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115-729: The Dialogue Mass was an intermediate development in the twentieth century liturgical reform that culminated in the reform of the Roman Mass authorised by the Second Vatican Council and promulgated by Pope Paul VI in 1969. Before the introduction of the Dialogue Mass, the people had little active participation in the Mass other than interior disposition. This was intended to emphasise the fact that Catholics gathered together to witness and participate in an action (i.e.

230-478: A Dialogue Mass. In other countries, such as France and Germany, the Dialogue Mass was met with a greater acceptance as Church hierarchs of these countries in the 1940s and 1950s tended to be more progressive than the generally traditionally-minded bishops of anglophone lands as became evident during the Second Vatican Council. A number of Tridentine Masses currently celebrated in these countries use

345-787: A body of cardinals appointed by the Pope for five-year periods, executive power is exercised by the president of that commission (who is consequently also the President of the Governorate), assisted by the General Secretary and the Deputy General Secretary. The state's foreign relations are entrusted to the Holy See's Secretariat of State and diplomatic service. Nevertheless, the Pope has absolute power in

460-550: A century earlier there were 737 Council Fathers, mostly from Europe ). At Vatican II, some 250 bishops were native-born Asians and Africans, whereas at Vatican I, there were none at all. General Congregations (§3, 20, 33, 38–39, 52–63). The Council Fathers met in daily sittings – known as General Congregations – to discuss the schemas and vote on them. These sittings took place in St. Peter's Basilica every morning until 12:30 Monday to Saturday (except Thursday). The average daily attendance

575-435: A few days to allow each national group of bishops to meet and draw up a list of its own members who might be suitable candidates. Cardinal Frings , the senior German bishop, rose to second the motion. There was loud applause and the motion was declared carried. That day's sitting was adjourned after only 15 minutes. For the next few days, Council Fathers met in national groups and drew up lists of candidates. The bishops from

690-469: A juridical entity since Roman Imperial times and has been internationally recognised as a powerful and independent sovereign entity since Late Antiquity to the present, without interruption even at times when it was deprived of territory (e.g. 1870 to 1929). Vatican City is one of the few widely recognised independent states that has not become a member of the United Nations . The Holy See, which

805-407: A list of the bishops who had served on the preparatory commissions, as if to suggest that they elect the same people to the conciliar commissions, with the result that Curial forces would dominate the conciliar commissions as they had dominated the preparatory commissions. As the voting was about to begin, Cardinal Liénart , the senior French bishop, rose and proposed that the election be delayed for

920-405: A modest decentralization of liturgical authority to national episcopal conferences. The conservatives objected to all these proposals, especially to the downgrading of Latin. Debate dragged on for 15 days, before the vote was taken on whether the schema was acceptable in principle. To everyone's surprise, only 46 (out of 2,215) voted against. A second win for renewal. The schema was now returned to

1035-534: A number of schemas were consolidated and merged, with the result that the total number of schemas was whittled down from 70 to 22. Paragraph numbers in this section refer to the Council Regulations published in the motu proprio Appropinquante concilio , of 6 August 1962. Council Fathers (§1). All the bishops of the world, as well as the heads of the main religious orders of men, were entitled to be "Council Fathers", that is, full participants with

1150-538: A platform from which they could work to further their views. Private Periti (§11). Each bishop was allowed to bring along a personal theological adviser of his choice. Known as "private periti ", they were not official Council participants and could not attend General Congregations or commission meetings. But like the official periti , they gave informal talks to groups of bishops, bringing them up to date on developments in their particular area of expertise. Karl Rahner , Joseph Ratzinger and Hans Küng first went to

1265-583: A secular role as governors of regions near Rome. They ruled the Papal States , which covered a large portion of the Italian peninsula , for more than a thousand years until the mid-19th century, when all the territory belonging to the papacy was seized by the newly created Kingdom of Italy . For most of this time, the popes did not live at the Vatican. The Lateran Palace , on the opposite side of Rome,

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1380-511: A statute of the Kingdom of Sardinia of 1848. Construction in 1995 of a new guest house, Domus Sanctae Marthae , adjacent to St Peter's Basilica was criticized by Italian environmental groups, backed by Italian politicians. They claimed the new building would block views of the Basilica from nearby Italian apartments. For a short while the plans strained the relations between the Vatican and

1495-426: A two-thirds majority. For each schema, after a preliminary discussion there was a vote whether it was considered acceptable in principle, or rejected. If acceptable, debate continued with votes on individual chapters and paragraphs. Bishops could submit amendments, which were then written into the schema if they were requested by many bishops. Votes continued in this way until wide agreement was reached, after which there

1610-921: Is Status Civitatis Vaticanae ; this is used in official documents by the Holy See , the Church and the Pope . The name "Vatican" was already in use in the time of the Roman Republic for the Ager Vaticanus , a marshy area on the west bank of the Tiber across from the city of Rome, located between the Janiculum , the Vatican Hill and Monte Mario , down to the Aventine Hill and up to

