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105-590: DVD±R (also DVD+/-R, or "DVD plus/dash R") is a shorthand term for both DVD+R and DVD-R formats. Likewise, the term DVD±RW refers to both rewritable disc types, the DVD+RW and the DVD-RW. DVD±R/W (also written as, DVD±R/RW, DVD±R/±RW, DVD+/-RW, DVD±R(W) and other arbitrary ways) handles all common writable disc types, but not DVD-RAM . A drive that supports writing to all these disc types including DVD-RAM (but not necessarily including cartridges or 8cm diameter discs)

210-482: A format war in the DVD technology industry. To reconcile the two competing formats, manufacturers created hybrid drives that could read both — most hybrid drives that handle both formats are labeled DVD±R and Super Multi (which includes DVD-RAM support) and are very popular. A DVD-RW disc is a rewritable optical disc with equal storage capacity to a DVD-R , typically 4.7 GB (4,700,000,000 bytes). The format

315-593: A 1864 copyright infringement lawsuit against Benn Pitman in Ohio. Graham died in 1895 and was buried in Montclair's Rosedale Cemetery ; even as late as 1918 his company Andrew J. Graham & Co continued to market his method. In his youth, Woodrow Wilson had mastered the Graham system and even corresponded with Graham in Graham. Throughout his life Wilson continued to develop and employ his own Graham system writing, to

420-526: A 4.7 GB (4.7 billion bytes) DVD that is advertised as such might show up on their device as having 4.38 GiB (depending on what type of prefixes their device uses). According to a study published in 2008 by the Preservation Research and Testing Division of the U.S. Library of Congress, most recordable CD products have a higher probability of greater longevity compared to recordable DVD products. A series of follow-up studies conducted by

525-400: A PCA. CDs (and possibly DVDs) may also have two PCAs: one on the inner edge of the disc, for low speed testing, and another on the outer edge for high speed testing. Additional session linking methods are more accurate with DVD+R(W) versus DVD-R(W), resulting in fewer damaged or unusable discs due to buffer under-run and multi-session discs with fewer PI/PO errors. Like other "plus" media, it

630-652: A coalition of corporations—now known as the DVD+RW Alliance—in mid-2002, stemming from a research project at Hewlett-Packard Laboratories (a.k.a. HP Labs) that originated in 1996. The project was the brainchild of Josh Hogan, who represented HP and was involved in the negotiations that resulted in the compromise format for DVD-ROM (prerecorded media) between the DVD Forum and the Sony & Philips teams. HP chose to partner with Sony and Philips, who were initially lukewarm to

735-561: A common example. The earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the Parthenon in Ancient Greece , where a mid-4th century BC inscribed marble slab was found. This shows a writing system primarily based on vowels, using certain modifications to indicate consonants. Hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century BC onwards, though there are indications that it might be older. The oldest datable reference

840-472: A compatible DVD video recorder, because the two variants of the discs are written in different formats . There are a number of significant technical differences between the "dash" and the "plus" format, although most users would not notice the difference. One example is that the DVD+R style address in pregroove (ADIP) system of tracking and speed control is less susceptible to interference and error, which makes

945-572: A defective optical drive . Shorthand Shorthand is an abbreviated symbolic writing method that increases speed and brevity of writing as compared to longhand , a more common method of writing a language. The process of writing in shorthand is called stenography , from the Greek stenos (narrow) and graphein (to write). It has also been called brachygraphy , from Greek brachys (short), and tachygraphy , from Greek tachys (swift, speedy), depending on whether compression or speed of writing

1050-582: A fraction of the time to acquire a useful speed of between 70 and 100 words per minute. Non-stenographic systems often supplement alphabetic characters by using punctuation marks as additional characters, giving special significance to capitalised letters, and sometimes using additional non-alphabetic symbols. Examples of such systems include Stenoscript , Speedwriting and Forkner shorthand . However, there are some pure alphabetic systems, including Personal Shorthand , SuperWrite, Easy Script Speed Writing, Keyscript Shorthand and Yash3k which limit their symbols to

1155-454: A fully rewritable format. The success of the HP Labs project in proving out the technology convinced Sony and Philips to go ahead with the move. The issue was drop-in compatibility of a rewritable format with the existing DVD-ROM players. Rewritable media (such as magnetic hard disk drives or rewritable CDs) have edit gaps between sectors, to provide a buffer so that any timing inaccuracies in

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1260-430: A higher failure-to-read rate than pressed DVDs, due to differences in the reflective properties of dye compared to the aluminum substrate of pressed discs. The larger storage capacity of a DVD-R compared to a CD-R is achieved by focusing the laser to a smaller point, creating smaller 'pits' as well as a finer track pitch of the groove spiral which guides the laser beam. These two changes allow more pits to be written in

1365-545: A larger Power Calibration Area (PCA). The PCA in DVD+R has a length of 32768 sectors, compared to the 7088 of DVD-R. In the PCA, which is located close to the inner edge of the disc, a 15-step procedure is carried out to calibrate (vary the power of) the disc drive's laser before every and during writing, to allow for small differences between discs and drives. This process is known as a power test. Calibration during writing allows for small changes in quality between different sections of

