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96-697: Danube Cossacks may refer to either: the Danubian Sich (an exiled Zaporozhian Cossack Host which lived in the Ottoman Controlled Danube 1778-1828) the Danube Cossack Host (A Russian Cossack Host that lived in the Budjak Territory from 1828 to 1868) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with

192-516: A major agrarian reform , stimulated in part by his view that "it is better to liberate the peasants from above" than to wait until they won their freedom by rising "from below". Between 1864 and 1871 serfdom was abolished in Georgia . In Kalmykia , serfdom was not abolished until 1892. Serfdom was abolished, but not always on favorable terms to the peasants. Even after emancipation, feudal agriculture practices continued. Most former serfs had to pay

288-473: A slave , historically could be sold only together with the land to which they were "attached". However, this stopped being a requirement by the 19th century, and serfs were practically indistinguishable from slaves. Contemporary legal documents, such as Russkaya Pravda (12th century onwards), distinguished several degrees of feudal dependency of peasants. While another form of slavery in Russia, kholopstvo ,

384-531: A better fate). Jerzy Czajewski and Piotr Kimla wrote that until the partitions solved this problem, Russian armies raided territories of the Commonwealth, officially to recover the escapees, but in fact kidnapping many locals. In 1816, 1817, and 1819, serfdom was abolished in Estland , Courland , and Livonia respectively. However all the land stayed in noble hands and labor rent lasted until 1868. It

480-732: A few failed business attempts in Crimea and Odessa , had left Russia and joined the Sich in 1822. He took part in the campaign against Messolonghi and afterwards was elected to be a Kuren Ataman of the Platnyrovsky Kuren. After the failed negotiations with Nezmayevsky, Tuchkov approached Hladky, who upon the Kosh elections held on Pokrov (1 October) was elected to be the Kosh Ataman. Hladky only gathered those that he suspected of having

576-400: A group effort, so the wage went to the family. The children who worked industrial jobs gave their earnings to their family as well, but some used it as a way to gain a say in their own marriages. In this case some families allowed their sons to marry whom they chose as long as the family was in similar economic standing as their own. No matter what, parental approval was required in order to make

672-632: A land redemption fee (redemption payments were not abolished until 1907), and could only purchase less fertile, less profitable plots of land that weren't necessarily contiguous. Peasants often had to pay more than the market price for land, with the percentage varying by location. 90% of the serfs who got larger plots were in Congress Poland , where the Tsar wanted to weaken the szlachta . Many peasants remained indebted and bound to landowners. Nobility didn't lose their privileges. A 2018 study in

768-403: A marriage legal. According to a study completed in the late 1890s by the ethnographer Olga Petrovna Semyonova-Tian-Shanskaia, husband and wife had different duties in the household. In regards to ownership, the husband assumed the property plus any funds required to make additions to the property. Additions included fence, barns, and wagons. While primary purchasing power belonged to the husband,

864-661: A new social category of "free agriculturalist", for peasants voluntarily emancipated by their masters, in 1803. The great majority of serfs were not affected (under this decree by 1858 152,000 male souls, or 1.5 per cent of serfs, had been bought out to freedom ). Alexander I forbade to advertise the sale of serfs without land (1801), to sell peasants at fairs (1808), cancelled the right of landlords to exile peasants to katorga ('hard labour') ; 1807) and to settle them in Siberia (1809). In 1818 Alexander I gave secret instructions to 12 dignitaries to develop projects to abolish serfdom (among

960-459: A peasant – but this was only a narrow contextual meaning. The origins of serfdom in Russia may be traced to the 12th century, when the exploitation of the so-called zakups on arable lands ( ролейные (пашенные) закупы , roleyniye (pashenniye) zakupy ) and corvée smerds (Russian term for corvée is барщина , barschina ) was the closest to what is now known as serfdom. According to

1056-411: A peasant" the papers would advertise "servant for hire" or similar. By the eighteenth century, the practice of selling serfs without land had become commonplace. Owners had absolute control over their serfs' lives, and could buy, sell and trade them at will, giving them as much power over serfs as Americans had over chattel slaves, though owners did not always choose to exercise their powers over serfs to

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1152-528: A piece of land that was uninhabited (Rather than just let them remain). Gladky chose the northern coast of the Azov Sea , next to Berdyansk . In May 1832, Gladky carried his men over to the new land and there they formed the Azov Cossack Host . Initially numbering 2336 people (including 687 women), the new Host was the only Cossack force in Russia which had a Naval role, acting as a coast guard for