1725-526: Is also the second-least populated capital in the world. As governed by the Holy See, Vatican City State is an ecclesiastical or sacerdotal - monarchical state ruled by the Pope, who is the bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church . The highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergy of various origins. After the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) the popes have mainly resided at

1840-583: Is distinct from Vatican City State, has permanent observer status , with all the rights of a full member except for a vote in the UN General Assembly . The government of Vatican City has a unique structure. As governed by the Holy See, the Pope is the sovereign of the state, but he is supported by different bodies. While legislative authority is also managed, in the Pope's name, by the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State ,

1955-603: Is in this territory that St. Peter's Basilica , the Apostolic Palace , the Sistine Chapel , and museums were built, along with various other buildings. The area was part of the Roman rione of Borgo until 1929. Being separated from the city, on the west bank of the river Tiber, the area was an outcrop of the city that was protected by being included within the walls of Leo IV (847–855), and later expanded by

2070-489: Is no general public access to the gardens, but guided tours for small groups can be arranged to the gardens and excavations under the basilica . Other places are open to only those individuals who have business to transact there. Vatican City's climate is the same as Rome's: a temperate , Mediterranean climate Csa with mild, rainy winters from October to mid-May and hot, dry summers from May to September. Some minor local features, principally mists and dews, are caused by

2185-582: Is one thing; the manner in which these truths are set forth (with their meaning preserved intact) is something else. The first working session of the council was on 13 October 1962. That day's agenda included the election of members of the 10 conciliar commissions. Each was to have 16 members elected by the Council Fathers and 8 – later 9 – members appointed by the Pope. Most bishops knew very few bishops other than those from their own country, and so did not know whom to vote for. They had been provided with

2300-769: Is the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , who since 1952 exercises the functions previously belonging to the Governor of Vatican City . Since 2001, the president of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State also has the title of president of the Governorate of the State of Vatican City. The president is Spanish Cardinal Fernando Vérgez Alzaga , who was appointed on 1 October 2021. Legislative functions are administered by

2415-618: The Circus Gaii et Neronis , usually called, simply, the Circus of Nero . The Vatican obelisk in St. Peter's Square is the last visible remnant from the Circus of Nero . It was brought from Heliopolis in Egypt by Emperor Caligula . The obelisk originally stood at the centre of the spina ( median ) of the Roman circus . The circus became the site of martyrdom for many Christians after

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2530-514: The Allied invasion of Sicily , 500 United States Army Air Forces aircraft bombed Rome on 19 July 1943 , targeting the city's railway hub in particular. Approximately 1,500 people were killed, and Pius XII, who had been described in the previous month as "worried sick" about the possibility of Rome being bombed, toured the affected areas. Another Allied bombing raid took place on 13 August 1943, after Mussolini had been ousted from power . On

2645-676: The Apostolic Palace within what is now Vatican City, although at times residing instead in the Quirinal Palace in Rome or elsewhere. The Holy See dates back to early Christianity and is the principal episcopal see of the Catholic Church, which has approximately 1.329 billion baptised Catholics in the world as of 2018 in the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches . The independent state of Vatican City, on

2760-679: The Great Fire of Rome in AD ;64. Tradition states that it was in this circus that Saint Peter was crucified upside-down . In 1586, the obelisk was relocated to its current position by Pope Sixtus V using a method devised by Italian architect Domenico Fontana . Opposite the circus was a cemetery separated by the Via Cornelia . Funeral monuments and mausoleums, and small tombs, as well as altars to pagan gods of all kinds of polytheistic religions, were constructed lasting until before

2875-582: The Henri de Lubac SJ and Yves Congar OP , who were unable to teach or publish until the death of Pius XII in 1958. By the early 1960s, other theologians under suspicion included Karl Rahner SJ and the young Hans Küng . In addition, there was the unfinished business of the First Vatican Council (1869–70). When it had been cut short by the Italian Army's entry into Rome at

2990-497: The Pope but also delegated to the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , led by the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State . Its members are cardinals appointed by the Pope for terms of five years. Acts of the commission must be approved by the Pope, through the Holy See's Secretariat of State , and must be published in a special appendix of the Acta Apostolicae Sedis . Most of

3105-620: The Renaissance and Baroque era, are decorated with fountains and sculptures. The gardens cover approximately 23 hectares (57 acres). The highest point is 60 metres (197 ft) above mean sea level . Stone walls bound the area in the north, south, and west. The gardens date back to medieval times when orchards and vineyards extended to the north of the Papal Apostolic Palace . In 1279, Pope Nicholas III (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, 1277–1280) moved his residence back to

3220-484: The Renaissance until it was systematically excavated by orders of Pope Pius XII from 1939 to 1941. The Constantinian basilica was built in 326 over what was believed to be the tomb of Saint Peter , buried in that cemetery. From then on, the land mass became more populated in connection with activity at the basilica. A palace was constructed nearby as early as the 5th century during the pontificate of Pope Symmachus (reigned 498 – 514 ). Popes gradually came to have