1470-443: A left-to-right, top-to-bottom writing direction. Several systems incorporate a loop into many of the strokes, giving the appearance of Gregg, Graham, or Cross's Eclectic shorthand without actually functioning like them. The Kotani (aka Same-Vowel-Same-Direction or SVSD or V-type) system's strokes frequently cross over each other and in so doing form loops. Japanese also has its own variously cursive form of writing kanji characters,

1575-489: A legal battle ensued. The two systems use very similar, if not identical, symbols; however, these symbols are used to represent different sounds. For instance, on page 10 of the manual is the word d i m 'dim'; however, in the Gregg system, the spelling would actually mean n u k or 'nook'. Andrew J. Graham was a notable phonotypist operating in the period between the emergence of Pitman's and Gregg's systems. In 1854 he published

1680-597: A less complex writing system, a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used. After the decline of the Roman Empire , the Tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches, though they were still known and taught, particularly during the Carolingian Renaissance . After the 11th century, however, they were mostly forgotten. When many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of

1785-442: A priori alphabetic characters. These have the added advantage that they can also be typed—for instance, onto a computer , PDA , or cellphone . Early editions of Speedwriting were also adapted so that they could be written on a typewriter, and therefore would possess the same advantage. Shorthand systems can also be classified according to the way that vowels are represented. Traditional shorthand systems are written on paper with

1890-552: A short-lived (only 9 issues) phonotypy journal called The Cosmotype, subtitled "devoted to that which will entertain usefull, instruct, and improve humanity" , and several other monographs about phonography. In 1857 he published his own Pitman-like "Graham's Brief Longhand" that saw wide adoption in the United States in the late 19th century. He published a translation of the New Testament. His method landed him in

1995-410: A stenographic pencil or a stenographic pen. Some consider that strictly speaking only handwritten systems can be called shorthand. Machine shorthand is also a common term for writing produced by a stenotype , a specialized keyboard . These are often used for court room transcripts and in live subtitling . However, there are other shorthand machines used worldwide, including: Velotype ; Palantype in

2100-544: A sum signal to left and right channels if both sum and difference signals are received. Without the requirement for backward compatibility, a simpler method could have been chosen. Full backward compatibility is particularly important in computer instruction set architectures , two of the most successful being the IBM 360 / 370 / 390 / Zseries families of mainframes, and the Intel x86 family of microprocessors . IBM announced

2205-411: A system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word. Bright's book was followed by a number of others, including Peter Bales' The Writing Schoolemaster in 1590, John Willis's Art of Stenography in 1602, Edmond Willis's An abbreviation of writing by character in 1618, and Thomas Shelton 's Short Writing in 1626 (later re-issued as Tachygraphy ). Shelton's system became very popular and

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2310-592: A total of nine pen shorthands in use. In addition, there is the Yamane pen shorthand (of unknown importance) and three machine shorthands systems (Speed Waapuro, Caver and Hayatokun or sokutaipu). The machine shorthands have gained some ascendancy over the pen shorthands. Japanese shorthand systems ('sokki' shorthand or 'sokkidou' stenography) commonly use a syllabic approach, much like the common writing system for Japanese (which has actually two syllabaries in everyday use). There are several semi-cursive systems. Most follow

2415-422: A way that would not result in a bleeding of one bit into the next one. Because DVD+RW used phase-change media, this was solved by high speed modulation of short laser pulses to take advantage of the nonlinear heating and cooling properties of the material and control the pulse shapes. Several papers describing these efforts can be found at: The DVD Forum initially did not approve of the DVD+R format and claimed that

2520-499: Is forward compatibility ; a design that is forward-compatible usually has a roadmap for compatibility with future standards and products. A simple example of both backward and forward compatibility is the introduction of FM radio in stereo . FM radio was initially mono , with only one audio channel represented by one signal . With the introduction of two-channel stereo FM radio, many listeners had only mono FM receivers. Forward compatibility for mono receivers with stereo signals

2625-580: Is a contract from Middle Egypt , stating that Oxyrhynchos gives the "semeiographer" Apollonios for two years to be taught shorthand writing. Hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs. Over time, many syllabic signs were developed. In Ancient Rome , Marcus Tullius Tiro (103–4 BC), a slave and later a freedman of Cicero , developed the Tironian notes so that he could write down Cicero's speeches. Plutarch ( c.  46  – c.  120 AD ) in his "Life of Cato

2730-431: Is a property of an operating system , software, real-world product, or technology that allows for interoperability with an older legacy system , or with input designed for such a system. Modifying a system in a way that does not allow backward compatibility is sometimes called " breaking " backward compatibility. Such breaking usually incurs various types of costs, such as switching cost . A complementary concept

2835-424: Is advantageous to have a rewritable format capable of digital video data speeds, while being removable, small, and relatively inexpensive. Another benefit to using a rewritable disc is if the burning process produces errors or corrupted data, it can simply be written over again to correct the error, or the corrupted data can be erased. This is also useful for testing optical disc authoring software. The DVD-R format

