provided a basis for assessing problems from different perspectives. Officials used this system to debate, build support networks, lobby for their own interests, push opponents out of office, and sometimes even sabotage their policies. The emperor's harsh treatment of dissenters earned him many opponents and led to multiple attempts on his life. In 1539, while traveling to Anlu, his temporary residences were repeatedly set on fire. The most serious incident occurred on 27 November 1542, when

12284-532: The death of half of the population in some areas of Henan and Jiangnan . Jiangnan continued to suffer from droughts, epidemics, rains, and famines until the late 1540s. Earthquakes were also a frequent occurrence during the Jiajing Emperor's reign, with many recorded in various areas. For instance, in the span of ten months from July 1523 to May 1524, there were 38 recorded earthquakes. In Nanjing alone, there were fifteen in just one month in 1525. The most devastating earthquake occurred on 23 January 1556 , affecting

12450-419: The death of the Zhengde Emperor, Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe , who was effectively leading the Ming government, had already begun preparations for the accession of Zhu Houcong. Five days prior to the Zhengde Emperor's death, an edict was issued ordering Zhu Houcong to end his mourning and officially assume the title of Prince of Xing. On the day of the emperor's death, Yang Tinghe, with the support of eunuchs from

12616-404: The deceased emperor living in Beijing who were afraid of changes. The most influential among them was General Jiang Bin , the commander of the border troops who had been transferred to Beijing. It was feared that he would try to install his own candidate for the throne, namely Zhu Junzhang ( 朱俊杖 ), Prince of Dai, who was based in the border city of Datong . In the mentioned reprimand, King Wen ,

12782-530: The decision-making process since the beginning of the Ming dynasty has been the system of interdepartmental consultation among high officials. Memoranda and proposals were submitted for debate to the " nine ministers ", as well as to generals of the Central Military Commissions and other officials. The result of these discussions was then presented to the emperor for a final decision. The Grand Secretaries were responsible for organizing

12948-436: The elevation of his parents to the imperial status "to bring their ranks into line". Most officials agreed to maintain a direct line of succession and supported Yang Tinghe, but the emperor argued for the duty to his biological parents. He insisted on his mother's acceptance as Empress dowager when she arrived from Anlu and entered the Forbidden City on 2 November. A group of officials, led by Zhang Fujing ( 張孚敬 ) and standing on

13114-578: The elite of Beijing for several years before being sent to inspect border troops in 1482. In 1483, his rival from the Eastern Depot presented accusations that gained the emperor's trust, resulting in Wang Zhi being transferred to guard the imperial tombs in Nanjing. After a long period of economic depression, the economy of China and its neighboring countries began to recover in the second half of

13280-480: The emperor and even forced other women to have abortions to prevent the birth of a potential rival son. A few years later, the emperor had a son with another concubine who was named as his successor in December 1471, but the child died shortly after. It is widely believed by historians that Lady Wan played a role in the death of this child. The court and government were greatly troubled by the absence of an heir and

13446-449: The emperor and his harem. She used her loyal eunuchs to force other women to have abortions if they became pregnant with the emperor's child, and she did not hesitate to resort to poisoning mothers and their children. It was not until 1475 that the emperor discovered the existence of his five-year-old son, Zhu Youcheng , who had been kept hidden until then. The Chenghua Emperor was known for his military prowess and placed great emphasis on

13612-407: The emperor had an affair with a girl surnamed Ji from Guangxi, who was likely a captive of the Yao tribe and brought to the palace around 1467. In 1469, she met the emperor and became pregnant. Lady Wan discovered the pregnancy, but her orders for the eunuchs to give the mother an abortifacient were not followed. Instead, they hid her in the chambers of Wu's dissecting room, where she gave birth to

13778-589: The emperor ordered the reinstatement of a unified training corps (which had previously existed from 1449 to 1457) and divided it into twelve divisions ( 十二團營 ), each consisting of ten thousand soldiers. These soldiers were selected from a pool of over 300,000 individuals from the three camps, with the majority being sent back to their respective provinces. The purpose of this measure was to train infantry, cavalry, and units armed with firearms to work together in mixed divisions. Previously, these groups had been trained separately in three different camps. Marquis Sun Jizong

13944-442: The emperor starting in 1526. Shao Yuanjie was known for his prayers for rain and protection against calamities. After the birth of the emperor's first sons (the eldest died young in 1533, and the second was born in 1536), he was highly honored. However, Shao Yuanjie died in 1539 and was replaced by Tao Zhongwen ( 陶仲文 ). Tao Zhongwen further strengthened the emperor's faith in Taoism and gained respect for himself by accurately predicting