3335-513: The Roman Empire , many villas were constructed there, after Agrippina the Elder (14 BC – 18 October AD 33) drained the area and laid out her gardens in the early 1st century AD. In AD 40, her son, Emperor Caligula (31 August AD 12 – 24 January AD 41; r. 37–41) built in her gardens a circus for charioteers (AD 40) that was later completed by Nero ,

3450-526: The Swiss Guard , was disbanded by the will of Paul VI , as expressed in a letter of 14 September 1970. The Gendarmerie Corps was transformed into a civilian police and security force. In 1984, a new concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain provisions of the earlier treaty, including the position of Catholic Christianity as the Italian state religion, a position given to it by

3565-564: The Vatican City State ( Italian : Stato della Città del Vaticano ; Latin : Status Civitatis Vaticanae ), is a sovereign country , city-state , microstate , and enclave surrounded by, and historically a part of, Rome , Italy. It became independent from Italy in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty , and is a distinct territory under "full ownership, exclusive dominion, and sovereign authority and jurisdiction" of

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3680-533: The Vatican Museums . They feature some of the world's most famous paintings and sculptures. The unique economy of Vatican City is supported financially by donations from Catholic believers, by the sale of postage stamps and souvenirs, fees for admission to museums, and sales of publications. Vatican City has no taxes, and items are duty-free. The name Vatican City was first used in the Lateran Treaty , signed on 11 February 1929, which established

3795-504: The World Council of Churches were represented. The observers were entitled to sit in on all general assemblies (but not the commissions) and they mingled with the Council Fathers during the breaks and let them know their reactions to speeches or to schemas. Pope Paul VI welcomed their participation "with gratitude and respect". Their presence helped to break down centuries of mistrust. Lay auditors . While not provided for in

3910-699: The "antepreparatory period". On 17 May 1959, Pope John appointed an Antepreparatory Commission to conduct a vast consultation of the Catholic world concerning topics to be examined at the council. Three groups of people were consulted: the bishops of the world, the Catholic universities and faculties of theology, and the departments of the Curia. By the following summer, 2,049 individuals and institutions had replied with 9,438 individual vota ("wishes"). Some were typical of past ways of doing things, asking for new dogmatic definitions or condemnations of errors. Others were in

4025-447: The "prophets of doom who are always forecasting disaster" for the church or world. He spoke of the advantage of separation of Church and state but also the challenge to integrate faith with public life. What is needed at the present time is a new enthusiasm, a new joy and serenity of mind in the unreserved acceptance by all of the entire Christian faith, without forfeiting that accuracy and precision in its presentation which characterized

4140-536: The 5 European countries (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany and Austria) that spearheaded the renewal movement decided to create a single list, to which a number of renewal-minded bishops from other countries were added, for a total of 109 names. The election took place on October 16. It brought in new blood: 79 of these 109 were elected to a commission seat and 50% of the members of the very important doctrinal commission were among these 79. In addition 43% of

4255-620: The Benedictine monastery attached to the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome came as a surprise to the cardinals present. He had tested the idea only ten days before with one of them, his Cardinal Secretary of State Domenico Tardini , who gave enthusiastic support to the idea. Although the pope later said the idea came to him in a flash in his conversation with Tardini, two cardinals had earlier attempted to interest him in

4370-534: The British from bombing Rome if the British so decided". The US military even exempted Catholic servicemembers from air raids on Rome and other areas with a significant Catholic presence, unless they voluntarily agreed to participate. Notably, with the exception of Rome, and presumably the possibility of the Vatican, no Catholic US servicemember refused a mission within German-held Italy. On the other hand,

4485-407: The British insisted "they would bomb Rome whenever the needs of the war demanded". In December 1942, the British envoy to the Holy See suggested that Rome be declared an open city , a suggestion that the Holy See took more seriously than was probably meant by the envoy, who did not want Rome to be an open city, but Mussolini rejected the suggestion when the Holy See put it to him. In connection with

4600-647: The Council Prominent Reform-minded Bishops at the Council Prominent reform-minded theologians at the Council John XXIII opened the council on 11 October 1962 in a public session at St. Peter's Basilica and delivered his opening address Gaudet Mater Ecclesia  ("Mother Church Rejoices") before the Council Fathers and representatives of 86 governments or international groups. He criticized

4715-632: The Dialogue Mass form. The minimum form of Dialogue Mass introduced in 1922 allowed the people to join with the servers in reciting the responses in the Ordinary of the Mass . In addition, the people were allowed to recite those parts of the Ordinary of the Mass that are sung by all at a Missa Cantata : the Gloria , Creed , Sanctus and Agnus Dei , and to recite with the priest the triple " Domine non sum dignus " that he leads as part of Communion of

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4830-586: The Doctrinal Commission (representing the conservative tendency) and the Secretariat for Christian Unity (representing the renewal tendency). A third victory for renewal and a crucial turning point at the council. This innocuous schema could be boiled down to two propositions that had been said many times before: the Church must use the media to further its mission, and people must be protected against immorality and other dangers presented by