2940-415: Is attributed to its broad forward and backward compatibility; it became more popular than other standards that were not backward compatible. In software development, backward compatibility is a general notion of interoperation between software pieces that will not produce any errors when its functionality is invoked via API . The software is considered stable when its API that is used to invoke functions

3045-402: Is not backwards-compatible with earlier optical drives that have only been adapted to Version 1.1 and Version 1.0. DVD-RW media exists in the recording speed variants of 1× (discontinued), 2×, 4× and 6×. Higher speed variants, although compatible with lower writing speeds, are written to with the lowest error rate at the rated speed, similarly to CD-RW . The DVD+R format was developed by

3150-416: Is not related to the random-access memory in which a computer stores opened programs. DVD recordable media are sold in two standard sizes, a regular 12 cm (5 in) size for home recording and computer usage, and a small 8 cm (3 in) size (sometimes known as a miniDVD ) for use in compact camcorders . The smaller Mini DVD-RW , for example, holds 1.46 GB. Notes: The following table describes

3255-411: Is phonetic, but has the simplicity of being "light-line." Pitman's system uses thick and thin strokes to distinguish related sounds, while Gregg's uses only thin strokes and makes some of the same distinctions by the length of the stroke. In fact, Gregg claimed joint authorship in another shorthand system published in pamphlet form by one Thomas Stratford Malone; Malone, however, claimed sole authorship and

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3360-744: Is possible to change the book type to increase the compatibility of DVD+R media (though unlike DVD+RW, it is a one way process). This is also known as bitsetting. Developed by HP in collaboration with Philips and Sony and their DVD+RW Alliance , the "plus" format uses a more reliable bi-phase modulation technique to provide "sector" address information. It was introduced after the "-" format. The wobble frequency has been increased from 140.6 kHz to 817.4 kHz. Like DVD-R (single-layer), DVD+R (single-layer) media officially exists with rated recording speeds of up to 16× ( constant angular velocity ). However, on both +R and -R types, some models of half-height (desktop) optical drives allow bypassing

3465-417: Is referred to as a "Multi" recorder. Like CD-Rs , DVD recordable uses dye to store the data. During the burning of a single bit, the laser's intensity affects the reflective properties of the burned dye. By varying the laser intensity quickly, high density data is written in precise tracks. Since written tracks are made of darkened dye, the data side of a recordable DVD has a distinct color. Burned DVDs have

3570-429: Is said to be backward compatible when a newer version of the program can open it without errors just like its predecessor. There are several incentives for a company to implement backward compatibility. Backward compatibility can be used to preserve older software that would have otherwise been lost when a manufacturer decides to stop supporting older hardware. Classic video games are a common example used when discussing

3675-514: Is sometimes known as phonography , meaning "sound writing" in Greek. One of the reasons this system allows fast transcription is that vowel sounds are optional when only consonants are needed to determine a word. The availability of a full range of vowel symbols, however, makes complete accuracy possible. Isaac's brother Benn Pitman, who lived in Cincinnati , Ohio, was responsible for introducing

3780-418: Is stable across different versions. In operating systems, upgrades to newer versions are said to be backward compatible if executables and other files from the previous versions will work as usual. In compilers , backward compatibility may refer to the ability of a compiler for a newer version of the language to accept source code of programs or data that worked under the previous version. A data format

3885-420: Is the goal. Many forms of shorthand exist. A typical shorthand system provides symbols or abbreviations for words and common phrases, which can allow someone well-trained in the system to write as quickly as people speak. Abbreviation methods are alphabet-based and use different abbreviating approaches. Many journalists use shorthand writing to quickly take notes at press conferences or other similar scenarios. In

3990-405: Is well known because it was used by Samuel Pepys for his diary and for many of his official papers, such as his letter copy books. It was also used by Sir Isaac Newton in some of his notebooks. Shelton borrowed heavily from his predecessors, especially Edmond Willis. Each consonant was represented by an arbitrary but simple symbol, while the five vowels were represented by the relative positions of

4095-492: The BD-RE (rewritable Blu-ray) has an average longevity of 20-50 years, while non-rewritable BD-R discs have an average longevity of 10-20 years under ideal conditions. Media of higher quality tends to last longer. Using surface error scanning , the rate of correctable errors can be measured. A higher rate of errors indicates media of lower quality and/or deteriorating media . It may also indicate scratches and/or data written by

4200-529: The Canadian Conservation Institute in 2019 revealed that CD-R with phthalocyanine dye and a gold-metal layer had the greatest longevity at over 100 years when stored at ideal temperature and humidity-levels. The second longest was DVD-R (gold-metal layer) with an average longevity of 50-100 years under ideal conditions. CD-R with phthalocyanine and a silver-metal-alloy layer also scored an average longevity of 50-100 years, however ,