1248-480: A pro-Turkish allegiance (about two thousand men) and set out for Silistra. After reaching there, he asked to return to the Sich to gather more. When he returned, he instead called for a Cossack Rada and announced his decision to side the whole Sich with Russia. On 30 (18) May 1828, Hladky along with 218 Cossacks and 578 Rayah crossed the Danube with all the Sich regalia, treasury and prized possessions. After landing on

1344-435: A pro-Turkish split. The former were willing to return to Russia if a pardon was given. Learning of this, the head (Hradonachalik) of Izmail S.A. Tuchkov entered into secret negotiations with Kosh Vasily Nezmayevsky (1827). The conditions were set to allow the whole Host to return to Russia. Despite being a Russophile, Nezmayevsky was not ready to accept such a move. With the outbreak of the new Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) ,

1440-593: A short-term persecution due to the fact that many runaways would usually flee to the southern parts of Russia. During the first half of the 17th century the dvoryane sent their collective petitions ( челобитные , chelobitniye ) to the authorities, asking for the extension of the "fixed years". In 1642, the Russian government established a 10-year limit for search of the runaways and 15-year limit for search for peasants taken away by their new owners. The Sobornoye Ulozhenie introduced an open-ended search for those on

1536-588: A very brutal conflict, which shocked even the Turkish authorities, Zaporozhians captured the Nekrasovite capital Upper Dunavets (modern Romania ) in 1814 . There they founded their final Sich. Many Nekrasov Cossacks were later re-located to Anatolia , while those who remained mixed with Lipovans and old-believers among the Danubian Cossacks. After a few years of peace, trouble once again came to

1632-399: Is also increased assurance of chastity, which was more important for women than men. The average age of marriage for women was around 19 years old. During serfdom, when the head of the house was being disobeyed by their children they could have the master or landowner step in. After the emancipation of serfs in 1861, the household patriarch lost some of his power, and could no longer receive

1728-552: The American Economic Review found "substantial increases in agricultural productivity, industrial output, and peasants' nutrition in Imperial Russia as a result of the abolition of serfdom in 1861". In Russia, the terms barshchina ( барщина ) or boyarshchina ( боярщина ), refer to the obligatory work that the serfs performed for the landowner on his portion of the land (the other part of

1824-477: The Russkaya Pravda , a princely smerd had limited property and personal rights and his escheat was given to the prince. From the 13th century to the 15th century, feudal dependency applied to a significant number of peasants , but serfdom as we know it was still not a widespread phenomenon. In the mid-15th century the right of certain categories of peasants in some votchinas to leave their master

1920-467: The Black Earth Region was flax . Husbands owned most of the livestock, such as pigs and horses. Cows were the property of the husband, but were usually in the wife's possession. Chickens were considered to be the wife's property, while sheep was common property for the family. The exception was when the wife owned sheep through a dowry ( sobinki ). Typical Russian serf clothing included

2016-566: The Central Black Earth Region 70–77% of the serfs performed labour services ( barshchina ), the rest paid rent ( obrok ). Owing to the high fertility, 70% of Russian cereal production in the 1850s was here. In the seven central provinces, 1860, 67.7% of the serfs were on obrok . In literature, Russian serfdom provided both a backdrop and a source of dramatic tension for the works of prominent authors like Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky . Characters drawn from

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2112-620: The Cossack uprisings benefited from disturbances among the peasants, and they in turn received an impetus from Cossack rebellion, none of the Cossack movements were directed against the institution of serfdom itself. Instead, peasants in Cossack-dominated areas became Cossacks during uprisings, thus escaping from the peasantry rather than directly organizing peasants against the institution. Rich Cossacks owned serfs themselves. Between

2208-520: The Dobruja region around Ukraine and Romania . In 1992, they numbered four thousand people according to official Romanian statistics while the local community claims to number 20,000. Known as Rusnaks they continue to pursue the traditional Cossack lifestyle of hunting and fishing. The legacy of the Danube Cossacks survived in a lyrical-comic opera called "A Zaprorozhian Cossack beyond

2304-713: The Kuban . This caused many of the remaining Danubians, who initially wished to follow the Kosh and move to Russia, to reconsider. After negotiations with the Russian General Kutuzov , many Nekrasovites were pardoned and allowed to move to Russia. The 1812 Treaty of Bucharest resulted in the Buhjak becoming part of Russia. With the old rivalry still strong, the Zaporozhian Danubians once again attacked their enemy, and in 1813 retook Katerlez. After

