82-787: The Pratihara dynasty , also called the Gurjara-Pratiharas , the Pratiharas of Kannauj or the Imperial Pratiharas , was a prominent medieval Indian dynasty which ruled over the Kingdom of Kannauj . It initially ruled the Gurjaradesa until its victory in the Tripartite Struggle in 816 which secured its right to the throne of Kannauj. Cadet branches of the dynasty ruled other minor states in
164-556: A modern "British" period. He argues that there is no clear sharp distinction between when the ancient period ended and when the medieval period began, noting dates ranging from the 7th century to the 13th century. Indo-Gangetic Plain The Indo-Gangetic Plain , also known as the Northern Plain or North Indian River Plain , is a fertile plain spanning 700,000 km (270,000 sq mi) across
246-516: A north west to south east orientation till the Aravalli Hills and is about 300 km (190 mi) wide stretching from Haryana in India into Pakistan's Punjab Province . The elevation varies from 275 m (902 ft) in the north to 176 m (577 ft) in the south west. The left quarter of the region is drained mainly by the tributaries of Indus – Ravi , Beas , and Sutlej and
328-545: A sacrificial fire-pit (agnikunda) at Mount Abu . Some colonial-era historians interpreted this myth to suggest a foreign origin for these dynasties. According to this theory, the foreigners were admitted in the Hindu caste system after performing a fire ritual. However, this legend is not found in the earliest available copies of Prithviraj Raso . It is based on a Paramara legend; the 16th century Rajput bards claim heroic descent of clans in order to foster Rajput unity against
410-656: A variety of cultures, languages, writing systems, and religions . At the beginning of the time period, Buddhism was predominant throughout the area , with the Pala Empire on the Indo Gangetic Plain sponsoring the Buddhist faith's institutions. One such institution was the Buddhist Nalanda mahavihara in modern-day Bihar , India , a centre of scholarship and brought a divided South Asia onto
492-402: Is drained by three major river systems and has a high ground water table . Due to its rich water resources and fertile alluvial soil, it is one of the world's most densely populated and intensely farmed areas. The eastern part of the plain receives heavy rainfall during the monsoon after the summer, which commonly results in floods and inundations. The rainfall decreases from the east towards
574-637: Is no conclusive evidence of their foreign origin: they were well-assimilated in the Indian culture. Moreover, if they invaded India through the north-west, it is inexplicable why would they choose to settle in the semi-arid area of present-day Rajasthan, rather than the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain . According to the Agnivansha legend given in the later manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso , the Pratiharas, Parmar, Chauhan and Chalukya dynasties originated from
656-572: Is not possible. According to the recent research, sediment deposited at the bed of the per-historic Tethys Sea folded towards the northern end due to the northward drift of the Indian plate and a trough was formed later due to the emergence of the Himalayas in the north. Beneath the silt deposition, the region rests on hard crystalline rocks which connect the Himalayan region with the peninsula. As
738-495: Is said to have acted as a pratihara ("door-keeper") for his brother Rama . Multiple inscriptions of their neighbouring dynasties describe the Pratiharas as "Gurjara". The term "Gurjara-Pratihara" occurs only in the Rajor inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva, who describes himself as a "Gurjara-Pratihara". According to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory (see Gurjara-desha ) originally ruled by
820-682: Is the river delta formed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers when they enter the Bay of Bengal . Spread over the Bengal region , consisting of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal , it is the world's largest river delta and is one of the most fertile regions of the plains. The delta stretches from about 260 km (160 mi) from the Hooghly River east to the Meghna River in
902-514: The Arabian Sea . Most of the delta lies in the southern Sindh province of Pakistan with a small portion in the Kutch region of India. The delta covers an area of about 41,440 km (16,000 sq mi), and is approximately 210 km (130 mi) across where it meets the sea. The climate is arid , the region receives only 25 and 50 cm (9.8 and 19.7 in) of rainfall. Since
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#1732772975115984-793: The Ghaznavid invasions. These branches fought each other for territory and one of the branches ruled Mandore till the 14th century. This Pratihara branch had marital ties with Rao Chunda of the Rathore clan and gave Mandore in dowry to Chunda. This was specifically done to form an alliance against the Turks of the Tughlaq Empire . There are notable examples of architecture from the Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved panels. Their temples, constructed in an open pavilion style. One of