4305-735: The Duployé system, adapted to write the Kamloops Wawa (used for Chinook Jargon ) writing system. Script shorthands are based on the motions of ordinary handwriting. The first system of this type was published under the title Cadmus Britanicus by Simon Bordley, in 1787. However, the first practical system was the German Gabelsberger shorthand of 1834. This class of system is now common in all more recent German shorthand systems, as well as in Austria , Italy , Scandinavia ,

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4410-517: The Netherlands , Russia , other Eastern European countries, and elsewhere. Script-geometric , or semi-script , shorthands are based on the ellipse. Semi-script can be considered a compromise between the geometric systems and the script systems. The first such system was that of George Carl Märes in 1885. However, the most successful system of this type was Gregg shorthand , introduced by John Robert Gregg in 1888. Gregg had studied not only

4515-692: The TSSTcorp SH-S203/TS-H653B (2007) have officially adapted support for writing speeds of up to 12× on DVD-R DL and 16× on DVD+R DL (on recordable media by selected vendors only), while more recent DVD writers such as the SH-224DB (2013) and Blu-Ray writers such as the LG BE16NU50 (2016) have restricted the supported DVD±R DL writing speed to 8×. Most DVD±R/RWs are advertised using the definition of 1 gigabyte = 1 GB = 1,000,000,000 bytes. This can be confusing for many users since

4620-560: The geometric English systems, but also the German Stolze stenography, a script shorthand. Other examples include Teeline Shorthand and Thomas Natural Shorthand . The semi-script philosophy gained popularity in Italy in the first half of the 20th century with three different systems created by Giovanni Vincenzo Cima, Erminio Meschini, and Stenital Mosciaro. Some shorthand systems attempted to ease learning by using characters from

4725-456: The ' DVD+RW Alliance ' logo is a stylized 'RW'. Thus, many discs have the RW logo, but are not rewritable. According to Pioneer, DVD-RW discs may be written to about 1,000 times before needing replacement. RW discs are used to store volatile data, such as when creating backups or collections of files which are subject to change and re-writes. They are also ideal for home DVD video recorders , where it

4830-412: The 16th-century Protestant Reformation , long-forgotten manuscripts of Tironian notes were rediscovered. In imperial China , clerks used an abbreviated, highly cursive form of Chinese characters to record court proceedings and criminal confessions. These records were used to create more formal transcripts. One cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by

4935-524: The 8-bit Intel 8080 processor of 1974. The Zilog Z80 , however, was fully backward compatible with the Intel 8080.) Fully backward compatible processors can process the same binary executable software instructions as their predecessors, allowing the use of a newer processor without having to acquire new applications or operating systems . Similarly, the success of the Wi-Fi digital communication standard

5040-471: The ADIP system more accurate at higher speeds than the land pre pit (LPP) system used by DVD-R. In addition, DVD+R(W) has a more robust error-management system than DVD-R(W), allowing for more accurate burning to media, independent of the quality of the media. The practical upshot is that a DVD+R writer is able to locate data on the disc to byte accuracy whereas DVD-R is incapable of such precision. DVD+R also has

5145-408: The DVD+R format was not an official DVD format until January 25, 2008. On 25 January 2008, DVD6C officially accepted DVD+R and DVD+RW by adding them to its list of licensable DVD products. DVD+RW supports a method of writing called "lossless linking", which makes it suitable for random access and improves compatibility with DVD players . The rewritable DVD+RW standard was formalized earlier than

5250-492: The Latin alphabet. Such non-stenographic systems have often been described as alphabetic , and purists might claim that such systems are not 'true' shorthand. However, these alphabetic systems do have value for students who cannot dedicate the years necessary to master a stenographic shorthand. Alphabetic shorthands cannot be written at the speeds theoretically possible with symbol systems—200 words per minute or more—but require only

5355-577: The UK are Pitman 2000, PitmanScript, Speedwriting , and Gregg. Teeline is also the most common shorthand method taught to New Zealand journalists, whose certification typically requires a shorthand speed of at least 80 words per minute. In Nigeria, shorthand is still taught in higher institutions of learning, especially for students studying Office Technology Management and Business Education. Backwards-compatible In telecommunications and computing , backward compatibility (or backwards compatibility )

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5460-579: The UK, in the U.S., its popularity has been largely superseded by Gregg shorthand , developed by John Robert Gregg in 1888. In the UK, the spelling-based (rather than phonetic) Teeline shorthand is now more commonly taught and used than Pitman, and Teeline is the recommended system of the National Council for the Training of Journalists with an overall speed of 100 words per minute necessary for certification. Other less commonly used systems in

5565-584: The UK; Grandjean Stenotype, used extensively in France and French-speaking countries; Michela Stenotype, used extensively in Italy; and Stenokey, used in Bulgaria and elsewhere. One of the most widely used forms of shorthand is still the Pitman shorthand method described above, which has been adapted for 15 languages. Although Pitman's method was extremely popular at first and is still commonly used, especially in

5670-618: The Younger" (95–46 BC) records that Cicero, during a trial of some insurrectionists in the senate, employed several expert rapid writers, whom he had taught to make figures comprising numerous words in a few short strokes, to preserve Cato's speech on this occasion. The Tironian notes consisted of Latin word stem abbreviations ( notae ) and of word ending abbreviations ( titulae ). The original Tironian notes consisted of about 4,000 signs, but new signs were introduced, so that their number might increase to as many as 13,000. In order to have

