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117-481: In the early 20th century, Egyptologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie deduced that skeletal remains found at pre-dynastic sites at Naqada (Upper Egypt) indicated the presence of two different races, with the Dynastic Race, also referred to as the "Followers of Horus", differentiated physically by a noticeably larger skeletal structure and cranial capacity. Petrie concluded that the physical differences of

234-454: A 300-square-foot (28 m ) New Kingdom painted pavement of garden and animals and hunting scenes. This became a tourist attraction but, as there was no direct access to the site, tourists wrecked neighbouring fields on their way to it. This made local farmers deface the paintings, and it is only thanks to Petrie's copies that their original appearance is known. In early 1896, Petrie and his archaeological team were conducting excavations on

351-466: A bed and throne dedicated to Marduk were rededicated to Ashur after the furniture was brought from Babylon to Assur. The Marduk Ordeal contained cultic commentaries on the Akitu festival reinterpreted to refer to instead Marduk’s punishment. However, the more radical reforms were reversed under the reign of his successor Esarhaddon , who also oversaw the reconstruction of Babylon and the eventual return of

468-403: A cliff face, recording embassies to Nubia , famines and wars. By the time he reached Aswan, a telegram had reached there to confirm the renewal of his funding. He then went straight to the burial site at Fayum , particularly interested in post-30 BC burials, which had not previously been fully studied. He found intact tombs and 60 of the famous portraits , and discovered from inscriptions on

585-511: A crime, and the end of the text seems to suggest that the gods fought to get Marduk out by drilling holes through the door which he is locked behind. Marduk also appeared in the curse section, so it is possible that the majority of the blame was put on the Babylonians for leading Marduk astray, while Marduk retains a position within the pantheon. While most attribute this text to Sennacherib's destruction of Babylon, Frymer-Kensky suggests that

702-580: A god associated with magic after being syncretized with Asalluhi. The syncretism of Babylon and Nippur was in place from the Isin II period, and the names of the city walls were switched, with Imgur-Enlil and Nimit-Enlil in Babylon while Imgur-Marduk and Nimit-Marduk were in Nippur. By extension, Marduk was also identified with Enlil , and in the Isin II period Marduk was attested with Enlil's titles. Marduk

819-437: A pilgrimage from Babylon to Borsippa and Kutha , Marduk, Nabu and Nergal respectively. However, there are reasons to doubt the historicity of these texts, especially the alleged journey of Adad-shuma-usur since the trio of Marduk, Nabu and Nergal fit the ideology of the 1st millennium BC. Nonetheless, the texts could be evidence that the rise of Marduk was a gradual process that began before Nebuchadnezzar I. Similarly, in

936-462: A possible connection with the underworld, Johandi suggests that Marduk may have been a minor god connected to the underworld. Similarly, Oshima recently proposed that Marduk may have originally had a role similar to Nergal, which may even explain why the logogram AMAR.UTU is used in Hittite texts to write the name of the god Šanta , who was similar in nature to Nergal. In the earlier forerunners to

1053-543: A result of syncretism with Asalluhi. Due to being the son of Ea, Marduk had connections with the River Ordeal. Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina also identified Idlurugu (the river ordeal) as the father of Marduk/Asalluhi, in contrast to the standard genealogy. Marduk features in incantations of the Marduk-Ea type formula, in which the god Ea/Enki engages in dialogue with his son Marduk/Asalluhi. The structure of

1170-464: A second invasion by Kuter-Nahhunte carried off the same statue. Nonetheless, beginning from the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, acknowledgement of Marduk's supremacy over other gods was now the norm. A kudurru dating to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar claims that Marduk, now the "king of the gods" directly dispatched Nebuchadnezzar and gave him weapons, and in the Epic of Nebuchadnezzar, it is Marduk who commanded

1287-632: A series of archaeological studies in the Sinai Peninsula centered around the site of Serabit el-Khadim , a lucrative turquoise mine used during the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasty and again between the Eighteenth and mid- Twentieth Dynasty . As they were thoroughly exploring and studying the temple of Hathor and the surrounding mining area, they discovered amongst, the Egyptian texts,