1066-743: The Ghurid Empire and founded the Delhi Sultanate which ruled until the 16th century. As a consequence, Buddhism declined in South Asia , but Hinduism survived and reinforced itself in areas conquered by Muslim empires. In the far South, the Vijayanagara Empire resisted Muslim conquests, sparking a long rivalry with the Bahmani Sultanate . The turn of the 16th century would see introduction of gunpowder and
1148-530: The Gujarat Rashtrakuta dynasty and his younger brother. Bhoja led a cavalry raid into Gujarat against the Dhruva while supporting his Dhruva's younger brother. Although the raid was repulsed by Dhruva II, Bhoja was able to retain dominion over parts of Gujarat and Malwa. Bhoja's feudatory, the Guhilas Samanta named Harsha of Chatsu , is described as : “defeating the northern rulers with
1230-669: The Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas and Satpura and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the south in the south, and extends from North East India in the east to the Iranian border in the west. The region is home to many major cities and nearly one-seventh of the world's population. In India, it mainly encompasses the states and union territories of Rajasthan in the west, Punjab , Haryana, Chandigarh , and Delhi in
1312-490: The Indian Independence in 1947. The plains were named after the two major river systems that drain the region– Indus and Ganges . The region was formed as a result of continuous deposition of silt by the major river systems of Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra in the depression that existed between the Himalayas in the north and Deccan plateau in the south. However, there has been divergent theories as to
1394-403: The Indian subcontinent . During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title of Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta ( Great King of Kings of Aryan Lands ). Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples. The greatest development of their style of temple building was at Khajuraho , now a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The power of the Pratihara dynasty
1476-585: The Indus delta and the Rann of Kutch . The western part of the region is covered by shifting sand dunes (dharian) and the eastern part of the region (Rajasthan Bagar) is rocky. The region is largely arid with seasonal streams uch as Luni supporting limited agriculture. The Punjab-Haryana Plain lies to the east and north east of the Rajasthan Plain. It extends for a length of 640 km (400 mi) in
1558-629: The Mughals . The original centre of Pratihara power is a matter of controversy. R. C. Majumdar, on the basis of a verse in the Harivamsha-Purana, 783 CE, the interpretation of which he conceded was not free from difficulty, held that Vatsaraja ruled at Ujjain. Dasharatha Sharma, interpreting it differently located the original capital in the Bhinmala Jalor area. M. W. Meister and Shanta Rani Sharma concur with his conclusion in view of
1640-638: The Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent and the decline of Buddhism, the eventual founding of the Delhi Sultanate and the creation of Indo-Islamic architecture , followed by the world's major trading nation, the Bengal Sultanate . The start of the Mughal Empire in 1526 marked the beginning of the early modern period of Indian history, often referred to as the Mughal era. Sometimes,
1722-584: The Pratiharas fought back repulsed them from fort of Sindan, pushing the Arabs out of Kutch between 833 and 842 AD. Later on, the Arabs lost a best part of Sindh . This was the major conflict between the forces of Mihirbhoja and Imran ibn-musa Around 880, the Gurjara-Pratiharas were defeated in large battle in Ujjain by Krishna II, the Rastrakuta king of Gujarat. However, retribution likely soon followed on
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#17327729751151804-552: The Second Battle of Tarain , which led to the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in the region in the 13th century CE. In 1526 CE, Babur swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire , which ruled for almost the next three centuries. The Maratha Empire founded by Chatrapati Shivaji , briefly captured the region in the early 18th century CE. The Sikh Empire was established by Ranjit Singh around
1886-826: The Shivalik range in the north and the Deccan Plateau in the south with the Yamuna River forming the rough western boundary. The region extends 550 km (340 mi) in the north–south direction and is about 380 km (240 mi) wide with an average elevation of 100–300 m (330–980 ft). The Middle Ganga Plain stretches to the east of the Upper Ganga plain and forms part of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It covers an area of 1.44 km (0.56 sq mi), stretching 330 km (210 mi) in north–south direction and 600 km (370 mi) in