14110-563: The emperor were executed, and in the following decades, he slowly consumed the elixirs. After 1545, the emperor began to rely on oracles for guidance in state affairs. These oracles were organized by Tao Zhongwen, who had control over their results. Yan Song also participated in divination, seeing it as an opportunity to influence politics in a favorable direction. The emperor's pursuit of immortality included engaging in sexual relations with young girls, of which he and Tao Zhongwen collected 960 for this purpose. He also called on officials throughout

14276-431: The emperor's palace in the West Park, which had also been recently rebuilt, burned down again. During this time, the state's annual expenditure in silver ranged from 3 to 6 million liang , while the proper revenue was only around 3 million. To make up for the shortfall, the state resorted to extraordinary taxes, savings, and even transfers from the emperor's personal treasury, which often left it completely depleted. In 1552,

14442-484: The emperor, known as the Jingtai Emperor . In 1450, the Mongols returned the captured Emperor Yingzong to the Ming, but the Jingtai Emperor put him under house arrest. Zhu Jianshen remained crown prince until 1452, when he was demoted to Prince of Yi ( 沂王 ). He lived separately from his parents in poor material conditions and began to stutter under the pressure of the situation. However, the new crown prince,

14608-409: The empress dowager, but the emperor's own mother, Lady Zhou, also claimed the same title. Despite being only a consort of Emperor Yingzong, she now held the status of mother to the reigning emperor and thus argued for the same title as Empress Qian. Lady Zhou also emphasized her loyalty to Emperor Yingzong, for which she had suffered alongside him during their years of house arrest from 1450–1457. In

14774-752: The end, and eventually reached 100,000 in 1520; many of them lived in and around the capital. Many of these officers were surplus and did not actively serve in the military. The same was true for civil servants, resulting in a total of around 4 million shi of grain being imported to Beijing each year to support the needs of civil servants, soldiers, and officers. This grain was distributed at a rate of 1 shi (107.4 liters) per person per month, providing for approximately 300,000 individuals. In 1522, Yang Tinghe took decisive action by cutting off payments to 148,700 supernumerary and honorary officers and officials, resulting in an annual reduction of 1.5 million shi of grain in state expenditure. This move proved to be beneficial in

14940-413: The execution of all women involved in the assassination attempt, both those who were actually involved and those who were falsely accused. The motives of palace women are unclear, but it is possible that the emperor's cruel treatment towards them, possibly in his pursuit of a longer life, may have played a role. After the assassination attempt, the Jiajing Emperor completely withdrew from the formal life of

15106-459: The father of the founder of the Zhou dynasty, King Wu , is also contrasted with the unworthy last Shang king, Zhou . The Jiajing Emperor saw a parallel between King Wen, Zhou and Wu, and his noble father, unworthy Zhengde Emperor, and himself. Therefore, he judged that he did not owe the throne to the Grand Secretaries, ministers, or the empress dowager , but to the virtues of his father recognized by

15272-473: The first half of the 16th century saw significant economic growth in agriculture and crafts. However, the state struggled to collect taxes, particularly from newly cultivated land, trade, and handicraft production. The quotas and revenues set a century earlier were not met. During the Jiajing era, Chinese peasants began to expand their agricultural crops to include species native to Central and South America. In

15438-448: The following years, there was a power struggle between the Grand Secretaries and their associated groups of officials. The position of Senior Grand Secretary was constantly changing, with Fei Hong, Yang Yiqing, Zhang Fujing, and others taking turns. In the early 1530s, the Jiajing Emperor's trust was won by Xia Yan , who had been promoted from Minister of Rites to Grand Secretary. Later, in the late 1530s, Yan Song , Xia Yan's successor in

15604-462: The funeral. To make matters worse, he faced opposition from his subordinate, Grand Secretary Xu Jie . As a result, the emperor no longer relied on Yan Song and dismissed him in June 1562. Xu Jie then took over as the head of the Grand Secretariat. With the personnel changes in the immediate surroundings of the emperor, the focus and style of his policies also shifted. During the first phase of his reign,

15770-441: The government did not respond until the situation became dire and refugees, along with epidemics, appeared on the streets of Beijing. To fund military operations in southeastern China, taxes were levied in the affected regions, often in the form of labor surcharges. These taxes remained in place until some of them (totaling 400–500 thousand liang ) were abolished in 1562. Savings and frugality also had negative consequences. In 1560,

15936-411: The government sent troops led by Zhu Yong ( 朱永 ), Count of Funing, and Bai Gui ( 白圭 ), Minister of Works. In 1465, these troops gathered from various provinces, including Li Zhen's troops from Huguang, and successfully crushed the rebellion. Liu Tong himself was captured in the summer of 1466. The issue of weak official administration persisted, and in 1470, an additional 900,000 individuals migrated to