4945-513: The Holy See during the period of the empty throne or sede vacante (papal vacancy). Those of the Vatican State remain under the control of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State . Acting with three other cardinals chosen by lot every three days, one from each order of cardinals ( cardinal bishop , cardinal priest , and cardinal deacon ), he in a sense performs during that period the functions of head of state of Vatican City. All

5060-484: The Holy See, which is itself a sovereign entity under international law , maintaining the city-state's temporal power , governance, diplomatic, and spiritual independence. The Vatican is also a metonym for the pope , the Holy See, and the Roman Curia . With an area of 49 hectares (121 acres) and as of 2023 a population of about 764, it is the smallest state in the world both by area and by population . It

5175-544: The Italian government. The head of the Vatican's Department of Technical Services robustly rejected challenges to the Vatican State's right to build within its borders. John R. Morss writes in the European Journal of International Law that due to the terms of the Lateran Treaty, Vatican City's status as a sovereign state, and the Pope 's status as a head of state, are problematic. The name "Vatican"

5290-598: The Mass make the responses at the same time with the acolytes", a practice that it declared praiseworthy in view of the evident desire expressed in papal documents "to instil into the souls of the faithful a truly Christian and collective spirit, and prepare them for active participation." The practice was already established without authorisation in Belgium and in Germany before the First World War . Further approval

5405-572: The Official Regulations, a small number of lay people were invited to attend as "auditors" beginning with the Second Session. While not allowed to take part in debate, a few of them were asked to address the council about their concerns as lay people. The first auditors were all male, but beginning with the third session, a number of women were also appointed. In the very first weeks of the council proceedings, it became clear to

5520-618: The People. Rarely, the people were also allowed to recite the Introit , Offertory and Communion Antiphons sung by the choir at a Solemn or High Mass . The form to be used in a particular diocese was left to the discretion of the local bishop. Second Vatican Council Nine decrees: Three declarations: The Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican , commonly known as the Second Vatican Council or Vatican II ,

5635-420: The Pope could be convinced to forget about aggiornamento . On the other side were those theologians and bishops who had been working towards a new way of doing things, some of whom had been silenced and humiliated by the Curia in the 1940s and 1950s. For them, the council came as a "divine surprise", the opportunity to convince the bishops of the world to turn away from a fortress-like defensive attitude to

5750-486: The Pope's announcement of a Council, they realized that it could be the culmination of the Church's program of resistance to Protestantism , the Enlightenment and all the other perceived errors of the modern world. It was also seen as an opportunity to give the stamp of conciliar infallibility to the teachings of the most recent popes and to the Curia's vision of the role of the Church in the modern world, provided

5865-440: The Pope's holdings were left in an uncertain situation when Rome itself was annexed by Italian forces, thus bringing to completion the Italian unification , after a nominal resistance by the papal forces. Between 1861 and 1929 the status of the Pope was referred to as the "Roman Question". Italy made no attempt to interfere with the Holy See within the Vatican walls. However, it confiscated church property in many places. In 1871,

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5980-528: The Pope's spiritual and pastoral governance, largely exercised through the Roman Curia . His official title with regard to Vatican City is Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City . Pope Francis , born Jorge Mario Bergoglio in Buenos Aires , Argentina, was elected on 13 March 2013. His principal subordinate government official for Vatican City as well as the country's head of government

6095-624: The Quirinal Palace was confiscated by the King of Italy and became the royal palace. Thereafter, the popes resided undisturbed within the Vatican walls, and certain papal prerogatives were recognised by the Law of Guarantees , including the right to send and receive ambassadors. But the Popes did not recognise the Italian king's right to rule in Rome, and they refused to leave the Vatican compound until

6210-423: The Roman Curia , Black Nobility ). They also formed the ceremonial Noble Guard . In the first decades of the existence of the Vatican City State, executive functions were entrusted to some of them, including that of delegate for the State of Vatican City (now denominated president of the Commission for Vatican City). But with the motu proprio Pontificalis Domus of 28 March 1968, Pope Paul VI abolished

6325-406: The State of Vatican City, which is a rare case of a non-hereditary monarchy. The Vatican City State, created in 1929 by the Lateran Pacts, provides the Holy See with a temporal jurisdiction and independence within a small territory. It is distinct from the Holy See. The state can thus be deemed a significant but not essential instrument of the Holy See. The Holy See itself has existed continuously as

6440-408: The Vatican City's status as neutral territory . One of the main diplomatic priorities of Pius XII was to prevent the bombing of the city; a high level of sensitivity led him to protest even the dropping of pamphlets over Rome by the Royal Air Force , claiming that the few which landed within the Vatican City violated its neutrality. The British government's policy towards the Vatican, as expressed in

6555-425: The Vatican from the Lateran Palace and enclosed this area with walls. He planted an orchard ( pomerium ), a lawn ( pratellum ), and a garden ( viridarium ). The politics of Vatican City takes place in the context of an absolute elective monarchy and being governed by the Holy See , in which the head of the Catholic Church holds power. The Pope exercises principal legislative, executive, and judicial power over