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1404-801: A shrine to Marduk existed in the temple of Gula in Ashur in the Neo-Assyrian period. Marduk and his son Nabu also shared a sanctuary in Nineveh , although it seemed that Nabu was the main deity in contrast to Marduk. One exception was Sennacherib , who after a series of revolts and the extradition of the crown prince Assur-nadin-shumi to the Elamites (who then probably killed him), decided to destroy Babylon. The Destruction of Babylon in 689 BCE was, judging from Sennacherib's own accounts, bad by Neo-Assyrian standards. Outside of claiming to have destroyed

1521-510: A significant series of foreign inscriptions. Having been joined by his wife Hilda, herself also an egyptologist, Petrie realized the script was wholly alphabetic and not the combination of logograms and syllabics characteristic of Egyptian script proper. He thus assumed that the script showed a script that the turquoise miners had devised themselves, using linear signs that they had borrowed from hieroglyphics. He published his findings in London

1638-532: A team excavating over 17 cemeteries containing numerous graves between Hu and Abadiya, Egypt. The dig team included Beatrice Orme , David Randall-MacIver , Arthur Cruttenden Mace , Henrietta Lawes and Hilda Petrie. Predynastic, Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Roman graves were excavated and published at 'Diospolis Parva'. In the winter of 1904-5, Petrie and his team (among which we find Currelly , Capitain Weill , Lieutenant Frost, Miss Eckenstein ) were conducting

1755-515: A temple in Petrie's area of concession at Luxor . This temple complex was located just north of the original funerary temple of Amenhotep III, which had been built on a flood plain. They were initially surprised that this building which they were excavating During the field season of 1895/6, at the Ramesseum, Petrie and the young German Egyptologist Wilhelm Spiegelberg became friends. Spiegelberg

1872-475: A voice from heaven could be heard. A fish-goat praised Marduk as the exalted lord, and the text ends with the gods gathering at Babylon. The earliest evidence of Asalluhi's syncretism with Marduk is Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina, where Asalluhi was called the "king of Babylon. " An Old Babylonian text substitutes "son of Eridu " for "lord of Tintir" as a title for Asalluhi (Tintir being another attested name for Babylon. ) In Hammurabi's prayer to Asalluhi, he

1989-483: Is at the moment concerned.     I think this is one of the most striking cases of accurate visualising power it is possible to imagine. Francis Galton , (1883). In his teenage years, Petrie surveyed British prehistoric monuments, commencing with the late Romano-British 'British Camp' that lay within yards of his family home in Charlton, in attempts to understand their geometry. At 19 he produced

2106-466: Is born in the mind. I was already in archaeology by nature." The chair of Edwards Professor of Egyptian Archaeology and Philology at University College London was set up and funded in 1892 following a bequest from Amelia Edwards , who died suddenly in that year. Petrie's supporter since 1880, Edwards had instructed that he should be its first incumbent. He continued to excavate in Egypt after taking up

2223-580: Is clear evidence the Naqada II culture borrowed abundantly from Mesopotamia, the most commonly held view today is that the achievements of the First Dynasty were the result of a long period of cultural and political development. Such borrowings are much older than the Naqada II period, the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period, and the changes which did happen during

2340-522: Is clearly viewed as synonymous with Marduk. However, in a prayer for Samsu-iluna, Marduk and Asalluhi were mentioned as separate gods, suggesting that the syncretism Marduk = Asalluhi was not yet fully established as canonical in the Old Babylonian period. Johandi also suggests that keeping Marduk and Asalluhi separate was a deliberate act on the part of Samsu-iluna to reclaim authority over the southern cities, which were centers of rebellion during

2457-484: Is instead being held responsible for crimes committed against Ashur and was subject to a river ordeal and imprisonment. The text opens with Nabu arriving in Babylon looking for Marduk, his father. Tashmetum prayed to Sin and Shamash. Meanwhile, Marduk was being held captive, the color red on his clothes was reinterpreted to be his blood, and the case was brought forward to the god Ashur. The city of Babylon also seemingly rebelled against Marduk, and Nabu learned that Marduk