2400-620: The Mariinsky Theatre on 14 March 1863. After its premiere it was censored and restricted from performance. In the 1870s it was revived by amateur Ukrainian theatre troupes and received a new lease on life. Today it is considered a Ukrainian opera classic. Serfdom in Russia In tsarist Russia , the term serf ( Russian : крепостной крестьянин , romanized :  krepostnoy krest'yanin , lit.   'bonded peasant') meant an unfree peasant who, unlike

2496-529: The Napoleonic Wars and Russo-Persian Wars ; this did not change the disparity between Russia and Western Europe, who were experiencing agricultural and industrial revolutions. Compared to Western Europe it was clear that Russia was at an economic disadvantage. European philosophers during the Age of Enlightenment criticized serfdom and compared it to medieval labor practices which were almost non-existent in

2592-512: The Rayah . In order to gain permission to do so, there had to be at least a marriage link to a Cossack family. In 1825, Kosh otaman Lytvyn promised to send another expedition to Greece but fled the Sich without any trace. The events in Greece once again affected relations between Turkey and Russia, and a new Russo-Turkish War broke out. Among the Danubian Cossacks there was as ever a pro-Russian and

2688-603: The Russo-Turkish War divided the Cossacks. Some returned to Russia and joined the new Host of Loyal Zaporozhians (later the Black Sea Cossack Host ) formed out of the Cossacks who chose to remain in Russia in 1775. After the Russo-Turkish War (1806–12) , Bessarabia became part of Russia, and the Danubian Cossacks lost their allocated land. Following Turkey's defeat, some Cossacks retreated with

2784-480: The military 's need for soldiers. The term muzhik , or moujik (Russian: мужи́к , IPA: [mʊˈʐɨk] ) means "Russian peasant" when it is used in English. This word was borrowed from Russian into Western languages through translations of 19th-century Russian literature , describing Russian rural life of those times, and where the word muzhik was used to mean the most common rural dweller –

2880-414: The zipun  [ ru ] ( Russian : зипун , a collarless kaftan ) and the smock . A 19th-century report noted: "Every Russian peasant, male and female, wears cotton clothes. The men wear printed shirts and trousers, and the women are dressed from head to foot in printed cotton also." By the mid-19th century, peasants composed a plurality of the population, and according to the census of 1857,

2976-737: The 17th century. Serfdom most commonly existed in the central and southern areas of the Tsardom of Russia and, from 1721, of the subsequent Russian Empire. Serfdom was rare in Little Russia (parts of today's central Ukraine ), other Cossack lands, the Urals and Siberia until the reign of Catherine the Great ( r.  1762–1796 ), when it spread to Ukraine ; noblemen began to send their serfs into Cossack lands in an attempt to harvest their extensive untapped natural resources. The emperor and

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3072-604: The 18th century Russian peasants were escaping from Russia to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (where once harsh serfdom conditions were improving) in significant enough numbers to become a major concern for the Russian Government and sufficient to play a role in its decision to partition the Commonwealth (one of the reasons Catherine II gave for the partition of Poland was the fact that thousands of peasants escaped from Russia to Poland to seek

3168-771: The Balkans, with the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence . In 1821, the Russian-Greek commander Alexander Ypsilantis moved the Eterian Greeks from Russia to Wallachia . The Danubian Cossacks, under command of Kosh Nikifor Beluha, assisted in the defeat of this incursion. Afterwards five thousand Cossacks under the Kosh Semen Moroz were sent to Greece to fight for the Turks. In 1824 they took part in

3264-644: The Caucasus and Crimean coasts, by defending them from Turkish and Circassian raiders. The remaining Cossacks who managed to escape the Sultan's vengeance, but did not return to Russia moved to the Danube Delta, where in 1830 they numbered 1,095 families. Over the years they were joined by other peasants fleeing serfdom in the Russian Empire. To date there is still a small Ukrainian minority living in

3360-543: The Danube" (Zaporozhetz za Dunayem) composed in the 1850s by Semen Hulak-Artemovsky , a student of Mikhail Glinka . Although the opera historically relates to the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish war of 1828-9, where according to a peace treaty, the Danube cossacks were granted the right to return to their homeland, Hulak-Artemovsky reset the opera to take place in the 18th century. The opera first opened in St. Petersburg at

3456-673: The Danubian Zaporozhians further up the Danube on the Great Brăila Island . The new location was much poorer for fishing and resulted in a group of 500 Cossacks, led by Kosh Pomelo to return to Russia. In 1800, the Balkan Peninsula erupted in uprisings led by Osman Pazvantoğlu who rebelled against the new Turkish Sultan Selim III . In order to gain support, Pazvantoğlu promised the Nekrasovites all