16102-433: The growth of large landowners. The emperor was renowned for his skill in calligraphy, as evidenced by his surviving work, a color scroll painting from 1481 depicting the mythological demon warrior Zhong Kui , titled Sui chao jia zhao ( 歲朝佳兆 ). He also had a passion for theater and music, and even had his own troupe of eunuch actors. In 1478, he composed several poems, which unfortunately have been lost. In 1483, he wrote

16268-761: The heir not to eat or drink anything when visiting Lady Wan. The emperor's relationship with Lady Wan changed after 1475, as he had five consorts and a total of eleven sons and six daughters between 1476 and 1487. Despite no longer living with her, the emperor remained devoted to her and may have tried to make up for his absence by supporting her activities. During the latter part of his reign, he rarely restricted her actions, even when they were illegal. Her agents were involved in various activities, such as mining for copper, silver, gold, and precious stones in Yunnan, foreign trade, pearl gathering in Guangdong, tax collection along

16434-408: The imperial palace were filled by eunuchs brought from Anlu by the Jiajing Emperor. As part of the dismissal of eunuchs associated with the previous monarch, some eunuch posts in the provinces were eliminated. However, the overall influence of eunuchs did not decrease; in fact, it continued to grow. By the 1530s, the most influential eunuchs saw themselves as equal to the Grand Secretaries. In 1548–1549,

16600-448: The imperial sacrifices to the Heavens, and a special temple was built for them. This elevated the status of the monarch, as his rites were now distinct from all others. However, from the years 1532–1533, the Jiajing Emperor lost interest in ritual reforms and the worship of Heaven, as he was no longer able to elevate his own or his father's status. This led to a decline in the importance of ceremonies during his reign. Important positions in

16766-405: The influence of Lady Wan. Officials expressed their concerns to the emperor in submissions, but he dismissed them as meddling in his personal matters. It was not until June 1475, when the emperor lamented his lack of an heir at the age of twenty-eight, that a eunuch present impulsively informed him of the existence of a five-year-old son being raised by the former Empress Wu. A few years earlier,

16932-642: The inland units. In the late 15th century, the military competence of hereditary officers had significantly declined and their ties to the throne had weakened compared to the beginning of the century. Instead of inexperienced second- or third titled generation descendants of once successful generals, military matters were now overseen by civilian officials and eunuchs who were committed to military careers. These armies were led by officials who were also involved in military affairs, including Han Yong ( 韓雍 ; 1422–1478), Wang Yue ( 王越 ; 1426–1499), Xiang Zhong (1421–1502), and Ma Wensheng ( 馬文升 ; 1426–1510). After ascending to

17098-492: The land to collect rare minerals for life-extending potions. Unfortunately, these elixirs contained harmful substances like arsenic , lead, and mercury , which ultimately caused health problems and may have shortened the emperor's life. Zhu Houcong was born on 16 September 1507. He was the eldest son of Zhu Youyuan , who was Prince of Xing from 1487. Zhu Youyuan was the fourth son of the Chenghua Emperor , who ruled

17264-403: The later years of his rule, the Forbidden City was dominated by eunuchs, particularly the notorious Wang Zhi and Liang Fang. The emperor's preference for favorites over promoting capable individuals gradually eroded the positive aspects of his rule. This resulted in widespread corruption and the enrichment of his supporters at the expense of the state treasury. Peasant uprisings erupted throughout

17430-508: The lives of over 800,000 people. Despite the destruction caused by the disaster, the economy continued to develop, with growth in agriculture, industry, and trade. As the economy flourished, so did society, with the traditional Confucian interpretation of Zhuism giving way to Wang Yangming 's more individualistic beliefs. However, in his later years, the emperor's pursuit of immortality led to questionable actions, such as his interest in young girls and alchemy. He even sent Taoist priests across

17596-450: The market price of rice doubled to 0.8 liang of silver per tan, leading to a revolt by the Nanjing garrison. To appease them, 40 thousand liang (1492 kg) of silver was distributed, and the soldiers were not punished. Temple name Modern academia usually refers to the following rulers by their temple names: Chinese monarchs from the Tang to the Yuan dynasties, Korean rulers of

17762-521: The means to sustain such a pace of construction. While the emperor did cancel some projects, the most expensive buildings in the West Park were not among them. The revenue of the Taicang treasury, which consisted of the Ministry of Revenue's income in silver, averaged 2 million liang (74.6 tons) per year after 1532. Out of this amount, 1.3 million liang was allocated for border defense. However, in