1968-538: The Yamuna waters a small portion on the eastern border. The in-between land which encompasses the city of Delhi, largely consists of no major streams except the seasonal Ghaggar River . The region has a humid sub tropical climate with dry winters and receives the major part of rainfall during the south west monsoon between July to September. The Ganga Plain forms the largest sub-unit of the plains and encompasses an area of 375,000 km (145,000 sq mi) across
2050-450: The 16th century to the 18th century, is often referred to as the early modern period , but is sometimes also included in the 'late medieval' period. An alternative definition, often seen in those more recent authors who still use the term at all, brings the start of the medieval times forward, either to about 1000 CE, or to the 12th century. The end may be pushed back to the 18th century, Hence, this period can be effectively considered as
2132-457: The 1940s, the delta has received less water as a result of large-scale irrigation works capturing large amounts of the Indus water before it reaches the delta. The region is home to the largest arid mangrove forests in the world. The population of the active part of the delta was estimated at 900,000 in 2003 with fishing being the major industry. The Rajasthan Plains form the western extreme of
2214-401: The 6th century CE to the start of the early modern period in 1526 with the start of the Mughal Empire , although some historians regard it as both starting and finishing later than these points. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the early medieval and late medieval eras. In the early medieval period, there were more than 40 different states on the Indian subcontinent, which hosted
2296-560: The Arabs who controlled Sindh. Nagabhata Pratihara I (730–756) later extended his control east and south from Mandor, conquering Malwa as far as Gwalior and the port of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital at Avanti in Malwa, and checked the expansion of the Arabs, who had established themselves in Sind . In this battle (738 CE), Nagabhata led a confederacy of Pratiharas to defeat
2378-517: The Caliph. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Currently it is believed that it was the power of the Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "Chief contribution of the Pratiharas to
2460-482: The Gangetic Doab . Their last important king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018. The origin of the dynasty and the meaning of the term "Gurjara" in its name is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara" for their clan, and never referred to themselves as Gurjaras. They claimed descent from the legendary hero Lakshmana , who
2542-525: The Gwalior inscription, it is recorded that Pratihara emperor Nagabhata "crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king." This large army consisted of cavalry, infantry, siege artillery, and probably a force of camels. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of Syrian cavalry from Damascus , local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the Turkics . All together
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2624-530: The Indo-Gangetic plain. The Maurya Empire existed from 4th to 2nd century BCE and unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent. The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent in the middle of the 1st century CE. Maritime trade along the Silk Road flourished during
2706-492: The Mughal era is also referred as the 'late medieval' period. Modern historical works written on medieval India have received some criticism from scholars studying the historiography of the period. E. Sreedharan argues that, from the turn of the century until the 1960s, Indian historians were often motivated by Indian nationalism . Peter Hardy notes that the majority of modern historical works on medieval India up until then were written by British and Hindu historians, whereas
2788-517: The Muslim Arabs who had till then been pressing on victorious through West Asia and Iran . An inscription by Mihira Bhoja ascribes Nagabhata with having appeared like Vishnu "in response to the prayers of the oppressed people to crush the large armies of the powerful Mleccha ruler, the destroyer of virtue". Nagabhata I was followed by two weak successors, his nephews Devraj and Kakkuka, who were in turn succeeded by Vatsraja (775–805). In
2870-533: The Palas under Dharmapala of Bengal As such, the Palas came into conflict from time to time with the Imperial Pratiharas. According to the above inscription Dharmapala , was deprived of his two white Royal Umbrellas, and fled, followed by the Pratihara forces under general Durlabharaja Chauhan of Shakambhari . The Prithviraja Vijaya mentions Durlabhraj I as having "washed his sword at the confluence of
2952-594: The Pratihara dynasty reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled that of the Gupta Empire stretching from the border of Sindh in the west to Bengal in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to areas past the Narmada in the south. The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of