3552-513: The Danubians form a new Special Zaporozhian Host (Отдельное Запорожное Войско), with Hladky as the appointed Ataman. The new Host was small with only a five infantry sotnias (~100 men each) and came under the control of the Danube flotilla . Despite the small number of men, they soon became a prized asset due to their knowledge of the complicated Danube Delta. They proved themselves in combat in

3648-559: The Lower-Danube Budjak Host (Усть-Дунайское Буджацкое Войско). The new host lasted only five months, during which many neighbouring Ukrainian and Moldovan landowners complained about their serfs running off to Kiliya (modern Ukraine ) and Galats (modern Galaţi , Romania ) where the Host was based. Therefore, on 20 June, the host, which by that point numbered only 1387 men, was disbanded. Approximately 500 of them moved to

3744-537: The Russian Army under command of Field-Marshal Peter Wittgenstein advanced. Threatening to overrun the Sich, the Sultan wished to relocate it to Adrianopol (modern Edirne , Turkey ) and ordered the Kosh to rally the Danubian Army to Silistra (modern Bulgaria). The new Kosh was Osyp Hladky , originally from a rich landowner family from Poltava who in 1820 had left his home to earn a living, but after

3840-568: The Russian annexation of Crimea , when the need for the Host to guard the borders was removed. At the same time, the Zaporozhian's other enemy, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , was also weakened and on the verge of being partitioned . This meant that militarily the Zaporozhian Sich was becoming increasingly superfluous, but at the same time their existence caused friction with Imperial Russian authorities who wanted to colonise

3936-574: The Sich once again in 1805 and sacked it. The surviving Zaporozhians fled to Brailov (modern Brăila , Romania ). The new Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812) caused further division among the Danubian Cossacks. After Russia overran the Danube, the Kosh Otaman Trofim Gaibadura and Ivan Guba offered their allegiance to Russia. They were permitted to settle in the Budjak region and by order of Alexander I and on 20 January 1807 formed

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4032-587: The Turkish Army across the Danube River , where the Sultan allowed them to build a Sich in the settlement of Katerlez in the Danube Delta right next to existing settlements of Nekrasov Cossacks and Lipovans . There was increasing friction between the two groups over land and fishing rights. In 1794, the Nekrasovites attacked and destroyed Katerlez. Afterwards the Turkish authorities re-located

4128-439: The abolition of serfdom. He ended mandatory military service for nobles with the abolition of compulsory noble state service. This provided a rationale to end serfdom. Second, was the secularization of the church estates, which transferred its peasants and land to state jurisdiction. In 1775 measures were taken by Catherine II to prosecute estate owners for the cruel treatment of serfs. These measures were strengthened in 1817 and

4224-414: The amount of pozhiloye and introduced an additional tax called za povoz ( за повоз , or transportation fee), in case a peasant refused to bring the harvest from the fields to his master. A temporary ( Заповедные лета , or forbidden years ) and later an open-ended prohibition for peasants to leave their masters was introduced by the ukase of 1597 under the reign of Boris Godunov , which took away

4320-426: The authorities about the cruelty of their masters, to bring lawsuits for emancipation, and also restored the right of landlords to exile peasants to Siberia at their discretion. The Russian state also continued to support serfdom due to military conscription . The conscripted serfs dramatically increased the size of the Russian military during the war with Napoleon . With a larger military Russia achieved victory in

4416-399: The authors of the projects were A. A. Arakcheev , P. A. Vyazemsky , V. N. Karazin , P. D. Kiselyov , N. S. Mordvinov , N. G. Repnin ). All these projects were united by the principle of gradual emancipation of peasants without infringement of economic interests of landlords. However, in 1822–23, due to changes in the domestic political course, Alexander I again forbade serfs to complain to

4512-510: The empire as a whole; it was the Cossacks and nomads who rebelled initially and recruited serfs into rebel armies. But many landowners died during serf uprisings against them. The revolutions of 1905 and 1917 happened after serfdom's abolition. There were numerous rebellions against this bondage, most often in conjunction with Cossack uprisings, such as the uprisings of Ivan Bolotnikov (1606–1607), Stenka Razin (1667–1671), Kondraty Bulavin (1707–1709) and Yemelyan Pugachev (1773–1775). While

4608-423: The end of Pugachev's Rebellion and the beginning of the 19th century, there were hundreds of outbreaks across Russia, and there was never a time when the peasantry was completely quiescent. As a whole, serfdom both came and remained in Russia much later than in other European countries. Slavery remained a legally recognized institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great abolished slavery and converted