17928-529: The mid-1470s, the divisions were completely under the control of eunuchs, likely due to the influence of Wang Zhi. The newly trained Beijing corps played a crucial role in successful campaigns on the northern frontier, defeating the Mongols in 1471, 1473, and 1480, as well as the Jurchens in 1467 and 1479. Their reputation as fierce and ruthless soldiers earned them the responsibility of being on alert in case of an uprising in western Shaanxi in 1478. However, on

18094-442: The mid-16th century, as the savings allowed the authorities to convert the 1.5 million shi of grain tax into a silver tax, greatly improving the state's finances. In the mid-1520s, despite efforts to save money, the state's financial situation remained problematic. The costly construction projects during the early years of the Jiajing era had depleted the grain supplies from 8–9 years' worth of expenditure to only 3 years, as well as

18260-567: The ministry, also gained the Jiajing Emperor's trust. However, despite initially supporting Yan Song's rise, Xia Yan and Yan Song eventually came into conflict. In 1542, Yan Song was able to oust Xia Yan and take control of the Grand Secretariat. In an attempt to counterbalance Yan Song's influence, the emperor called Xia Yan back to lead the Grand Secretariat in October 1545. However, the two statesmen were at odds, with Xia Yan ignoring Yan Song, refusing to consult him, and canceling his appointment. As

18426-435: The monarch was met with disapproval from officials. One censor even objected, questioning why the emperor was competing with landowners when he already owned the entire country. These vast estates were acquired by the monarch and the empress, as well as empress dowagers, heirs to the throne, relatives of empresses, eunuchs, and various favorites. This expansion of estates, similar to the imperial estates, had negative effects on

18592-424: The mountains to the densely populated coastal areas of Guangdong. The rebellion and troop movements also spread to southern Huguang, Guizhou, and Jiangxi. Local dignitaries hoped to placate the Yao with amnesty and donations. However, Minister of War Wang Hong ( 王竑 ) decided on a forceful response. He appointed General Zhao Fu ( 趙輔 ) to lead the expeditionary army, but the army was actually led by his deputy Han Yong,

18758-419: The names of the palaces and the attire of the servants and officials with Taoist symbolism, and Taoist ceremonies were performed. Animals were also kept, and plants were grown for divination purposes. However, after the emperor's death, most of the buildings he had constructed were demolished, leaving only one temple, Dagaoxian dian, which still stands today. After 1542, the emperor never resided in his palace in

18924-489: The neighboring province of Shaanxi , enemies of Xia Yan, including Yan Song, used this as an opportunity to bring charges against him and have him executed. From 1549 to 1562, the Grand Secretariat was under the control of Yan Song. He was known for his attentiveness and diligence towards the monarch, but also for pushing his colleagues out of power. Despite facing numerous political crises and challenges, Yan Song managed to survive by delegating decisions and responsibilities to

19090-438: The new Governor of Guangdong. They had 30,000 soldiers at their disposal, including a thousand of the feared Mongol mounted archers, and 160,000 local forces. In 1466, Han Yong attacked the heart of the rebel territory in two columns drawn from Huguang from the north and from Guangdong from the west, and conquered them in a series of fierce battles. The pacification of the region took several more years. Han Yong, who remained in

19256-494: The next 45 years in seclusion within the Forbidden City. In the same year, 1464, Lady Wang became the new empress. She was careful not to provoke Lady Wan and remained childless in order to protect herself from any potential misfortune. In 1466, Lady Wan gave birth to a son for the emperor and was granted the title of "Noble Consort" ( Guifei ). However, their son died within a year and Lady Wan did not have any other children. In order to secure her position, she closely monitored

19422-404: The opportunistic and unprincipled Wan An ( 萬安 ; d. 1489) and Liu Ji ( 劉吉 ; d. 1493) to the Grand Secretariat. In the later years of the Chenghua Emperor's reign, the infamous eunuchs Wang Zhi and Liang Fang held powerful positions. The camaraderie around Lady Wan also had a negative reputation. Under their influence, the emperor distanced himself from his officials, causing them to wait for years for

19588-437: The opportunity to return to their homes, potentially with temporary housing, as well as seed, livestock, and a five-year tax exemption. During the Chenghua era, the size of the imperial estates ( 皇莊 ) grew from a small area to over 80 thousand hectares. By the beginning of the 16th century, they had increased sixteen times. The revenues from these estates were the personal income of the monarch. However, this personal estate of

19754-403: The original landowners who were forced to become tenants, as well as on the state treasury. Not only did the emperor and his entourage benefit from this, but also wealthy landowners who took advantage of the situation at the expense of small peasants. This was particularly evident in Jiangnan, where in contrast to the early Ming period, the government had previously restricted and closely monitored