5775-534: The accused's signature, personal seal, or thumbprint, requiring fast writing. Versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day and, influenced by Western shorthand methods, some new methods were invented. An interest in shorthand or "short-writing" developed towards the end of the 16th century in England . In 1588, Timothy Bright published his Characterie; An Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character which introduced

5880-500: The base transfer rate level for DVD+R/RW. Earlier optical drives also have a 1.0× transfer rate level for both DVD-R/RW and DVD+R/RW. DVD+RW discs can be written randomly in any location that has been sequentially written to before at least once. If a packet writing -enabled Universal Disk Format (UDF) is mounted, the operating system may perform a "background formatting" while the disc is not in use (meaning not being read or written to), which sequentially fills never-written parts of

5985-511: The capacity increased from 2.8 GB to 4.7GB). The simulated recording mode feature is no longer an official part of the standard like it was for CD-R , CD-RW , DVD-R and DVD-RW , although supported by Plextor optical drives. Another distinction in comparison to DVD-R/RW/R DL is that the recorder information (optical drive model) is not written automatically to DVD+ discs by the drive. Nero DiscSpeed allows proprietarily adding such information for later retrieval. Other changes include

6090-561: The computer drive product scheduled for development at the Boise facility. In 2000, HP was under the direction of new CEO Carly Fiorina, and the division, under new cost constraints, chose to abandon the manufacture of any new optical drives. However, since HP owned the fundamental patent above, they could receive licensing fees for the patent itself and pursued several expansions of the patent in US Patent # 7701836 (Issued April 20, 2010). There

6195-416: The computerized world, several autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, also include a shorthand function for frequently used phrases. Shorthand was used more widely in the past, before the invention of recording and dictation machines . Shorthand was considered an essential part of secretarial training and police work and was useful for journalists. Although

6300-626: The disc with blank data to make them able to be written to randomly. As RAM stands for Random Access Memory, it works more or less like a hard-drive and was designed for corporate back-up use. Developed in 1996, DVD-RAM is a rewritable optical disc originally encased in a cartridge. Currently available in standard 4.7 GB (and sometimes in other sizes), it is useful in applications that require quick revisions and rewriting. It can only be read in drives that are DVD-RAM compatible, which all multi-format drives are. DVD Forum backs this format. It uses physical dedicated sector markers (visible as rectangles on

6405-525: The disc, such as slightly different optical properties, impurities or dye layer thickness in either the plastic or dye. The results of the power tests are stored in a Recording Management Area (RMA), which can hold up to 7,088 calibrations (in DVD-R). The disc can not be written to after the RMA becomes full, although it may be emptied in RW discs. CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-R DL, DVD+R DL, DVD+RW and DVD-R all have

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6510-493: The first 360 models in 1964 and has continued to update the series ever since, with migration over the decades from 32-bit register/24-bit addresses to 64-bit registers and addresses. Intel announced the first Intel 8086 / 8088 processors in 1978, again with migrations over the decades from 16-bit to 64-bit. (The 8086/8088, in turn, were designed with easy machine-translatability of programs written for its predecessor in mind, although they were not instruction-set compatible with

6615-550: The geometrical shapes that were common in the English stenographic tradition. Taylor's system was superseded by Pitman shorthand , first introduced in 1837 by English teacher Sir Isaac Pitman , and improved many times since. Pitman's system has been used all over the English-speaking world and has been adapted to many other languages, including Latin . Pitman's system uses a phonemic orthography . For this reason, it

6720-570: The highest speed in capturing spoken words with a pen. Major pen shorthand systems are Shuugiin, Sangiin, Nakane and Waseda [a repeated vowel shown here means a vowel spoken in double-length in Japanese, sometimes shown instead as a bar over the vowel]. Including a machine-shorthand system, Sokutaipu, we have 5 major shorthand systems now. The Japan Shorthand Association now has 1,000 members. There are several other pen shorthands in use (Ishimura, Iwamura, Kumassaki, Kotani, and Nissokuken), leading to

6825-507: The hiragana syllabary; foreign words may not have a kanji form and are spelled out using katakana. The new sokki were used to transliterate popular vernacular story-telling theater (yose) of the day. This led to a thriving industry of sokkibon (shorthand books). The ready availability of the stories in book form, and higher rates of literacy (which the very industry of sokkibon may have helped create, due to these being oral classics that were already known to most people) may also have helped kill

6930-512: The idea of whole or partial semantic ideographic writing like that used in the Chinese characters, and the phonetic approach being mostly peripheral to writing in general. Even today, Japanese writing uses the syllabaries to pronounce or spell out words, or to indicate grammatical words. Furigana are written alongside kanji, or Chinese characters, to indicate their pronunciation especially in juvenile publications. Furigana are usually written using