3034-600: The Pratiharas regained the city, their position continued to weaken in the tenth century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously fighting off Turkic attacks from the west, the attacks from the Rashtrakuta dynasty from the south and the Pala advances in the east. The Pratiharas lost control of Rajasthan to their feudatories, and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in central India around 950. By
3116-435: The Pratiharas; gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory is that Gurjara was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, and Pratihara was a clan of this tribe. Among those who believe that the term Gurjara was originally a tribal designation, there are disagreements over whether they were native Indians or foreigners. The proponents of the foreign origin theory point out that
3198-594: The Pratihars suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after the Hunas invasion of that region. According to them Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the Alchon Huns ("White Huns") and native Indian elements, and can probably be considered as a Hunnic state , although its precise origins remain unclear. Critics of the foreign origin theory argue that there
3280-573: The Western Sea ( Arabian Sea )". The region was part of what was historically referred to as Hindustan , a term used to refer to the whole of the Indian subcontinent . The term "Hindustani" is also commonly used to refer to the people, music , and culture of the region. The fertile terrain facilitated the rise and expansion of various empires such as the Mauryas , Kushan , Guptas , all of whom had their demographic and political centers in
3362-408: The beginning of Muslim domination to British India . Or the "early medieval" period as beginning in the 8th century, and ending with the 11th century. The use of "medieval" at all as a term for periods in Indian history has often been objected to, and is probably becoming more rare (there is a similar discussion in terms of the history of China ). It is argued that neither the start nor the end of
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3444-474: The center of the Pratihara state, which covered much of northern India during the peak of their power, c. 836–910. Mihira Bhoja first consolidated his territories by crushing the rebellious feudatories in Rajasthan, before turning his attention against the old enemies the Palas and Rastrakutas. After consolidating his rule, he stepped into a war of succession for the throne of Gujarat between Dhruva II of
3526-464: The death of Harsha without an heir, which resulted in the disintegration of the Empire of Harsha . This space was eventually filled by Yashovarman around a century later but his position was dependent upon an alliance with Lalitaditya Muktapida . When Muktapida undermined Yashovarman, a tri-partite struggle for control of the city developed, involving the Pratiharas, whose territory was at that time to
3608-648: The east of the Sutlej river." Kalhana 's Rajatarangini states that the territories of Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north, and Bhoja had conquered Punjab by defeating ruling 'Thakkiyaka' dynasty . After Devapala's death, Bhoja defeated the Pala emperor Narayanapala and expanded his boundaries eastward into Pala-held territories near Gorakhpur . In the early 8th century, Arabs fought on and off to take over Sindh . Imran ibn-Musa, who governed Sindh, tried to expand Arab rule to nearby areas. When Bhoja became powerful
3690-435: The east to the Iranian border in the west. The region is home to many major cities and nearly one-seventh of the world's population. As the region was formed by the deposits of the three major rivers–Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra , the plains consists of the world's largest expanse of uninterrupted alluvium . Due to its rich water resources, it is one of the world's most densely populated and intensely farmed areas. The region
3772-406: The east–west direction. The elevation varies from 100 m (330 ft) in the western boundary to 30 m (98 ft) towards the south east. This plain is largely drained by Ghaghara, Gandak and Kosi rivers. The Lower Ganga Plain includes parts of Bihar, West Bengal and most of Bangladesh . It stretches for 81,000 km (31,000 sq mi) along a 580 km (360 mi) stretch from
3854-539: The end of the tenth century the Pratihara domains had dwindled to a small state centered on Kannauj. Mahmud of Ghazni captured Kannauj in 1018, and the Pratihara ruler Rajapala fled. He was subsequently captured and killed by the Chandela ruler Vidyadhara . The Chandela ruler then placed Rajapala's son Trilochanpala on the throne as a proxy. Jasapala, the last Pratihara ruler of Kannauj, died in 1036. The Imperial Pratihara dynasty broke into several small states after