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2574-494: Is later considered the son of Enki/Ea. If so, this could be evidence that Marduk was already part of the pantheon of Eridu in the Ur III period. Under Sumu-la-El , Marduk appeared in oaths and several year names, namely year name 22, which recorded fashioning a throne for Marduk, and year name 24, which recorded making a statue for Zarpanitum . Marduk also started to appear in theophoric names, which would become more frequent in

2691-415: Is little evidence of kingship and its rituals very much before the beginning of the 1st Dynasty; no signs of the gradual development of metal working, art, monumental architecture and writing—the defining criteria of early civilisation. Much of what we know about the pharaohs and their complex culture seems to come into existence in a flash of inspiration." Rohl believes the catalyst for this sudden development

2808-677: Is located 8 miles southeast of Tanis and, among the remains of an ancient temple there, Petrie found a royal sphinx, now located at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston . By the end of the Tanis dig, he ran out of funding but, reluctant to leave the country in case it was renewed, he spent 1887 cruising the Nile taking photographs as a less subjective record than sketches. During this time, he also climbed rope ladders at Sehel Island near Aswan to draw and photograph thousands of early Egyptian inscriptions on

2925-620: Is observed in other late texts, where the other gods appear as aspects of Marduk. Cyrus , justifying his conquest of Babylonia, claimed that Marduk had abandoned Nabonidus who offended Marduk by turning his back on the Esagila in the Cyrus Cylinder . Another anti-Nabonidus text, the Verse Account, explains that Nabonidus favoured Sin over Marduk. Nabonidus’ reverence for the moon god may have been because of familial roots to

3042-587: Is still used today. In 1933, on retiring from his professorship, he moved permanently to Jerusalem , where he lived with Lady Petrie at the British School of Archaeology, then temporarily headquartered at the American School of Oriental Research (today the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research ). Sir Flinders Petrie died in Jerusalem on 28 July 1942. His body was interred in

3159-562: Is the product of racial biology, he contended that the culture of Ancient Egypt was derived from an invading Caucasoid " Dynastic Race ", which had entered Egypt from the south in late predynastic times, conquered the "inferior, exhausted mulatto " natives, and slowly introduced the higher Dynastic civilisation as it interbred with them. With relation to some of his earlier conclusions in 1895, where Petrie had written: "the Egyptians were largely formed from Libyan immigrants to begin with;

3276-406: Is the same. The ideology of the supremacy of Marduk is generally viewed to have been promoted by Nebuchadnezzar I and his successors. Nebuchadnezzar's second campaign into Elam and the return of the statue of Marduk that was carried off to Elam by either Shutruk-Nahhunte or his son Kutir-Nahhunte in 1155 BC is thought to be the trigger. However, there are chronological problems regarding

3393-492: Is used to explain the name Marduk in the Enuma Elish : as "He is the "son of the sun " of the gods, radiant is he." While the name may suggest a relationship with Shamash , Marduk has no genealogy with the sun god. However, Babylon was closely associated with the city of Sippar in this period, which may have been the reason for the name. Marduk, along with the city of Babylon , was unimportant and sparsely attested in

3510-617: The 3rd millennium BC . The earliest mention to Marduk comes from a fragmentary inscription, most likely dating to the Early Dynastic II period . It is left by an unnamed ruler of the city of BAR.KI.BAR (likely Babylon ) who constructed a temple for Marduk. A text from the Fara period seems to mention Marduk without the divine determinative, and a fragment of a god list from Abu Salabikh contains utu-ama[r], likely Marduk written with reversed sign order. A dubious reference to Marduk in

3627-534: The First Dynasty . Predynastic and First Dynasty burial sites similar to Naqada were also found at Abydos, Sakkara, and Hieraconpolis. Versions of the Dynastic race model were adopted by scholars as L. A. Waddell , and Walter Bryan Emery , a former Chair of Egyptology at University College London. The dynastic race theory is no longer an accepted thesis in the field of predynastic archaeology. While there

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3744-548: The Old Babylonian Period , although other spellings such as MES and ŠA.ZU were also in use since the Kassite Period. In the 1st millennium BC , the ideograms ŠU and KU were regularly used. The logogram for Adad is also occasionally used to spell Marduk. Texts from the Old Babylonian period support the pronunciation Marutu or Marutuk, with the shortened spelling Martuk or Marduk attested starting from