6670-430: The anomalous bulk of St Peter's Basilica, the elevation, the fountains, and the size of the large paved square. The highest temperature ever recorded was 40.8 °C (105.4 °F), on 28 June 2022. In July 2007, the Vatican accepted a proposal by two firms based respectively in San Francisco and Budapest , whereby it would become the first carbon neutral state by offsetting its carbon dioxide emissions with

6785-542: The beginning of the council, there were 224 official periti, but their number would eventually rise to 480. They could attend the debates in the General Congregations, but could not speak. The theologians who had been silenced during the 1940s and 1950s, such as Yves Congar and Henri de Lubac, and some theologians who were under suspicion in Roman circles at the beginning of the 1960s, such as Karl Rahner and Hans Küng, were appointed periti because of their expertise. Their appointment served to vindicate their ideas and gave them

6900-402: The boundary, and for a small part of the frontier a modern wall was constructed. The territory includes St. Peter's Square , distinguished from the territory of Italy only by a white line along the limit of the square, where it touches Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione which runs from close to the Tiber to St. Peter's. This grand approach

7015-419: The character and mission of the Holy See. Castel Gandolfo and the named basilicas are patrolled internally by police agents of Vatican City State and not by Italian police . According to the Lateran Treaty (Art. 3) St. Peter's Square, up to but not including the steps leading to the basilica, is normally patrolled by the Italian police. There are no passport controls for visitors entering Vatican City from

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7130-408: The confluence of the Cremera creek. The toponym Ager Vaticanus is attested until the 1st century AD: afterwards, another toponym appeared, Vaticanus , denoting an area much more restricted: the Vatican Hill, today's St. Peter's Square , and possibly today's Via della Conciliazione . Because of its vicinity to Rome's archenemy, the Etruscan city of Veii (another naming for the Ager Vaticanus

7245-422: The construction of the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter in the first half of the 4th century. A shrine dedicated to the Phrygian goddess Cybele and her consort Attis remained active long after the ancient Basilica of St. Peter was built nearby. Remains of this ancient necropolis were brought to light sporadically during renovations by various popes throughout the centuries, increasing in frequency during

7360-410: The council as some bishop's personal theologian, and were later appointed official periti . Some notable theologians, such as Edward Schillebeeckx , remained private periti for the whole duration of the council. Observers (§18) . An important innovation was the invitation by Pope John to Orthodox and Protestant Churches to send observers to the council. Eventually 21 denominations or bodies such as

7475-403: The council because he felt the Church needed "updating" (in Italian: aggiornamento ). In order to better connect with people in an increasingly secularized world, some of the Church's practices needed to be improved and presented in a more understandable and relevant way. Support for aggiornamento won out over resistance to change, and as a result the sixteen magisterial documents produced by

7590-456: The council proposed significant developments in doctrine and practice, notably The council had a significant impact on the Church due to the scope and variety of issues it addressed. Some of the most notable changes were in performance of the Mass, including that vernacular languages could be authorized as well as Latin. Pope Pius XII's 1943 encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu gave a renewed impetus to Catholic Bible studies and encouraged

7705-517: The creation of a Vatican Climate Forest in Hungary, as a purely symbolic gesture to encourage Catholics to do more to safeguard the planet. Nothing came of the project. On 26 November 2008, the Vatican itself put into effect a plan announced in May 2007 to cover the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall with solar panels . Within the territory of Vatican City are the Vatican Gardens (Italian: Giardini Vaticani ), which account for about half of this territory. The gardens, established during

7820-430: The current fortification walls, built under Paul III (1534–1549), Pius IV (1559–1565), and Urban VIII (1623–1644). When the Lateran Treaty of 1929 that gave the state its form was being prepared, the boundaries of the proposed territory were influenced by the fact that much of it was all but enclosed by this loop. For some tracts of the frontier, there was no wall, but the line of certain buildings supplied part of

7935-413: The decisions these four cardinals take must be approved by the College of Cardinals as a whole. The nobility that was closely associated with the Holy See at the time of the Papal States continued to be associated with the Papal Court after the loss of these territories, generally with merely nominal duties (see Papal Master of the Horse , Prefecture of the Pontifical Household , Hereditary officers of

8050-510: The difficulties which may easily arise, as in this case, especially on account of the disturbances which the priests who celebrate and the people who assist may experience, to the disadvantage of the sacred Action and of the rubrics. Hence it is expedient to retain the common usage, as we have several times replied in similar cases." The Dialogue Mass never became prevalent in English-speaking countries and current celebrations of Tridentine Mass in these countries are in practice rarely structured as

8165-602: The dispute was resolved in 1929; Pope Pius IX (1846–1878), the last ruler of the Papal States, was referred to as a " prisoner in the Vatican ". Forced to give up secular power, the popes focused on spiritual issues. This situation was resolved on 11 February 1929, when the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy was signed by Prime Minister and Head of Government Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III and by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri for Pope Pius XI . The treaty, which became effective on 7 June 1929, established