3936-570: The fact that the writer of the Jaina narrative Kuvalayamala states that it was composed at Jalor in the time of Vatsaraja in 778 CE, which is five years before the composition of Harivamsha-Purana. Nagabhata I (739–760), was originally perhaps a feudatory of the Chavdas of Bhillamala. He gained prominence after the downfall of the Chavda kingdom in the course of resisting the invading forces led by
4018-579: The foothills of the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south, and extends between the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the west and Bangladesh's eastern boundary with India. The average elevation is 50 m (160 ft) along the western boundary. The Brahmaputra Valley largely covers the Indian state of Assam and is an eastern extension of the plains. It stretches from the Eastern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh in
4100-400: The formation of the depression. As per Darashaw Wadia , the depression was a furrow that originally existed since the formation of the plateau in the south and the mountains in the north. Edward Suess had suggested that the depression was a large syncline that was formed when the southward advance of the Himalayas was blocked by the Indian landmass. Sydney Burrard opined that the region
4182-402: The global intellectual stage. Another accomplishment was the invention of the Chaturanga game which later was exported to Europe and became Chess . In Southern India, the Tamil Hindu Kingdom of Chola gained prominence with an overseas empire that controlled parts of modern-day Sri Lanka , Malaysia , and Indonesia as overseas territories, and helped spread Hinduism and Buddhism into
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#17327729751154264-523: The help of the mighty elephant force”, and “loyally presenting to Bhoja the special ‘Shrivamsha’ breed of horses, which could easily cross seas of sand." Besides being a conqueror, Bhoja was a great diplomat. The kingdoms which were conquered and acknowledged his suzerainty includes Travani, Valla, Mada, Arya, Gujaratra, Lata Parvarta and Chandelas of Bundelkhand . Bhoja's Daulatpura - Dausa Inscription (AD 843), confirms his rule in Dausa region. Another inscription states that,"Bhoja's territories extended to
4346-410: The historic cultural area of Southeast Asia . In this time period, neighbouring regions such as Afghanistan , Tibet , and Southeast Asia were under South Asian influence . During the late medieval period, a series of Islamic invasions by the Arabs , the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids conquered large portions of Northern India. Turkic general Qutb ud-Din Aibak declared his independence from
4428-417: The history of India". Known Baddoch rulers are- Badegujar were rulers of Rajogarh Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians References Sources Medieval India Medieval India refers to a long period of post-classical history of the Indian subcontinent between the "ancient period" and "modern period". It is usually regarded as running approximately from the break-up of the Gupta Empire in
4510-404: The invading army may have had anywhere between 10 and 15,000 cavalry, 5000 infantry, and 2000 camels. The Arab chronicler Sulaiman describes the army of the Pratiharas as it stood in 851 CE, "The ruler of Gurjara maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of rulers. Among
4592-443: The most notable Pratihara style of architecture was Khajuraho , built by their vassals, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand . Māru-Gurjara architecture was developed during Pratihara Empire. Historians of India, since the days of Elphinstone , have wondered at the slow progress of Muslim invaders in India, as compared with their rapid advance in other parts of the world. The Arabs possibly only stationed small invasions independent of
4674-444: The north west, Uttar Pradesh in the north, Bihar and West Bengal in the east, and Assam in the north east. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi Ridge , which is a northern extension of the Aravalli Hills . The western part is drains by the Indus, and the eastern part consists of the Ganga–Brahmaputra river systems. The plains encompassed four distinct geographical regions: The region
4756-439: The north, to the Garo - Khasi - Jaintia and Mikir Hills in the south. Its has the Patkai and Naga Hills to the east and the boundary of the Lower Ganga Plain to the west. The region covers an estimated 56,000 km (22,000 sq mi) and is watered by Brahmaputra and its tributaries. The elevation varies from 130 m (430 ft) in the east to 30 m (98 ft) in the west. The Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta
4838-420: The northern and north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent . It encompasses northern and eastern India , eastern Pakistan , southern Nepal , and almost all of Bangladesh . It is named after the two major river systems that drain the region– Indus and Ganges . Its stretches from the Himalayas in the north to the northern edge of the Deccan plateau in the south, and extends from North East India in