19920-470: The outskirts of Beijing in 1550. The Ming troops were forced to focus on defense. The conflict only came to an end after Jiajing's death, when the new Ming emperor Longqing allowed trade to resume. In the Jiajing era, Wokou pirates posed a significant threat to the southeastern provinces of Zhejiang, Fujian, and Guangdong for several decades. The Ming authorities attempted to address this issue by implementing stricter laws against private overseas trade in

20086-481: The park's area. The emperor built West Park to be a complex where he could live and seek immortality. Since the beginning of the Ming dynasty, West Park has been seen as a symbol of the Lands of Immortals. The Jiajing Emperor, who was fascinated by Taoism and the concept of immortality, was intrigued by this and attempted to reconstruct the site in accordance with contemporary beliefs about the Lands of Immortals. He aligned

20252-531: The preface for Wenhua daxun ( 文華大訓 ; 'Great Lessons for the Palace of Literary Splendor'), a collection of instructions for his successor. The emperor also showed support for Buddhism, as seen in his order for the construction of five pagodas in the Indian style west of Beijing in 1473. These pagodas are believed to be the only ones of their kind in the Beijing area. However, the majority of Confucians held

20418-527: The provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Henan. In Shaanxi, entire regions such as Weinan , Huazhou , Chaoyi , and Sanyuan were left in ruins. The Yellow River and the Wei River also overflowed, and some areas experienced tremors for several days. The disaster claimed the lives of 830,000 people, including several former ministers. As a result, the affected areas were granted tax forgiveness for several years. Despite facing occasional challenges from nature,

20584-451: The pursuit of immortality. This may have been influenced by his childhood spent in Huguang, where the people were known for their superstitious beliefs. However, the Jiajing Emperor's support of Taoism was not without limits. In 1527, ministers and Grand Secretaries Gui E, Fang Xianfu ( 方獻夫 ), Yang Yiqing, and Huo Tao ( 霍韜 ) proposed stricter regulations for the establishment of new Taoist and Buddhist temples and monasteries. They also suggested

20750-404: The quarreling empresses and sought refuge with Lady Wan. After ascending the throne, the Chenghua Emperor married Lady Wu as his empress. However, their relationship was short-lived as she soon clashed with Lady Wan and requested that she be punished for her disrespect. As a result, just one month after their wedding, the emperor deposed Empress Wu and stripped her of her title. She then spent

20916-453: The region and in the summer of 1476, they rebelled once again. In response, the government sent Yuan Jie ( 原傑 ), a censor, to investigate the social and economic conditions in the area. This sparked a lively discussion in the court about potential solutions to the problem. Ultimately, the government decided to address the issues through social and organizational measures in the region and entrusted Yuan Jie with their implementation. He recognized

21082-451: The region due to famine, sparking a new rebellion. Xiang Zhong, the chief censor at the time, was tasked with quelling the uprising. He enlisted the assistance of Li Zhen and raised an army of 250,000 in Huguang province. Together, they successfully suppressed the rebellion, resulting in the execution of hundreds, the exile of thousands, and the return of 1.5 million individuals to their respective homelands. However, people began to return to

21248-531: The reign of the Jiajing Emperor, the climate was cooler and wetter compared to previous years. However, towards the end of his reign, there were warmer winters. Temperatures were 1.5 degrees lower than in the second half of the 20th century. The south and north of China were affected by floods, while the Yangtze River basin experienced severe drought. In 1528, the worst drought of the entire Ming era hit Zhejiang , Shanxi , Shaanxi , and Hubei , resulting in

21414-509: The reigning Zhengde Emperor , so his accession to the throne was unexpected. However, when the Zhengde Emperor died without an heir, the government, led by Senior Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe and the Empress Dowager Zhang , chose Zhu Houcong as the new ruler. However, after his enthronement, a dispute arose between the emperor and most of the officials regarding the method of legalizing his accession. The Great Rites Controversy

21580-538: The right to succeed the throne. Any attempt to install a descendant of a secondary wife was punishable by death. Zhu Houcong's father, Zhu Youyuan, was not the son of the empress, but rather of a secondary wife, therefore he had no legitimate claim to the throne. In order to circumvent this issue, Yang Tinghe proposed adopting Zhu Houcong as the Hongzhi Emperor's son, so he could ascend as the late emperor's younger brother. In addition, there were many favorites of

21746-439: The rights of immigrants to the land they cultivated and registered over 113,000 families with 438,000 members. As per his suggestion, several new counties were established and by the end of 1476, the new prefecture of Yunyang was formed. In the seat of the new prefecture, a defense military command was established with jurisdiction over the adjacent counties of neighboring provinces. In just one year, Yuan Jie successfully stabilized