4704-512: The exodus of Zaporizhian Cossacks to the Danube, an area of Silistra Eyalet . The Cossacks were protecting the Metropolitan bishop of Brăila who serviced the area of Budjak and Yedisan ( Ottoman Ukraine ) and was titled as Metropolitan bishop of all Ukraine. By the late 18th century, the combat ability of Zaporozhia was greatly reduced, especially after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and

4800-444: The female and male ages were raised to 16 and 18 respectively. To marry over the age of 60, the serf had to receive permission, but marriage over the age of 80 was forbidden. The Church also did not approve marriages with large age differences. Landowners were interested in keeping all of their serfs and not losing workers to marriages on other estates . Prior to 1812 serfs were not allowed to marry serfs from other estates. After 1812

4896-705: The fullest extent. The official estimate is that 23 million Russians were privately owned, 23 million were considered personally free and another 3500,000 peasants were under the Tsar's patronage ( udelnye krestiane ) before the Great Emancipation of 1861 . Unlike serfs, state peasants and peasants under tsar's patronage were considered personally free, nobody had the right to sell them, to interfere in their family life, by law they were considered as 'free agricultural inhabitants' (Russ 'свободные сельские обыватели') One particular source of indignation in Europe

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4992-516: The highest state officials feared that the peasants' emancipation would be accompanied by popular unrest, given the reluctance of the landlords to lose their serf property, but took some actions to alleviate the situation of the peasantry. Emperor Alexander I ( r.  1801–1825 ) wanted to reform the system but moved cautiously, liberating serfs in Estonia (1816), Livonia (1816), and Courland (1817) only. New laws allowed all classes (except

5088-590: The land on the lower Danube. Seeing an opportunity to settle the score with their rivals, the Danubian Zaporozhians sided with the Sultan. The resulting Civil War saw severe losses in both Cossack groups. In the end the rebellion was put down, the Zaprozhians where rewarded by the Brailov Nazir, who allowed then to return to Katerlez in 1803. However the Nekrasovites found their own protector, the commandant of Izmail Pekhlevanoğlu. With his aid, they attacked

5184-408: The land, usually of a poorer quality, the peasants could use for themselves). Sometimes the terms are loosely translated by the term corvée . While no official government regulation to the extent of barshchina existed, a 1797 ukase by Paul I of Russia described a barshchina of three days a week as normal and sufficient for the landowner's needs. In the black earth region, 70% to 77% of

5280-427: The landowner had no right to kill the serf. About four-fifths of Russian peasants were serfs according to the censuses of 1678 and 1719; free peasants remained only in the north and north-east of the country. Most of the dvoryane (nobles) were content with the long time frame for search of the runaway peasants. The major landowners of the country, however, together with the dvoryane of the south, were interested in

5376-411: The landowner's help. The younger generations now had the freedom to work off their estates; some even went to work in factories. These younger peasants had access to newspapers and books, which introduced them to more radical ways of thinking. The ability to work outside of the household gave the younger peasants independence as well as a wage to do with what they wanted. Agricultural and domestic jobs were

5472-453: The late 1820s. There were even laws that required estate owners to help serfs in time of famine, which included grain to be kept in reserve. These policies failed to aid famines in the early nineteenth century due to estate owner negligence. As the ideas of Enlightenment and humanism spread among the Russian nobility at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, a conviction developed that

5568-597: The left bank of the Danube river ( Budjak ) then part of the Ottoman Empire , who allowed them to settle there. By 1778, they numbered 12 thousand men, and the Turkish Sultan decided that they would have much more use as a Cossack Host , and allocated them the land of Kuchungary (modern Transnistria ) in the lower Dniester where they swore loyalty to the Ottoman Empire. However the outbreak of

5664-616: The left bank, they were taken to the Russian headquarters where they knelt before Emperor Nicholas I himself, who was quoted saying: God will forgive you, the Motherland forgives you, and I too forgive The Danubian Cossacks were fully pardoned for their past, and managed to win over the Tsar's trust, which was confirmed when the Russian Army Crossed the Danube, as Nicholas was in the same boat that Hladky had initially came over in, with Kosh Polkovnyks rowing. The Tsar let

5760-615: The many historical refuge areas, where over the previous decades many Cossacks fleeing from Turkey found sanctuary such as Akkerman . There were plans to relocate the Danubian Cossack Host to the Kuban , where Gladky visited in 1830. But the Caucasus War was in full swing, and the long journey for such a small group would have been too difficult. Instead the Tsar allowed Gladky to remain in Novorossiya and find

5856-417: The new Sich was noticeably different from its predecessor. There were no longer any Host Starshynas , and only un-married Cossacks were considered as eligible for service. Polkovnyks were assigned temporarily by the Kosh. The Host lacked any cavalry, only infantry in boats. The social structure also began to fragment; instead of the former equality of all Cossacks, many fishing, tradesmen and landowners became