7035-507: The languages are not the same. Prior to the Meiji era, Japanese did not have its own shorthand (the kanji did have their own abbreviated forms borrowed alongside them from China). Takusari Kooki was the first to give classes in a new Western-style non-ideographic shorthand of his own design, emphasis being on the non-ideographic and new. This was the first shorthand system adapted to writing phonetic Japanese, all other systems prior being based on

7140-459: The launch of new systems, as users can pull from the previous console's library of games while developers transition to the new hardware. Moreover, studies in the mid-1990s found that even consumers who never play older games after purchasing a new system consider backward compatibility a highly desirable feature, valuing the mere ability to continue to play an existing collection of games even if they choose never to do so. Backward compatibility with

7245-664: The main CPU for PS1 mode or upclocking itself to offload I/O in PS2 mode. This coprocessor was replaced with a PowerPC -based processor in later systems to serve the same functions, emulating the PS1 CPU core. Such an approach can backfire, though, as was the case of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES). It opted for the more peculiar 65C816 CPU over the more popular 16-bit microprocessors on

7350-432: The market for recordable DVD technology showed little sign of settling down in favour of either the "plus" or "dash" formats, which is mostly the result of the increasing numbers of dual-format devices that can record to both formats, known as DVD Multi Recorders . It has become very difficult to find new computer drives that can only record to one of the formats. By contrast, DVD Video recorders still favour one format over

7455-632: The maximal speed of DVD-R and the relative typical write time for a full disc according to the reviews from cdrinfo.com and cdfreaks.com. Many reviews of multiple brand names on varying conditions of hardware and DVD give much lower and wider measurements than the optimal numbers below. The write time may vary (± 30 s) between writer and media used. For high speed, the write strategy changes from constant linear velocity (CLV) to constant angular velocity (CAV), or zoned constant linear velocity (ZCLV). The table below largely assumes CAV. Some half-height DVD Multi Recorder drives released since 2007, such as

7560-486: The method to America. The record for fast writing with Pitman shorthand is 350 wpm during a two-minute test by Nathan Behrin in 1922. In the United States and some other parts of the world, it was largely superseded by Gregg shorthand , which was first published in 1888 by John Robert Gregg . This system was influenced by the handwriting shapes that Gabelsberger had introduced. Gregg's shorthand, like Pitman's,

7665-415: The monthly meetings led by project leader Carl Taussig and often accompanied by Josh Hogan, Sony and Philips had warmed to the idea of the format. In 1999, the team had argued to then HP CEO Lew Platt, that HP needed to produce products in the set-top market, the computer market, and the camcorder market to truly exploit the invention. Platt, who had a reputation of being risk averse, chose to stick with only

7770-440: The most extremely simplified of which is known as Sōsho . The two Japanese syllabaries are themselves adapted from the Chinese characters: both of the syllabaries, katakana and hiragana, are in everyday use alongside the Chinese characters known as kanji; the kanji, being developed in parallel to the Chinese characters, have their own idiosyncrasies, but Chinese and Japanese ideograms are largely comprehensible, even if their use in

7875-431: The new system. Because of this, several console manufacturers phased out backward compatibility towards the end of the console generation in order to reduce cost and briefly reinvigorate sales before the arrival of newer hardware. It is possible to bypass some of these hardware costs. For instance, earlier PlayStation 2 (PS2) systems used the core of the original PlayStation (PS1) CPU as a dual-purpose processor, either as

7980-492: The newest generation of consoles such as PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S also support this feature. A large part of the success and implementation of this feature is that the hardware within newer generation consoles is both powerful and similar enough to legacy systems that older titles can be broken down and re-configured to run on the Xbox One. This program has proven incredibly popular with Xbox players and goes against

8085-591: The non-rewritable DVD+R (the opposite was true with the DVD- formats). Although credit for developing the standard is often attributed to Philips, the fundamental work was done by a team at Hewlett-Packard Labs (HPL). It was "finalized" in 1997 by the DVD+RW Alliance once the fundamental patent (US Patent # 6046968) had been filed by the HPL team. It was then abandoned until 2001, when it was heavily revised (in particular,

8190-497: The original PlayStation (PS) software discs and peripherals is considered to have been a key selling point for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) during its early months on the market. Despite not being included at launch, Microsoft slowly incorporated backward compatibility for select titles on the Xbox One several years into its product life cycle. Players have racked up over a billion hours with backward-compatible games on Xbox, and

8295-496: The other, often providing restrictions on what the unfavoured format will do. However, because the DVD-R format has been in use since 1997, it has had a five-year lead on DVD+R. As such, older or cheaper DVD players (up to 2004 vintage) are more likely to favour the DVD-R standard exclusively. DVD+R discs must be formatted before being recorded by a compatible DVD video recorder. DVD-R do not have to be formatted before being recorded by

8400-708: The point that by 1950s, when the Graham method had all but disappeared Wilson scholars had trouble interpreting his shorthand. In 1960 an 84-year-old anachronistic shorthand expert Clifford Gehman managed to crack Wilson's shorthand, demonstrating on a translation of Wilson's acceptance speech for the 1912 presidential nomination. Our Japanese pen shorthand began in 1882, transplanted from the American Pitman-Graham system. Geometric theory has great influence in Japan. But Japanese motions of writing gave some influence to our shorthand. We are proud to have reached