21912-608: The rites performed by the monarch. In the late 1530s, separate sacrifices to the Heavens, Earth, Sun, and Moon were introduced. Additionally, the Jiajing Emperor altered the titles and forms of honoring Confucius , including a ban on images in Confucius temples, leaving only plaques with the names of Confucius and his followers. The layout of the Temple of Confucius was also modified to include separate chapels for Confucius' father and three disciples. As part of these changes, Confucius

22078-442: The roles of the head of the Eastern Depot and the Directorate of Ceremonial were combined, and the palace guard (established in 1552 and composed of eunuchs) was also under their control. This effectively placed the entire eunuch branch of state administration under their management. After 1524, the emperor's closest advisers were Zhang Fujing and Gui E ( 桂萼 ). They attempted to remove followers of Yang Tinghe, who were associated with

22244-403: The sale of offices organized by Lady Wan. Despite numerous complaints, the emperor did not punish Lady Wan for her actions. In fact, he punished officials who spoke out against her abuse of power, excessive spending, and corruption. As a result, she maintained significant influence until her death in 1487. Another notorious eunuch during the Chenghua era was Wang Zhi ( 汪直 ), a Yao-born man who

22410-509: The side of the emperor, had already formed. In late 1521, the Jiajing Emperor succeeded in having his parents and grandmother, Lady Shao , granted imperial rank. However, disputes continued until Yang Tinghe was forced to resign in March 1524, and the removal of the emperor's opponents began in August 1524. After a disapproving demonstration by hundreds of opposing officials in front of the gates of

22576-434: The silver reserves that had been accumulated in the 1520s. In 1540, the Minister of Revenue was dismissed for refusing to agree to an increase in the number of workers on public works, which already numbered 40,000. He argued that the cost of reconstructing palaces, ceremonial altars, and temples had already reached 6 million liang (224 tons) of silver since the beginning of the Jiajing Emperor's reign, and that he did not have

22742-528: The south or in Beijing. He ultimately chose to bury his mother in his father's mausoleum near Zhongxiang . In honor of his father, he also published his Veritable Records ( Shilu ) and renamed Anlu zhou to Chengtian Prefecture ( 承天府 , Chengtian Fu ) after the example of the imperial capitals. During his journey to Anlu, the Jiajing Emperor was shocked by the sight of starving and impoverished people and refugees. He immediately released 20 thousand liang (746 kg) of silver for relief. He saw their suffering as

22908-401: The south until 1468, reorganized local administration by establishing a new county, strengthening coordination between the Guangdong and Guangxi authorities, and incorporating Yao chieftains into Ming administration. Hou Dagou's rebellion was one of the strongest uprisings among the minority peoples of the southwest in the late 15th century, but it was not the only one. In the following years,

23074-501: The start of the Jiajing Emperor's reign, the borders were relatively peaceful. In the north, the Mongols were initially embroiled in internal conflicts. However, after being united by Altan Khan in the 1540s, they began to demand the restoration of free trade. The emperor, however, refused and attempted to close the borders with fortifications, including the Great Wall of China . In response, Altan Khan launched raids and even attacked

23240-578: The strength of his army. During the 1470s, the reorganized Ming troops achieved notable triumphs in their battles against the Mongols, marking the first major victories since 1449. In addition, defensive walls were constructed in Shaanxi and Shanxi , laying the groundwork for the enduring Great Wall of China . The Ming also formed an alliance with Korea and effectively waged war against the Jurchen tribes in eastern Manchuria. The Chenghua Emperor died in 1487 after 23 years of rule, and Zhu Youcheng ascended

23406-579: The temple name Taizu by Cao Pi of the Cao Wei dynasty . Meanwhile, several individuals who were initially assigned temple names had their titles revoked, as was the case for Emperor Huan , whose temple name, Weizong , was abolished by Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han dynasty . In other cases, numerous individuals were honored with more than one temple name by intentional changes or being accorded different titles by different individuals. For instance,

23572-410: The throne and adopted the era name Chenghua , which means "accomplished change". When he assumed control of the government, he was already under the influence of his favorite, Wan Zhen'er . She had previously been a servant of his grandmother, Empress Sun , and he catered to her every whim. Intelligent and determined, Wan started off as his nanny and eventually became his concubine. At the time of

23738-507: The throne as the Hongzhi Emperor . Zhu Jianshen was born on 9 December 1447, as the eldest son of Emperor Yingzong and one of his concubines, Lady Zhou . In 1449, his father was captured by the Mongols in the Battle of Tumu Fortress . As a result, the younger brother of the captured emperor, Zhu Qiyu, temporarily took over the government. At the same time, Zhu Jianshen was created crown prince. A few days later, Zhu Qiyu became