8280-410: The end of Italian unification , the only topics that had been completed were the theology of the papacy and the relationship of faith and reason , while the theology of the episcopate and of the laity were left unaddressed. The role of the Second Vatican Council in continuing and completing the work of the first was noted by Pope Paul VI in his encyclical letter Ecclesiam Suam (1964). At

8395-534: The executive, legislative, and judicial branches over Vatican City, and is thus the only absolute monarch in Europe. Operationally, there are departments that deal with health, security, telecommunications and other matters. The Cardinal Camerlengo presides over the Apostolic Camera , to which is entrusted the administration of the property and protection of other papal temporal powers and rights of

8510-685: The following day, the new Italian government declared Rome an open city, after consulting the Holy See on the wording of the declaration. Pius XII had refrained from creating cardinals during the war. By the end of World War II, there were several prominent vacancies: Cardinal Secretary of State , Camerlengo , Chancellor , and Prefect for the Congregation for the Religious among them. Pius XII created 32 cardinals in early 1946 , having announced his intention to do so in his preceding Christmas message. The Pontifical Military Corps , except for

8625-498: The foundations of Catholic doctrine". Without citing specific individuals, he criticized those who advocated new schools of theology. It was generally understood that the encyclical was directly against the nouvelle théologie as well as developments in ecumenism and Bible studies. Some of these works were placed on the Index of Prohibited Books , and some of the authors were forbidden to teach or to publish. Those who suffered most were

8740-461: The honorary positions that had continued to exist until then, such as Quartermaster general and Master of the Horse . As Vatican City is governed by the Holy See , the Pope is ex officio head of state of Vatican City, a function dependent on his primordial function as bishop of the diocese of Rome and head of the Catholic Church . The term "Holy See" refers not to the Vatican state but to

8855-444: The idea. They were two of the most conservative, Ernesto Ruffini and Alfredo Ottaviani , who had already in 1948 proposed the idea to Pius XII and who put it before John XXIII on 27 October 1958. Over the course of the next 3 years, the Pope would make many statements describing the results he expected from the council. They formed something like 3 concentric circles: Two less solemn statements are attributed to John XXIII about

8970-517: The independent state of Vatican City and reaffirmed the special status of Catholic Christianity in Italy. The Holy See, which governed the Vatican City, pursued a policy of neutrality during World War II under the leadership of Pope Pius XII . Although German troops occupied Rome after the September 1943 Armistice of Cassibile , with Allied forces pushing them out in 1944, both sides respected

9085-456: The laity to quietly follow the Mass ("Pray the Mass") rather than the traditional practice of saying other private prayers as the priest celebrated. The subsequent step was the people actually saying the Latin responses of the Mass called the Dialogue Mass. In 1922, the Holy See gave approval to the practice whereby "at least in religious houses and institutions for youth, all people assisting at

9200-673: The liturgy commission to deal with many proposed amendments. This schema from the preparatory theological commission took the conservative position on all questions currently being discussed by theologians. Reformers were particularly opposed to two claims: that there were revealed truths in Tradition that were not contained in Scripture and that every assertion in the Bible was free of error. The debate lasted six days. The dramatic vote on acceptance in principle came on November 20. The question

9315-470: The media. There was little interest in pursuing the discussion. On November 27, the council decided the schema should contain only essential principles, leaving detailed practical matters to be dealt with after the council. The schema was accepted in principle and returned to its commission to be abridged. Vatican City This is an accepted version of this page Vatican City ( / ˈ v æ t ɪ k ə n ˈ s ɪ t i / ), officially

9430-537: The minutes of a Cabinet meeting, was "that we should on no account molest the Vatican City, but that our action as regards the rest of Rome would depend upon how far the Italian government observed the rules of war". After the United States entered into the war, US officials were against bombing the Vatican City, fearful of offending Catholic members of the American military , but said that "they could not stop

9545-517: The modern city-state named after Vatican Hill , the geographic location of the state within the city of Rome . "Vatican" itself is derived from the name of an Etruscan settlement, Vatica or Vaticum , located in the general area the Romans called Ager Vaticanus , "Vatican territory". The Italian name of the city is Città del Vaticano or, more formally, Stato della Città del Vaticano , meaning 'Vatican City State'. Its Latin name

9660-408: The modern world and set off in a new direction towards a renewed theology of the Church and of the laity, ecumenism and the reform of the liturgy. The council was officially summoned by the apostolic constitution Humanae Salutis on 25 December 1961. Preparation for the council took over three years, from the summer of 1959 to the autumn of 1962. The first year was known officially as

9775-508: The newly elected commission members had not been on any preparatory commission. This was a first success for renewal. On 22 October, the first schema to be discussed was the one from the very reform-minded preparatory commission for liturgy. It had 8 chapters: It proposed many reforms, including active participation of the congregation, communal singing, a partial replacement of Latin by vernacular languages, communion under both kinds, concelebration, adaptation of liturgy to local cultures and

9890-527: The northern army that brought Vitellius to power arrived in Rome, "a large proportion camped in the unhealthy districts of the Vatican, which resulted in many deaths among the common soldiery; and the Tiber being close by, the inability of the Gauls and Germans to bear the heat and the consequent greed with which they drank from the stream weakened their bodies, which were already an easy prey to disease". During