4920-427: The part of the Pratiharas, as by the end of his reign, Bhoja had successfully exterminated the Gujarat Rashtrakuta line. Hudud-ul-Alam, a tenth-century Persian geographic text, states that most of the kings of India acknowledged the supremacy of the powerful 'Rai of Qinnauj', ( Kannauj was the capital of the Imperial Pratiharas) whose mighty army had 150,000 strong cavalry and 800 war elephants. Bhoja II (910–912)
5002-434: The period from the 6th century, the first half of the 7th century, or the 8th century up to the 16th century, essentially coinciding with the Middle Ages of Europe. It may be divided into two periods: The 'early medieval period' which lasted from the 6th to the 13th century and the 'late medieval period' which lasted from the 13th to the 16th century, ending with the start of the Mughal Empire in 1526. The Mughal era, from
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#17327729751155084-409: The period really mark fundamental changes in Indian history, comparable to the European equivalents. Burton Stein still used the concept in his A History of India (1998), referring to the period from the Guptas to the Mughals, but most recent authors using it are Indian. Understandably, they often specify the period they cover within their titles. The start of the period is typically taken to be
5166-408: The period. The Gupta period existed from the 4th to 7th century CE and is noted for its arts, architecture and science. In the 12th century CE, much of the region was ruled by the Rajputs . In 1191 CE, the Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan unified several Rajput states and defeated the invading army of Shihabuddin Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain . However, Shihabuddin defeated the Rajputs in
5248-555: The plains in India and is mostly composed of Thar desert , which occupies an area of 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi) stretching acrss 650 km (400 mi). About three-fourth of the plains lie in India and rest in Pakistan. In India, two-thirds of the region is part of western Rajasthan , extending to the west of Aravalli Hills and rest form parts of Haryana , Punjab and Gujarat . The region has an average elevation of 325 m (1,066 ft) which reduces from east to west, reaching about 150 m (490 ft) towards
5330-459: The princes of India there is no greater foe of the Islamic faith than he. He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous." After bringing much of Rajasthan under his control, Vatsaraja embarked to become "master of all the land lying between the two seas." Contemporary Jijasena's Harivamsha Purana describes him as "master of western quarter". According to the Radhanpur Plate and Prithviraja Vijaya , Vatsaraja led an expedition against
5412-415: The region was formed by the deposits of major rivers, the plains consists of the world's largest expanse of uninterrupted alluvium . The fertile plains span 700,000 km (270,000 sq mi) across the northern and north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent . It encompasses northern and eastern India , eastern Pakistan , southern Nepal , and almost all of Bangladesh . Its stretches from
5494-438: The rise of a new Muslim empire—the Mughals , as well as the establishment of European trade posts by the Portuguese colonists . Mughal Empire was one of the three Islamic gunpowder empires , along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia . The subsequent cultural and technological developments transformed Indian society, concluding the late medieval period and beginning the early modern period . One definition includes
5576-403: The river Ganga and the ocean, and savouring the land of the Gaudas". The Baroda Inscription (AD 812) states Nagabhata defeated the Dharmapala. Through vigorous campaigning, Vatsraj had extended his dominions to include a large part of northern India, from the Thar Desert in the west up to the frontiers of Bengal in the east. The metropolis of Kannauj had suffered a power vacuum following
5658-412: The same time in the north western part of the region. The Europeans arrived in the end of the 15th century CE in peninsular India . The English East India company 's in the Battle of Plassey (1757) and Battle of Buxar (1767) consolidated the company's power in the lower Gangetic plain. With the defeat of the Marathas, the entire region came under the control of British Raj and remained same until
5740-477: The slow collapse of the Gupta Empire from about 480 to 550, ending the "classical" period , as well as "ancient India", although both these terms may be used for periods with widely different dates, especially in specialised fields such as the history of art or religion. Another alternative for the preceding period is "Early Historical" stretching "from the sixth century BC to the sixth century AD", according to Romila Thapar . At least in northern India, there