23904-501: The throne in Beijing. Following the traditional period of mourning for his father's death, Zhu Houcong officially became the Prince of Xing in late March 1521. Meanwhile, in Beijing, the Zhengde Emperor (ruled 1505–1521) fell ill and died on 20 April 1521. The Zhengde Emperor was the son of the Hongzhi Emperor (ruled 1487–1505), who was the older brother of Zhu Youyuan. Zhu Houcong was Zhengde's cousin and closest male relative. Before

24070-593: The throne, the Chenghua Emperor implemented a new system of selecting officers through special examinations. However, in the 1470s, there was a rise in the use of military trials. Concurrently, the emperor initiated significant changes to the military training of the Beijing garrison units. Previously, soldiers from various provinces were sent to the Three Great Camps ( 三大營 ) for training: Wujun ( 五軍營 ) for infantry, Sanqian ( 三千營 ) for cavalry, and Shenji ( 神機營 ) for units equipped with firearms. In May 1464,

24236-415: The throne. On 7 May, he set out for Beijing accompanied by forty of his own advisers and servants. Yang Tinghe issued orders for him to be welcomed in Beijing as the heir to the throne, but Zhu Houcong refused to appear as the heir apparent, stating that he was invited to assume the imperial rank and was therefore the emperor, not the son of the emperor. According to the Grand Secretaries and the government, he

24402-427: The traditional way of governing, and was criticized by concerned scholars. As a result of the dispute, the teachings of Confucian scholar and reformer Wang Yangming gained popularity, as some of the emperor's followers were influenced by his arguments. Additionally, there was an increase in critical analysis and interpretation of texts during discussions, and there was a growing criticism of the conservative attitudes of

24568-436: The vicinity of the imperial burial ground near Beijing. However, in the end, only a shrine was created for him in the palace. The emperor also took steps to honor his ancestors, such as restoring ancestral temples, giving his parents longer titles, and supervising rituals and ritual music. After his mother's death in December 1538, the emperor traveled south to Anlu to resolve the question of whether to bury his parents together in

24734-408: The wrongs he may have experienced in his childhood. He was widely praised for his efforts to restore the reputation of those who had been unfairly treated in the past, and he also implemented measures to aid areas that were suffering from famine. However, in 1468, the emperor did order for three Hanlin academics to be beaten after they got into a dispute with Empress Dowager Zhou over the decoration of

24900-509: The young emperor. The council consisted of six officials: Senior Grand Secretary Li Xian, Minister of Personnel Wang Ao , Minister of Revenue Nian Fu ( 年富 ), Grand Secretary Peng Shi ( 彭時 ), Minister of War Ma Ang ( 馬昂 ; 1399–1476), and Grand Secretary Chen Wen ( 陳文 ; 1405–1468); four eunuchs: Liu Yongcheng ( 劉永誠 ), Xia Shi ( 夏時 ), Fu Gong, and Niu Yu ( 牛玉 ); and two military generals: Sun Jizong ( 孫繼宗 ), Marquis of Huichang, and Sun Tang ( 孫鏜 ), Marquis of Huaining. On 28 February 1464, he ascended

25066-413: Was a major political problem at the beginning of his reign. After three years, the emperor emerged victorious, with his main opponents either banished from court or executed. The Jiajing Emperor, like the Zhengde Emperor, made the decision to reside outside of Beijing's Forbidden City . In 1542, he relocated to the West Park , located in the middle of Beijing and west of the Forbidden City. He constructed

25232-483: Was a result of Yang Tinghe's austerity measures, were converted into silver payments. However, this decision was later revoked after five years, but was eventually reinstated. This led to an increase in the annual revenue of the Taicang treasury from 2 to more than 3 million liang in the early 1550s. From 1540 onwards, the conversion of taxes from grain to silver became widespread, although the specific proportion and method of conversion varied among different counties. In

25398-456: Was able to convince the emperor that these were false accusations and that his critics were simply trying to remove him from power. The emperor, who was always suspicious of officials, believed Yan Song's defense. Yan Song, who was already eighty years old in 1560, was unable to continue his role as Grand Secretary. This was especially true after his wife died in 1561 and his son, who had been assisting him with writing edicts, went home to organize

25564-434: Was able to return to the throne. At this point, Zhu Jianshen, now known as Zhu Jianru, was once again named crown prince. He ascended to the throne in February 1464 at the young age of sixteen, succeeding his father. During the initial years of his reign, he implemented a new policy that included tax cuts and a focus on strengthening the state's power. However, as time passed, the positive impact of these changes diminished. In