10005-497: The other hand, came into existence on 11 February 1929 by the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy, which spoke of it as a new creation, not as a vestige of the much larger Papal States (756–1870), which had previously encompassed much of Central Italy . Vatican City contains religious and cultural sites such as St. Peter's Basilica , the Sistine Chapel , the Vatican Apostolic Library , and

10120-516: The participants that there were two "tendencies" among the Council Fathers, those who were supporters of aggiornamento and renewal, and those who were not. The two tendencies had already appeared in the deliberations of the Central Preparatory Commission before the opening of the council. In addition to popes John XXIII and Paul VI , these were the prominent actors at the council: Prominent Conservative Bishops at

10235-473: The preparatory commission for theology, dominated by officials of the Holy Office (the curial department for theological orthodoxy) showed no signs of aggiornamento at all. The two notable exceptions were the preparatory commission for liturgy and the Secretariat for Christian unity, whose schemas were very much in the spirit of renewal. In addition to these specialist commissions and secretariats, there

10350-465: The preparatory period, continued to exist under its president Cardinal Augustin Bea throughout the 4 years of the council, with the same powers as a commission. The commissions were tasked with revising the schemas as Council Fathers submitted amendments. They met in the afternoons or evenings. Procedure was more informal than in the general assemblies: there was spontaneous debate, sometimes heated, and Latin

10465-538: The preparatory period, they were 10 in number, each covering the same area of Church life as a particular curial department and chaired by the cardinal who headed that department: Each commission included 25 Council Fathers (16 elected by the council and 9 appointed by the Pope) as well as consultors (official periti appointed by the pope). In addition, the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity , appointed during

10580-401: The press and television, and the Pope was present. There were 10 public sessions in the course of the council: the opening day of each of the council's four periods, 5 days when the Pope promulgated Council documents, and the final day of the council. Commissions (§5–6, 64–70). Much of the detailed work of the council was done in these commissions. Like the preparatory commissions during

10695-680: The proceedings of the Council of Trent and the First Vatican Council. What is needed, and what everyone imbued with a truly Christian, Catholic and apostolic spirit craves today, is that this doctrine shall be more widely known, more deeply understood, and more penetrating in its effects on men's moral lives. What is needed is that this certain and immutable doctrine, to which the faithful owe obedience, be studied afresh and reformulated in contemporary terms. For this deposit of faith, or truths which are contained in our time-honored teaching

10810-463: The production of new Bible translations from the original languages. This led to a pastoral attempt to get ordinary Catholics to re-discover the Bible, to read it, to make it a source of their spiritual life. This found a response in very limited circles. By 1960, the movement was still in its infancy. By the 1930s, mainstream theology based on neo-scholasticism and papal encyclicals was being rejected by some theologians as dry and uninspiring. Thus

10925-445: The public. Council Fathers were under an obligation not to reveal anything that went on in the daily sittings (§26). Secrecy soon broke down, and much information about the daily General Congregations was leaked to the press. The Pope did not attend General Congregations, but followed the deliberations on closed-circuit television. Public Sessions (§2, 44–51). These were similar to General Congregations, except that they were open to

11040-494: The purpose of the council. One is about opening the windows of the Church to let in some fresh air; the other about shaking off the imperial dust accumulated on the throne of St. Peter. The source for the second statement is Cardinal Léger of Montréal, as reported by Congar. The first statement has been repeated so many times as to be extremely difficult to verify. Once the officials of the Curia had recovered from their shock at

11155-513: The right to speak and vote. Their number was about 2,900, though some 500 of them would be unable to attend, either for reasons of health or old age, or because the Communist authorities of their country would not let them travel. The Council Fathers in attendance represented 79 countries: 38% were from Europe, 31% from the Americas, 20% from Asia & Oceania, and 10% from Africa. (At Vatican I

11270-500: The sacramental renewal of the sacrifice of Christ on Calvary) rather than merely participate in common prayer which was a hallmark of the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. The introduction of bilingual hand Missals (Latin-vernacular) occurred in Germany in the 19th century in defiance of Church law which required liturgical texts to be reproduced exclusively in Latin. Later given authorisation, they allowed

11385-414: The same area of responsibility as one of the main departments of the Curia and was chaired by the cardinal who headed that department. From the 9,438 proposals, a list of topics was created, and these topics were parcelled out to these commissions according to their area of competence. Some commissions prepared a separate schema for each topic they were asked to treat, others a single schema encompassing all

11500-455: The same time, the world's bishops were facing challenges driven by political, social, economic, and technological change. Some of these bishops were seeking new ways of addressing those challenges. John XXIII gave notice of his intention to convene an ecumenical council on 25 January 1959, less than three months after his election in October 1958. His announcement in the chapter hall of

11615-429: The spirit of aggiornamento , asking for reforms and new ways of doing things. The next two years (known officially as the "preparatory period") were occupied with preparing the drafts, called schemas , that would be submitted to the bishops for discussion at the council. On 5 June 1960, ten Preparatory Commissions were created, to which a total of 871 bishops and experts were appointed. Each preparatory commission had