3861-533: The Protestant Cemetery on Mount Zion , but he donated his head (and thus his brain) to the Royal College of Surgeons of London . World War II was then at its height, and the head was delayed in transit. After being stored in a jar in the college basement, its label fell off and no one knew to whom the head belonged. However, it was eventually identified, and is now stored, but not displayed, at

3978-542: The Taurus Mountains , to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as Central Iran . William Matthew Flinders Petrie Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie FRS FBA ( ( 1853-06-03 ) 3 June 1853 – ( 1942-07-28 ) 28 July 1942), commonly known as simply Sir Flinders Petrie , was a British Egyptologist and a pioneer of systematic methodology in archaeology and

4095-590: The Weidner god list , however, it appears that Marduk and Asalluhi were viewed as the same god. According to the Marduk prophecy and inscriptions of Agum II , the statue of Marduk and Zarpanitum were removed from Babylon by Mursili I during his raid on Babylon (middle chronology 1595 BC), which was returned during the reign of Agum II. In the Kassite period, theophoric names containing Marduk grew to over 10%, and

4212-409: The king of the gods and as the source of their authority, while Enlil is hardly ever mentioned except when in relation to the city of Nippur. In a Late Babylonian god list, all the gods on the list were identified with Marduk. For example, Ninurta was Marduk of the pickaxe, Nabu was Marduk of accounting, Shamash was Marduk of justice and Tishpak was Marduk of the troops. This "syncretistic tendency"

4329-559: The 12 best examples for the museum to keep and return 48 to Petrie, who sent them to London for a special showing at the British Museum . Resuming work, he discovered the village of the Pharaonic tomb-workers. In 1890, Petrie made the first of his many forays into Palestine , leading to much important archaeological work. His six-week excavation of Tell el-Hesi (which was mistakenly identified as Lachish ) that year represents

4446-460: The 1st Dynasty as well in the Naqada III, or "Dynasty 0" period. He says, "It is highly improbable that such specialized building techniques were independently invented in two widely separated regions at the same historical period without cultural transmission. In addition to the evidence available to Petrie et al., proponents also point out similarities in the names of divinities and places in

4563-561: The 1st millennium BC. In Babylon, Marduk was worshipped in the temple Esagila . His symbol is the spade and he is associated with the Mušḫuššu . By the 1st millennium BC, Marduk had become astrologically associated with the planet Jupiter . He was a prominent figure in Babylonian cosmology , especially in the Enūma Eliš creation myth. The name of Marduk was solely spelled as AMAR.UTU in

4680-575: The Akitu festival in Babylon, and Sargon II made Babylon his temporary residence while Dur-Sharrukin was under construction and took part in the Akitu. Marduk frequently appears in Assyrian royal inscriptions, before the Assyrian kings even gained control over Babylonia. In continuation from the Middle Assyrian times, an actual cult of Marduk seemed to have also existed in the Neo-Assyrian period. The Assyrian Divine Directory mentioned that

4797-451: The Akitu festival, on the fourth day of the month of Nisannu. The epic starts off by mentioning Apsu and Tiamat, here the oldest gods, and created a younger generation of the gods. However, Apsu was disturbed by their noisiness and decided to kill them. Ea, however, found out about the plot and kills Apsu and takes his splendour. Later Marduk was born to Ea and Damkina, and already at birth he was special. Tiamat then decides to wage war against

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4914-514: The Akkadian name for Asalluhi, although Marduk and Asalluhi were also attested to appear separately in two different texts, one being the incantation against the evil Udug where Marduk captured the victim instead of helping in contrast to Asalluhi who sought out Enki, the other being an incantation against Lamashtu that listed Marduk and Asalluhi separately as deterrence to the demon. The Enuma Elish, generally believed to have been composed in

5031-609: The Assyrian and laid waste to his lands by the command of Marduk and Nabu and with the weapons of Erra, which was the main trio of the First Millennium Babylonian ideology. In literary texts from the Achaemenid and Seleucid eras, Marduk is said to have commissioned Nabonassar to take revenge on the land of Akkad (Babylonia). In royal inscriptions of the Neo-Babylonian kings, Marduk is exalted as