25730-655: Was captured and castrated during the counterinsurgency campaigns of the 1460s. He initially served as a servant to Lady Wan, but only held minor positions until he was put in charge of the Western Depot in 1477. This secret police force was created to supplement the already-established Eastern Depot. However, Wang Zhi soon clashed with Grand Secretary Shang Lu ( 商輅 ) and Minister of War Xiang Zhong ( 項忠 ), leading to their dismissal. During this time, only those who were closely aligned with Lady Wan or those who remained silent were able to keep their positions. Wang Zhi terrorized

25896-462: Was highly admired and imitated in the following century. Trade was further bolstered by the rapid development of transportation, which was spurred by a surge in bridge construction following the devastating floods in central and southern China in 1465. This led to the growth of the silk industry in the 1470s and 1480s, with silk production shifting from urban centers to rural areas in Jiangnan . As

26062-429: Was in overall command of these divisions, but the military side was actually led by eunuch Liu Yongcheng, a 73-year-old veteran from the Yongle Emperor's reign. Each division also had a deputy commander, known as Jian qiang nei chen ( 監鎗內臣 ; 'Armory-inspecting Eunuch'), who was a eunuch and in charge of firearms. The emperor's most trusted personnel were responsible for closely guarding the firearms. However, starting in

26228-473: Was known for his poetry and calligraphy . Zhu Houcong received a classical ( Confucian ) education directly from his father, who he was a diligent and attentive student to. However, in July 1519, his father died. After this, Zhu Houcong took on the responsibility of managing the household with the assistance of Yuan Zonggao, a capable administrator who later became a trusted advisor after Zhu Houcong's ascension to

26394-513: Was only in the 18th century that it began to be grown on a larger scale in Chinese-populated regions. Yang Tinghe, upon the accession of the Jiajing Emperor, implemented a program of severe austerity. This was in response to the significant increase in the number of state-paid dignitaries during the previous century. The number of officers rose from less than 13,000 at the beginning of the Hongwu Emperor 's reign (1368–1398) to 28,000 by

26560-499: Was sent to suppress it. However, the rebellion resurfaced in 1477–1480. In the 1460s and 1470s, a series of Miao rebellions erupted in southern Sichuan and were forcefully suppressed by the governor, Zhang Gang ( 張剛 ). He alternately fought against the Miao in the south of the province and the Tibetans in the northwest. Even the Zhuangs rebelled, with their use of poisoned arrows causing fear among warriors. They were employed against

26726-434: Was stripped of his title of king by the Jiajing Emperor, who believed that the emperor should not bow to a king. Furthermore, the emperor did not want Confucius to be worshipped in the same rituals used for imperial sacrifices to the Heavens. As a result, the ceremonies in the Temple of Confucius were simplified and no longer resembled imperial sacrifices. In addition, sacrifices to former emperors and kings were separated from

26892-617: Was the appointment of eunuchs to the imperial council formed after the death of Yingzong. An example of the growing power of the eunuchs was the system of reviewing court cases. This was carried out by the "three judicial offices", namely the Censorate , the Ministry of Justice , and the Court of Judicature and Revision . Every autumn, they reviewed death sentences and either confirmed, mitigated, or sent them back for further investigation. From

27058-459: Was the son of the Hongzhi Emperor. He forced his way into the city with imperial honors and on the same day, 27 May 1521, he ceremoniously ascended the throne. The young emperor reportedly chose the name of his era himself, from his favorite chapter of the Book of Documents , with jia meaning "to improve, make splendid" and jing meaning "to pacify" in Chinese. The primary desire of the new emperor

27224-644: Was to be assigned to virtuous rulers. However, this principle was effectively abandoned during the Sixteen Kingdoms era with the ubiquitous usage of "祖" by various non- Han regimes. Temple names became widespread from the Tang dynasty onwards. Apart from the final ruler of a dynasty, monarchs who died prematurely, or monarchs who were deposed, most Chinese monarchs were given temple names by their descendants. The practice of honoring rulers with temple names had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes within

27390-474: Was to posthumously elevate his father to the imperial rank. In contrast, Yang Tinghe insisted on his formal adoption by the Hongzhi Emperor, in order to legitimize his claim to the throne and become the younger brother of the late Zhengde Emperor. However, the Jiajing Emperor and his mother rejected the adoption, citing the wording of the recall decree which did not mention it. The emperor did not want to declare his parents as his uncle and aunt. Instead, he requested

27556-415: Was visibly different from the genuine coins. However, due to the scarcity of the old mintages, merchants had no choice but to use these counterfeits, even though they were only worth 1/2 to 1/3 of their face value. Some merchants refused to accept Ming coins altogether, while others only accepted silver. This led to workers being paid in low-quality coins, resulting in them losing half of their real income. As

#55944