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5952-553: The newly acquired lands that the Cossacks inhabited. After a number of Cossack attacks on Serbian colonies and with Cossack support offered to Yemelyan Pugachev , the Russian Empress Catherine the Great issued an order to General Pyotr Tekeli to end the troublesome Sich. Tekeli's operation, carried out in June 1775, was bloodless. The Zaporozhian Sich was surrounded with infantry and artillery and an ultimatum

6048-477: The number of private serfs was 23.1 million out of 62.5 million citizens of the Russian empire, 37.7% of the population. The exact numbers, according to official data, were: entire population 60 909 309 ; peasantry of all classes 49 486 665 ; state peasants 23 138 191 ; peasants on the lands of proprietors 23 022 390 ; peasants of the appanages and other departments 3 326 084 . State peasants were considered personally free, but their freedom of movement

6144-407: The peasants' right to free movement around Yuri's Day, binding the vast majority of the Russian peasantry in full serfdom. These also defined the so-called fixed years ( Урочные лета , urochniye leta ), or the 5-year time frame for search of the runaway peasants. In 1607, a new ukase defined sanctions for hiding and keeping runaways: the fine had to be paid to the state and pozhiloye – to

6240-505: The per capita tax by their peasants (the tax was collected from the peasants and paid to the treasury by the landlord himself or his clerk). It was forbidden to put peasants on torture for their master's debts. In order to suppress fraudulent practices of landlords, who during audits recorded persons who did not belong to serfs, allegedly with their consent, decrees of 1775, 1781 and 1783 prohibited voluntary registration of serfs. The legislation stipulated conditions that allowed peasants to leave

6336-401: The previous owner of the peasant. The Sobornoye Ulozhenie ( Соборное уложение , "Code of Law") of 1649 gave serfs to estates, and in 1658, flight was made a criminal offense. Russian landowners eventually gained almost unlimited ownership over Russian serfs. The landowner could transfer the serf without land to another landowner while keeping the serf's personal property and family; however,

6432-553: The rest of the continent. Most Russian nobles were not interested in change toward western labor practices that Catherine the Great proposed. Instead they preferred to mortgage serfs for profit. Napoleon did not touch serfdom in Russia. In 1820, 20% of all serfs were mortgaged to state credit institutions by their owners. This was increased to 66% in 1859. To discuss the peasant question, Nicholas I successively created 9 secret committees, issued about 100 decrees aimed at mitigating serfdom, but did not affect its foundations. From 1833 it

6528-466: The river Ingul next to the Southern Buh in Ottoman territory and to issue 50 passports. The pretext was enough to allow the Russians to let the Cossacks, as 50 passports allowed five thousand Cossacks to leave (approximately 30% of the Zaporozhian Cossacks). As long as Potemkin could be guilty, so starshyna, including Kalnyshevsky, was arrested for this. These Cossacks were joined by numerous Ukrainian peasants fleeing from Russian Serfdom and lived on

6624-469: The rules relaxed slightly, but in order for a family to give their daughter to a husband in another estate they had to apply and present information to their landowner ahead of time. If a serf wanted to marry a widow , then emancipation and death certificates were to be handed over and investigated for authenticity by their owner before a marriage could take place. Before and after the abolition of serfdom, Russian peasant families were patriarchal . Marriage

6720-539: The run, meaning that all of the peasants who had fled from their masters after the census of 1626 or 1646–1647 had to be returned. The government would still introduce new time frames and grounds for search of the runaways after 1649, which applied to the peasants who had fled to the outlying districts of the country, such as regions along the border abatises called zasechniye linii ( засечные линии ) (ukases of 1653 and 1656), Siberia (ukases of 1671, 1683 and 1700), Don (1698) etc. The dvoryane constantly demanded that

6816-464: The scattering of their estates, lack of primogeniture , and the high turnover and mobility from estate to estate. The Tsar's aunt Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna played a powerful role backstage in the years 1855 to 1861. Using her close relationship with her nephew Alexander II, she supported and guided his desire for emancipation, and helped mobilize the support of key advisors. In 1861, Alexander II freed all serfs (except in Georgia and Kalmykia ) in

6912-533: The search for the runaways be sponsored by the government. The legislation of the second half of the 17th century paid much attention to the means of punishment of the runaways. Serfdom was hardly efficient; serfs and nobles had little incentive to improve the land. However, it was politically effective. Nobles rarely challenged the tsar for fear of provoking a peasant uprising. Serfs were often given lifelong tenancy on their plots, so they tended to be conservative as well. The serfs took little part in uprisings against