8505-507: The primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation and other types of verbal communication, some systems are used for compact expression. For example, healthcare professionals might use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence. Shorthand notes were typically temporary, intended either for immediate use or for later typing, data entry, or (mainly historically) transcription to longhand . Longer-term uses do exist, such as encipherment : diaries (like that of Samuel Pepys ) are

8610-423: The product that may lead to longer time to market , technological hindrances, and slowing innovation; and increased expectations from users in terms of compatibility. It also introduces the risk that developers will favor developing games that are compatible with both the old and new systems, since this gives them a larger base of potential buyers, resulting in a dearth of software which uses the advanced features of

8715-542: The rating and recording at speeds beyond 16× on selected recordable media by vendors considered of high quality, including Verbatim and Taiyo Yuden . On dual-layer media, half-height optical drives released towards 2010, such as the 2007 TSSTcorp TS-H653B, have adapted recording speeds of up to 16× on DVD+R DL media by selected vendors, compared to up to 12× on DVD-R DL. More recent optical drives have reduced their maximum allowable recording speed on both +R DL and -R DL media to 8×, usually P-CAV . DVD+RW media exists with

8820-435: The read side of the disc) instead of the pre-pits or wobbles used in other types of recordable and rewritable media. Multi-format drives can read and write more than one format; e.g. DVD±R(W) (DVD plus-dash recordable and rewritable) is used to refer to drives that can write/rewrite both plus and dash formats, but not necessarily DVD-RAM. Drives marked "DVD Multi Recorder" support DVD±R(W) and DVD-RAM. The "RAM" from DVD-RAM

8925-424: The recent trend of studio-made remasters of classic titles, creating what some believe to be an important shift in console makers' strategies. The monetary costs of supporting old software is considered a large drawback to the usage of backward compatibility. The associated costs of backward compatibility are a larger bill of materials if hardware is required to support the legacy systems; increased complexity of

9030-412: The removal of a dedicated SCSI erase command in optical drives , which is done by the software instead that overwrites data with null characters . This means that the standard does not allow reverting the disc to a blank (unwritten) state after the first write. DVD+RW DL was once developed and announced by JVC but it was never sold due to issues with its low reflectivity ( Dual layer ). As of 2006,

9135-413: The researchers noted that if the storage environment contains pollutants any CD-Rs that used a silver layer would likely degrade faster than discs with a gold layer. The researchers concluded the silver layer discs may not be a suitable solution for applications where longevity is important. Both CD-R and DVD-R outperformed all forms of Blu-Ray disc in regards to longevity: the best performing Blu-ray disc,

9240-400: The same frequency as the data frequency would provide enough timing accuracy (i.e. allow us to lock a phase-locked loop with small enough jitter) so as to provide sub-bit accuracy on the timing. In a servo systems parlance, this was a high frequency, high-fidelity reference signal for the timing servo loop to follow. Essentially, it would be possible to turn a tracking loop sideways and use all

9345-595: The same physical disc area, giving higher data density. The smaller focus is possible with a shorter wavelength 'red' laser of 650 nm, compared to CD-R's wavelength of 780 nm. This is used in conjunction with a higher numerical aperture lens. The dyes used in each case are different as they are optimized for different wavelengths. "R" format DVDs can be written once and read arbitrarily many times , whereas "RW" formats can be written to repeatedly. Thus, "R" format discs are only suited to non-volatile data storage, such as audio or video. This can cause confusion because

9450-465: The signals. At this point, the notion of high frequency wobbles was born. Much of the team's effort after that was to prove out this concept, which led to the fundamental patent for the format by Abramovitch and Towner (US Patent # 6046968, filed July 24, 1997, issued April 4, 2000), entitled Re-Writable Optical Disk Having Reference Clock Information Permanently Formed on the Disk . By late 1998, through

9555-484: The surrounding consonants. Thus the symbol for B with symbol for T drawn directly above it represented "bat", while B with T below it meant "but"; top-right represented "e", middle-right "i", and lower-right "o". A vowel at the end of a word was represented by a dot in the appropriate position, while there were additional symbols for initial vowels. This basic system was supplemented by further symbols representing common prefixes and suffixes. One drawback of Shelton's system

9660-481: The target letter forms as geometric, script, and semi-script or elliptical. Geometric shorthands are based on circles, parts of circles, and straight lines placed strictly horizontally, vertically or diagonally. The first modern shorthand systems were geometric. Examples include Pitman shorthand , Boyd's syllabic shorthand , Samuel Taylor's Universal Stenography, the French Prévost-Delaunay, and

9765-414: The tools of control theory to improve the timing. The issue was that it was not clear that such a signal would not affect the data itself. It was an insight by David (Dave) Towner, an optical engineer attached to the project, that the detection modes for the wobble and the data (how they added or differenced the regions on the optical detector), would themselves provide enough common mode rejection to separate