5148-399: The Babylonians may have stressed Marduk's mercy so he could be less savage, although Oshima proposes that the Babylonians had to stress both his wrath and mercy to appease him. Others believe that the purpose of the poem was to stress that Marduk's true inner quality was mercy and benevolence. The Prayer to Marduk no.2, on the other hand, praises Marduk's power to heal, which may have been as

5265-520: The Demons the priest starts by declaring themselves to be Marduk. In Neo-Assyrian Assyria, Marduk was one of the major gods that incantation-prayers were directed at, with only Shamash being invoked more than Marduk. It is difficult to tell if Marduk originally had a role in incantations prior to being identified with Asalluhi. Marduk sometimes appears in the Sumerian-Akkadian bilinguals as

5382-451: The Isin II period, details Marduk's rise to power as the king of the gods. There are similarities between the Epic of Creation and the Anzu myth as well as other traditions related to Ninurta. The Tablet of Destinies is a key object in both myths, and Marduk uses largely the same weapons as Ninurta. A ritual tablet mentions how the Epic of Creation would be recited and possibly reenacted during

5499-628: The Kassite period. His name in Hebrew, Merodak, supports the longer version, and First Millennium Assyrian and Babylonian texts employ the long spelling when the circumstances call for the precise form of the name. The personal name Martuku is not to be confused with the god Marduk. Marduk was commonly called Bēl (lord) in the First Millennium BC. The etymology for the name Marduk is generally understood to be derived from amar-utu-(a)k, meaning "bull-calf of Utu". Sommerfield suggests this

5616-553: The Naqada periods happened over significant amounts of time. Modern Egyptology largely maintains the view that "state formation occurred as a mainly indigenous process", although significant differences in morphology indicated migration along the Nile Valley also took place. The Dynastic Race theory has been largely replaced by the theory Egypt was a hydraulic empire . In the 1950s, when the Dynastic Race Theory

5733-572: The Old Babylonian Period, while Marduk is acknowledged to be the ruler of the people, there is no evidence that Hammurabi or his successors promoted Marduk at the expense of other gods. Enlil was still recognized as the highest authority, and Marduk was far from being the pantheon head, instead appearing to be a mediator between the great gods and Hammurabi. This is also expressed in inscriptions from Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna , expressing that he receives Enlil's orders through

5850-579: The Old Babylonian period sometimes place him within the circle of Enki. TCL 15 10 lists Asalluhi and Marduk as separate gods, but close together in the list. Lambert suggests that this may be an intrusion by another scribe, and that the editor scribe did so under the belief that Marduk and Asalluhi were the same god. Johandi on the other hand suggests that Marduk and Asalluhi were not seen as the same god, but were viewed to be related to one another. The Nippur God List also lists Asalluhi and Marduk separately, with Marduk appearing seventy names before Asalluhi. In

5967-544: The Petrie family were describing the unearthing of the Brading Roman Villa in the Isle of Wight. The boy was horrified to hear the rough shovelling out of the contents, and protested that the earth should be pared away, inch by inch, to see all that was in it and how it lay. "All that I have done since," he wrote when he was in his late seventies, "was there to begin with, so true it is that we can only develop what

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6084-588: The Prayer to Marduk no.1, Marduk is asked to not kill his client, and in Ludlul Marduk is praised for his mercy after forgiving his client. As such, some scholars claim that Marduk was being praised for his wrath, and others claim that Marduk comes off as having "unpredictable mood swings. " Lambert also points to one of Marduk's names in the Enuma Elish, Meršakušu ("savage, yet relenting"), suggests that

6201-666: The Royal College of Surgeons. There is a popular legend that Hilda brought back her husband's head in a hat box from Jerusalem after the war. But letters in the Petrie Museum archive illustrate that this legend is not true. Petrie married Hilda Urlin (1871–1957) in London on 26 November 1896. The couple had two children, John (1907–1972) and Ann (1909–1989). The family originally lived in Hampstead, London , where an English Heritage blue plaque has been placed on