5822-528: The states of Uttar Pradesh , Bihar, and West Bengal . The Ganges along with its tributaries such as the Yamuna , Gomti , Ghagara , Gandak , Chambal , Kosi , and Sone drain the region. The various rivers and streams originating from both the Himalayas and the Deccan Plateau contribute to fertile soil in the region. The region gently slopes towards the south east and consists of three regions: Upper, Middle and Lower Ganga Plains. The Upper Ganga Plain stretches 149,000 km (58,000 sq mi) from
5904-625: The subcontinent. The Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River . Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin in the Caliphate campaigns in India . Under Nagabhata II , the Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra , who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja . Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I ,
5986-636: The west and north, the Palas of Bengal in the east and the Rashtrakutas , whose base lay at the south in the Deccan . Vatsaraja successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and Dantidurga , the Rashtrakuta king, for control of Kannauj. Around 786, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva (c. 780–793) crossed the Narmada River into Malwa, and from there tried to capture Kannauj. Vatsraja
6068-813: The west with the western region encompassing drier areas such as the Thar desert . The region can be sub-divided into various geographical units such as the Sindh Plains , and the Indus Delta in Pakistan; Rajasthan Plain, and Punjab-Haryana Plain in India and Pakistan, Ganga Plain in India and Bangladesh, Brahmaputra Valley in India, Terai region in Nepal, and the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta in India and Bangladesh. The Sindh Plains forms
6150-602: The western part of the plains and encompasses the Sindh region of Pakistan to the west of the Thar desert with the Punjab Plains in the north and the Indus River Delta in the south. The region receives about 13 in (330 mm) of rain annually, mostly from June to September. The economy is largely based on agriculture. The Indus River Delta encompasses the region where the Indus River flows into
6232-427: The work of modern Muslim historians was under-represented. He argues that some of the modern Muslim historiography on medieval India at the time was motivated by Islamic apologetics , attempting to justify "the life of medieval Muslims to the modern world." Ram Sharan Sharma has criticised the simplistic manner in which Indian history is often divided into an ancient "Hindu" period, a medieval "Muslim" period, and
6314-401: Was a deep rift that existed in the earth's crust , which was subsequently filled with alluvium. He also pointed out the existence of other rift valleys in the Himalayan and Deccan plateau region. However, geologists such as Ferdinand Hayden and Richard Oldham have rejected this stating that there is no evidence of existence of a rift valley and that the existence of such a large rift valley
6396-770: Was defeated by the Dhruva Dharavarsha of the Rashtrakuta dynasty around 800. Vatsaraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II (805–833), who was initially defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III (793–814), but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas, conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas, and again checked the Muslims in the west. He rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid from Sindh . Kannauj became
6478-732: Was home to the Indus Valley civilisation in 3000 BCE, which was one of the earliest human settlements in the Indian subcontinent. During the Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE), the region was referred to as " Aryavarta " (Land of the Aryans ). According to Manusmṛti (2.22), 'Aryavarta' is "the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern Sea ( Bay of Bengal ) to
6560-494: Was no larger state until the Delhi Sultanate , or certainly the Mughal Empire, but there were several different dynasties ruling large areas for long periods, as well as many other dynasties ruling smaller areas, often paying some form of tribute to larger states. John Keay puts the typical number of dynasties within the subcontinent at any one time at between 20 and 40, not including local rajas . This period follows
6642-737: Was overthrown by Mahipala I (912–944). Several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand , the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal , the Tomaras of Haryana , and the Chahamanas of Shakambhari . The south Indian Emperor Indra III (c. 914–928) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty briefly captured Kannauj in 916, and although
6724-426: Was weakened by dynastic strife. It was further diminished as a result of a great raid led by the Rashtrakuta ruler Indra III who, in about 916, sacked Kannauj. Under a succession of rather obscure rulers, the dynasty never regained its former influence. Their feudatories became more and more powerful, one by one throwing off their allegiance until, by the end of the tenth century, the dynasty controlled little more than
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