11730-538: The surrounding Italian territory. There is free public access to Saint Peter's Square and Basilica and, on the occasion of papal general audiences, to the hall in which they are held. For these audiences and for major ceremonies in Saint Peter's Basilica and Square, tickets free of charge must be obtained beforehand. The Vatican Museums , incorporating the Sistine Chapel, usually charge an entrance fee. There

11845-431: The topics they were handed. These were the preparatory commissions and the number of schemas they prepared: Two secretariats – one the offshoot of an existing Vatican office, the other a new body – also had a part in drafting schemas: The total number of schemas was 70. As most of these preparatory bodies were predominantly conservative, the schemas they produced showed only modest signs of updating. The schemas drafted by

11960-535: Was Ripa Veientana or Ripa Etrusca ), and for being subjected to the floods of the Tiber , the Romans considered this originally uninhabited part of Rome dismal and ominous. The particularly low quality of Vatican wine, even after the reclamation of the area, was commented on by the poet Martial ( AD  40 – c.  AD 102). Tacitus wrote that in AD 69, the Year of the Four Emperors , when

12075-400: Was a Central Preparatory Commission , to which all the schemas had to be submitted for final approval. It was a large body of 108 members from 57 countries, including two thirds of the cardinals. As a result of its work, 22 schemas were eliminated from the conciliar agenda, mainly because they could be dealt with during a planned revision of the 1917 Code of Canon Law after the council, and

12190-579: Was a final vote on a document. This was followed some days later by a public session where the Pope promulgated the document as the official teaching of the council, following another, ceremonial, vote of the Council Fathers. There was an unwritten rule that, in order to be considered official Church teaching, a document had to receive an overwhelming majority of votes, somewhere in the area of 90%. This led to many compromises, as well as formulations that were broad enough to be acceptable by people on either side of an issue. All General Congregations were closed to

12305-421: Was about 2,200. Stands with tiers of seats for all the Council Fathers had been built on both sides of the central nave of St. Peter's. During the first session, a council of presidents, of 10 cardinals, was responsible for presiding over the general assemblies, its members taking turns chairing each day's sitting (§4). During the later sessions, this task belonged to a council of 4 Moderators. All votes required

12420-527: Was already in use in the time of the Roman Republic for the Ager Vaticanus , a marshy area on the west bank of the Tiber across from the city of Rome, located between the Janiculum , the Vatican Hill and Monte Mario , down to the Aventine Hill and up to the confluence of the Cremera creek. The territory of Vatican City is part of the Vatican Hill, and of the adjacent former Vatican Fields. It

12535-656: Was born the movement called ressourcement , the return to the sources: basing theology directly on the Bible and the Church Fathers . Some theologians also began to discuss new topics, such as the historical dimension of theology, the theology of work, ecumenism, the theology of the laity and the theology of "earthly realities". These writings, whose new style came to be called la nouvelle théologie ('the new theology'), attracted Rome's attention, and in 1950 Pius XII published Humani generis , an encyclical "concerning some false opinions threatening to undermine

12650-509: Was constructed by Benito Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty. According to the Lateran Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See that are located in Italian territory, most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas , enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies . These properties, scattered all over Rome and Italy, house essential offices and institutions necessary to

12765-601: Was granted in 1935 and 1958. However, the Dialogue Mass was not obligatory and there were conflicting statements about the practice from the Vatican. The Decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites of 1922, shortly after the incipient Dialogue Mass, replied to the question "May the congregation, assisting at the Sacrifice make the responses in unison, instead of the server?" by saying: "The norm is: Things that in themselves are licit are not always expedient. Owing to

12880-479: Was not the only language used. Like the General Congregations, they were closed to the public and subject to the same rules of secrecy. Official Periti (§9–10). These experts in theology, canon law and other areas were appointed by the Pope to advise the Council Fathers, and were assigned as consultors to the commissions, where they played an important part in re-writing the council documents. At

12995-432: Was phrased in terms of rejection: Should the schema be rejected? Yes: 1,360. No: 822. This was 102 votes short of the two-thirds majority required by Council regulations, and so the council would have to continue discussing a schema that 62% of the participants rejected. Resolution of the impasse came the next day (November 21): Pope John announced the schema would be revised by a special joint commission made up of members of

13110-522: Was the 21st and most recent ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. The council met in Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City for four periods (or sessions), each lasting between 8 and 12 weeks, in the autumn of each of the four years 1962 to 1965, although it had been anticipated initially that the work of the Council would have been complete after three sessions. Pope John XXIII called

13225-526: Was their habitual residence for about a thousand years. From 1309 to 1377, they lived at Avignon in France. On their return to Rome, they chose to live at the Vatican. They moved to the Quirinal Palace in 1583, after work on it was completed under Pope Paul V (1605–1621), but on the capture of Rome in 1870 retired to the Vatican, and what had been their residence became that of the King of Italy . In 1870 ,

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