7008-448: The serf population were portrayed with profound emotional depth, their stories shedding light on the harsh realities of serfdom. These narratives served to amplify calls for social reform and underscored the deep inequalities of the Russian societal structure. The influence of serfdom was also notable in Russian music and art. Folk songs and dances, often performed by serfs, contributed significantly to Russia's unique cultural tradition. At

7104-405: The serf state. Edicts of 1737, 1743, 1744, 1745, 1770, and 1773 declared free those who returned from captivity, as well as foreigners who accepted Eastern Orthodoxy . The children of foster homes and those who had graduated from the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts could not be enserfed. Freedom was granted to retired soldiers who were serfs. Peter III created two measures in 1762 that influenced

7200-415: The serfs performed barshchina ; the rest paid levies ( obrok ). The Russian Orthodox Church had many rules regarding marriage that were strictly observed by the population. For example, marriage was not allowed to take place during times of fasting, the eve or day of a holiday, during the entire week of Easter , or for two weeks after Christmas . Before the abolition of serfdom in 1861 , marriage

7296-412: The serfs) to own land, a privilege previously confined to the nobility. Emperor Alexander II abolished serfdom in the emancipation reform of 1861, a few years later than Austria and other German states. Scholars have proposed multiple overlapping reasons to account for the abolition, including fear of a large-scale revolt by the serfs, the government's financial needs, changing cultural sensibilities, and

7392-463: The size of the dowry as well as the bride's decency, modesty, obedience, ability to do work, and family background. Upon marriage, the bride came to live with her new husband and his family, so she needed to be ready to assimilate and work hard. Serfs looked highly upon early marriage because of increased parental control. At a younger age there is less chance of the individual falling in love with someone other than whom his or her parents chose. There

7488-414: The slaves into serfs. This was relevant more to household slaves because Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. Formal conversion to serf status and the later ban on the sale of serfs without land did not stop the trade in household slaves; this trade merely changed its name. The private owners of the serfs regarded the law as a mere formality. Instead of "sale of

7584-629: The storming of Isaccea , and 10 Cossacks were awarded the Cross of St. George . For those Danubian Sich Cossacks who refused to follow Hladky, their fate was tragic. Learning of Hladky's betrayal, the Sultan called upon the Janissary corps to raze the Sich, massacre its population and burn down its church. Even those that were in Silistra were disarmed and sent to forced labour deep in Turkey. After

7680-542: The storming of Messolonghi . Many died there, and Moroz himself was killed in the naval battle off the island of Chios . During this time the Danube Sich reached its height, numbering 10,000-15,000 men, and controlling all of the Danube delta region with six villages being in personal control of the Kosh. In the Upper Dunavets there were 38 kurens under old traditional names of the Zaporozhian Sich. However,

7776-514: The successor states of the Golden Horde , chiefly the Khanate of Crimea . Annually the Russian population of the borderland suffered from Tatar invasions and slave raids and tens of thousands of noblemen protected the southern borderland (a heavy burden for the state), which slowed its social and economic development and expanded the taxation of peasantry. The Sudebnik of 1550 increased

7872-569: The system of serfdom was flawed and hindered economic development and urban growth. Tsar Alexander I and his advisors quietly discussed the options at length. Obstacles included the failure of abolition in Austria and the political reaction against the French Revolution . Cautiously, he freed peasants from Estonia and Latvia and extended the right to own land to most classes of subjects, including state-owned peasants, in 1801 and created

7968-644: The title Danube Cossacks . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Danube_Cossacks&oldid=791971573 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Danubian Sich In 1863, Semen Hulak-Artemovsky wrote his libretto Zaporozhets za Dunayem in Saint Petersburg to commemorate

8064-549: The use of peasants, for which they had to perform duties in favour of the landlord. The landlords were given the right to let the peasants go free by mutual agreement with them (1844). The peasants of the landlord's estates sold at auction for the owner's debts were allowed to buy out at will (1847; in 1848–52 964 male peasants used the right). Emperor Nicholas I also banned the trade of African slaves in 1842, though there were almost no Russians who participated in it. Bourgeois were allowed to own serfs 1721–62 and 1798–1816; this

8160-658: The war ended, Russia remained to administer the Danubian Principalities . Nicholas I decided to form yet another new Cossack group the Danube Cossack Host , which was to include descendants of the Zaporozhians who fled Russia in 1775 but did not join the Sultan and instead settled in Bessarabia. In addition it included loyal Nekrasovites as well as many volunteers from the Balkan peoples. It was based in