9870-424: The value of supporting older software. The cultural impact of video games is a large part of their continued success, and some believe ignoring backward compatibility would cause these titles to disappear. Backward compatibility also acts as a selling point for new hardware, as an existing player base can more affordably upgrade to subsequent generations of a console. This also helps to make up for lack of titles at

9975-408: The write clock would not result in new data accidentally overwriting any of the other sectors. DVD-ROM disks, being mastered with a continuous stream of data, had no need for edit gaps. In fact, makers of pre-recorded DVD media were quite cool to the idea of users being able to use this format for their own recordings. HP saw this as an opportunity to enter the business, but solving the lack of edit gaps

10080-470: The writing speed ratings of 1×-4× and 2.4×-8×. Reading speeds ( constant angular velocity ) on most half-height optical drives released since the mid-2000s decade are up to 16× on DVD±R (single-layer) and 12× on DVD±R DL and DVD±RW. All constant linear velocity transfer rates (read and write) of 2.0× on DVD-R/RW have been replaced with 2.4× in the specification for DVD+R/RW. Thus, specification sheets of optical drives list "2.4× CLV" instead of "2× CLV" as

10185-615: The yose theater, as people no longer needed to see the stories performed in person to enjoy them. Sokkibon also allowed a whole host of what had previously been mostly oral rhetorical and narrative techniques into writing, such as imitation of dialect in conversations (which can be found back in older gensaku literature; but gensaku literature used conventional written language in between conversations, however). Shorthands that use simplified letterforms are sometimes termed stenographic shorthands, contrasting with alphabetic shorthands, below. Stenographic shorthands can be further differentiated by

10290-405: Was achieved by sending the sum of both left and right audio channels in one signal and the difference in another signal. That allows mono FM receivers to receive and decode the sum signal while ignoring the difference signal, which is necessary only for separating the audio channels. Stereo FM receivers can receive a mono signal and decode it without the need for a second signal, and they can separate

10395-409: Was also US Patent # RE41881 (Reissued October 26, 2010), a reissue of US Patent # 6046968 with expanded claims. Finally, there was US Patent # RE43788 (Issued November 6, 2012), a second reissue of Patent # 6046968 with more claims. With the timing issue solved by high frequency wobbles, the other key issue solved by the HPL team (through the efforts of Terril Hurst and Craig Perlov) was writing bits in

10500-544: Was developed by Pioneer in 1997. It is supported by most normal DVD players and is approved by the DVD Forum . It has broader playback compatibility than DVD+R, especially with much older players. The dash format uses a " land pre-pit " method  to provide sector address information. DVD "minus" R is not correct, according to DVD-R consortium recommendations; it is, in fact, a dash (i.e. DVD "dash" R). DVD-R and DVD+R technologies are not directly compatible, which created

10605-573: Was developed by Pioneer in November 1999 and has been approved by the DVD Forum . The smaller Mini DVD-RW holds 1.46 GB, with a diameter of 8 cm. The primary advantage of DVD-RW over DVD-R is the ability to erase and rewrite to a DVD-RW disc. According to Pioneer, DVD-RW discs may be written to about 1,000 times before needing replacement. There are three revisions of DVD-RW known as Version 1.0 (1999), Version 1.1 (2000) and Version 1.2 (November 2003). The writing of DVD-RW Version 1.2

10710-589: Was in its "55th edition" by 1721, and Jeremiah Rich 's system of 1654, which was published under various titles including The penns dexterity compleated (1669). Rich's system was used by George Treby chairman of the House of Commons Committee of Secrecy investigating the Popish Plot . Another notable English shorthand system creator of the 17th century was William Mason ( fl. 1672–1709) who published Arts Advancement in 1682. Modern-looking geometric shorthand

10815-565: Was introduced with John Byrom 's New Universal Shorthand of 1720. Samuel Taylor published a similar system in 1786, the first English shorthand system to be used all over the English-speaking world. Thomas Gurney published Brachygraphy in the mid-18th century. In 1834 in Germany , Franz Xaver Gabelsberger published his Gabelsberger shorthand . Gabelsberger based his shorthand on the shapes used in German cursive handwriting rather than on

10920-593: Was that there was no way to distinguish long and short vowels or diphthongs; so the b-a-t sequence could mean "bat", or "bait", or "bate", while b-o-t might mean "boot", or "bought", or "boat". The reader needed to use the context to work out which alternative was meant. The main advantage of the system was that it was easy to learn and to use. It was popular, and under the two titles of Short Writing and Tachygraphy , Shelton's book ran to more than 20 editions between 1626 and 1710. Shelton's chief rivals were Theophilus Metcalfe 's Stenography or Short Writing (1633) which

11025-401: Was the key problem. In early 1996, HP exited the hard disk drive business, and two HPL engineers, Daniel (Danny) Abramovitch and Terril Hurst, were moved onto the rewritable DVD project. Danny was (and is) a servo engineer with an interest in timing loops (a.k.a. phase-locked loops ). Reading about the wobble grooves on older optical disk formats, Danny proposed that a wobble frequency at roughly

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