6318-694: The Udug Hul where both Marduk and Asalluhi appear together in a passage Marduk, in contrast to Asalluhi, does not help the victim but instead captures him, either because of his powerlessness or because he simply refused to help. Oshima interpreted the passage as supporting the idea that Marduk's original role was illness and death. Similarly, in Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina , Asalluhi (here identified with Marduk) imposing an evil spell on Sin-iddinam (the king of Larsa) causing him to become sick may reflect that Marduk's power to cause illness extended beyond

6435-408: The Ur III period comes from the possible personal name “ Amar-Sin is the star of Marduk", although Johandi suggests that the god Martu who appeared together with Enki and Damgalnuna in the Ur III period could possibly refer instead to the similarly named Marduk who is otherwise missing in Ur III documentation, as Martu is later attested to have a different parentage ( Anu and Urash ) and Marduk

6552-492: The abduction of the statue by the Elamites, as the statue of Marduk abducted by Tukulti-Ninurta I wasn't returned yet by the Assyrians before the Elamites sacked Babylon in 1155 BC. Johnson suggests that Tukulti-Ninurta could have taken a different statue of Marduk while the main cult statue was taken by Kuter-Nahhunte, while Bányai believes that immediately following the return of the statue of Marduk by Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur

6669-418: The actions of the gods, and despite the narrator's protests of innocence and that he had always been pious to the gods and never abandoned him, he quickly became ill and was on death's bed. Then, in a series of dreams, he met a young man, an incantation priest that purified him, a young woman with a godlike appearance who came to say that his suffering had ended, and an incantation priest from Babylon. Afterwards,

6786-401: The architecture of Giza therein, were exemplary in its methodology and accuracy, disproving Smyth's theories and still providing much of the basic data regarding the pyramid plateau to this day. On that visit, he was appalled by the rate of destruction of monuments (some listed in guidebooks had been worn away completely since then) and mummies. He described Egypt as "a house on fire, so rapid was

6903-576: The auspices of the American School of Research . he discovered ruins of ten cities in Tell el-Hesi . He began excavating several important sites in the south-west of Palestine, including Tell Jemmeh and Tell el-Ajjul . In parallel with his work in Palestine, Petrie became interested in early Egypt. In 1928, while digging a cemetery at Luxor, this proved so huge that he devised an entirely new excavation system, including comparison charts for finds, which

7020-706: The background could be the return of Marduk's statue to Babylon in 669 BCE. Known from only 1 copy and with a badly damaged top half, Enmesharra's Defeat is likely composed in the Seleucid or Parthian era. Structurally similar to the Enuma Elish, the text starts with Enmesharra and his seven sons going against Marduk, who subsequently defeated them and threw them into jail with Nergal as the prison warden. The preserved portion starts with Nergal announcing Marduk's judgement to Enmesharra that he and his sons would all be put to death, and Enmesharra laments about Marduk's terrible judgement and pleads with Nergal. Nergal replies, but

7137-652: The basis of the race apparently being a mulatto of Libyan-negro mixture judging from the earliest skeletons at Medum." Petrie also engaged in fierce controversies with the British Museum's Egyptology expert E. A. Wallis Budge , who contended that the religion of the Egyptians was not introduced by invaders, but was essentially identical to that of the people of northeastern and central Africa; however, most of their colleagues judged Petrie's opinion to be more scientific. His involvement in Palestinian archaeology

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7254-444: The beginning of the year. Kurigalzu calls himself the "regent of Enlil" and Dur-Kurigalzu's temple complex holds temples to Enlil, Ninlil and Ninurta. There are two administrative documents from Nippur from the reigns of two Kassite kings, perhaps Nazi-Maruttash and Shagarakti-Shuriash , that mention the celebration of the akitu festival connected to Marduk. Another text claims the late Kassite king Adad-shuma-usur embarked on

7371-479: The bringer of peace and stability, Marduk is here the one who brought instability by leaving his seat, thus bringing darkness upon the world. He also indirectly brought war by yielding to Erra. Written in the Assyrian dialect, versions of the so-called Marduk Ordeal Text are known from Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh . Using sceneries and language familiar to the procession of the Akitu Festival, here Marduk