8256-455: The wife was expected to buy certain items. She was also expected to buy household items such as bowls, plates, pots, barrels and various utensils. Wives were also required to purchase cloth and make clothes for the family by spinning and using a dontse . Footwear was the husband's responsibility - he made bast shoes and felt boots for the family. As for crops, it was expected for men to sow and women to harvest. A common crop harvested by serfs in

8352-460: Was Kolokol published in London, England (1857–65) and Geneva (1865–67). It collected many cases of horrendous physical, emotional and sexual abuse of the serfs by the landowners. Edicts of 1718, 1734, 1750, 1761, and 1767 obliged landlords to feed their peasants in times of crop failure and famine and to prevent their impoverishment. Since 1722 landlords were responsible for the correct payment of

8448-446: Was ended by Peter I in 1723, serfdom (Russian: крепостное право , romanized:  krepostnoye pravo ) was abolished only by Alexander II 's emancipation reform of 1861 ; nevertheless, in times past, the state allowed peasants to sue for release from serfdom under certain conditions, and also took measures against abuses of landlord power. Serfdom became the dominant form of relation between Russian peasants and nobility in

8544-461: Was given to the Kosh otaman Petro Kalnyshevsky to destroy the Sich and to have Zaporozhian knights transfer to the family life. The Cossacks did not resist so that no Russian blood would be spilt. But later Zaporozhian Cossack Grigory Potemkin , and apparently without Kalnyshevky's knowledge, reached an agreement to allow a group of 50 Cossacks under the guidance of a starshyna Lyakh to go fishing in

8640-473: Was important for families economically and socially. Parents were in charge of finding suitable spouses for their children in order to help the family. The bride's parents were concerned with the social and material benefits they would gain in the alliance between the two families. Some also took into consideration their daughter's future quality of life and how much work would be required of her. The groom's parents would be concerned about economical factors such as

8736-447: Was limited to a period of one week before and after Yuri's Day (November 26). The Sudebnik of 1497 officially confirmed this time limit as universal for everybody and also established the amount of the "break-away" fee called pozhiloye ( пожилое ). The legal code of Ivan III of Russia , Sudebnik (1497), strengthened the dependency of peasants, statewide, and restricted their mobility . The Russians persistently battled against

8832-535: Was not allowed to sell serfs at public auction "with the splitting of families", "to satisfy public and private debts", paying for them with serfs with their detachment from the land, as well as to transfer peasants into household serfs, taking away their plots. The right of landlords to exile peasants to Siberia at their discretion was restricted (1828). A decree on obliged peasants was issued (1842), according to which landlords could let their peasants go free, but peasants' plots were transferred not into ownership, but into

8928-403: Was replaced with landless laborers and sharecropping ( halbkörner ). Landless workers had to ask permission to leave an estate. The nobility was too weak to oppose the emancipation of the serfs. In 1820, a fifth of the serfs were mortgaged, half by 1842. By 1859, a third of noble's estates and two thirds of their serfs were mortgaged to noble banks or the state. The nobility was also weakened by

9024-864: Was restricted. Russian serfdom depended entirely on the traditional and extensive technology of the peasantry. Yields remained low and stationary throughout most of the 19th century. Any increase in income drawn from agriculture was largely through increasing land area and extensive grain raising by means of exploitation of the peasant labor, that is, by burdening the peasant household still further. % peasants enserfed in each province, 1860 >55%: Kaluga Kyiv Kostroma Kutais Minsk Mogilev Nizhny Novgorod Podolia Ryazan Smolensk Tula Vitebsk Vladimir Volhynia Yaroslavl 36–55%: Chernigov Grodno Kovno Kursk Moscow Novgorod Oryol Penza Poltava Pskov Saratov Simbirsk Tambov Tver Vilna 16–35%: Don Ekaterinoslav Kharkov Kherson Kuban Perm Tiflis Vologda Voronezh In

9120-422: Was strictly prohibited on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. Because of these firm rules most marriages occurred in the months of January, February, October, and November. After the emancipation the most popular marrying months were July, October, and November. Imperial laws were very particular with the age in which serfs could marry. The minimum age to marry was 13 years old for women, and 15 for men. After 1830

9216-532: Was to encourage industrialisation. In 1804, 48% of Russian factory workers were serfs, 52% in 1825. Landless serfs rose from 4.14% in 1835 to 6.79% in 1858. They received no land in the emancipation. Landlords deliberately increased the number of domestic serfs when they anticipated serfdom's demise. In 1798, Ukrainian landlords were banned from selling serfs apart from land. In 1841, landless nobles were banned also. According to certain Polish sources, increasingly in

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