7488-452: The building in which they lived at 5 Cannon Place. John Flinders Petrie became a noted mathematician, who gave his name to the Petrie polygon . Flinders Petrie's painstaking recording and study of artefacts set new standards in archaeology. He wrote: "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." By linking styles of pottery with periods, he

7605-607: The character of the Proto-Sinaitic script , the ancestor of almost all alphabetic scripts. Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings. Petrie has been denounced for his pro- eugenics views; he was a dedicated believer in the superiority of the Northern peoples over the Latinate and Southern peoples . He has been referred to as the "father of Egyptian archaeology". Petrie

7722-498: The city of Harran, and later he even revived the religious institutions of Ur, the main sanctuary of Sin. His symbol is the spade and he is associated with the Mušḫuššu , a dragon-like creature from Mesopotamian mythology. Since sources pertaining to Marduk in the early periods are sparse, Marduk's original role is unknown. However, since Marduk appeared in the Abu Salabikh list behind three minor deities whose names point to

7839-680: The destruction" and felt his duty to be that of a "salvage man, to get all I could, as quickly as possible and then, when I was 60, I would sit and write it all". Returning to England at the end of 1880, Petrie wrote a number of articles and then met Amelia Edwards , journalist and patron of the Egypt Exploration Fund (now the Egypt Exploration Society ), who became his strong supporter and later appointed him as professor at her Egyptology chair at University College London . Impressed by his scientific approach,

7956-426: The dominion of Babylon. However Sommerfield, who previously believed that there was little evidence for Marduk being related to magic, more recently suggested that Marduk was originally a god of incantations before his syncretism with Asalluhi . Jacobsen suggests that Marduk was originally a storm god due to the storm imageries in the Enuma Elish, wielding the four winds and storms as weapons, and assigning to himself

8073-604: The dynastic race theory in favour of a "Black Egyptian" model. Afrocentrists particularly condemn the alleged dividing of African peoples into racial clusters as being new versions of the Dynastic Race Theory and the Hamitic hypothesis . A version of the theory has been revived by some modern scholars, most notably David Rohl , and Michael Rice, who have advanced reasons in support of a Mesopotamian origin of Dynastic Egypt in books such as Rohl's Legend-The Genesis of Civilisation and Rice's Egypt's Making . According to Rohl, "There

8190-553: The early years of his reign. Sommerfield suggested that the syncretism of may have been due to both having a similar role as a god of incantations, or because Asalluhi was more well known in Southern Babylonia compared to Marduk, who was still a local god. Lambert also believes the syncretism to be a means to elevate Marduk to a more respectable position. Johandi proposes that Marduk and Asalluhi were identified for some other reason other than magic, and Marduk only became

8307-632: The end, Marduk is proclaimed the ruler, declares Babylon as the city of kingship, received his fifty names (fifty being the number of Enlil), while Enlil is ignored. In Assyrian sources, most of the mentions of Marduk's power and authority came from the reigns of the Sargonids . Generally, the Neo-Assyrian kings cared for Babylon and the cult of Marduk. Shalmaneser III visited multiple Babylonian sanctuaries, including that of Marduk. Tiglath-pileser III , after conquering Babylonia, participated in

8424-454: The fields. Various prayers to Marduk refer to his connection with springs and rivers, and Ashurbanipal applies the epithet "the canal inspector of the heavens and the earth" to Marduk . Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina shares similar motifs with the Prayer to Marduk no.1 and Ludlul bel nemeqi , where Marduk's anger is blamed for some certain ailment affecting the sufferer, and can only be remedied by Marduk having mercy and forgiving them. In

8541-595: The first scientific excavation of an archaeological site in the Holy Land . Petrie surveyed a group of tombs in the Wadi al-Rababah (the biblical Hinnom ) of Jerusalem , largely dating to the Iron Age and early Roman periods. Here, in these ancient monuments, Petrie discovered that two different types of cubit had been used as units of length. From 1891, he worked on the temple of Aten at Tell-el-Amarna , discovering

8658-489: The following decades but would remain rare, appearing in less than 1% of names, although it would grow to 1-2% under Hammurabi . During the reigns of Sabium , Apil-Sin and Sin-muballit , Marduk started to be mentioned outside of the city of Babylon and was invoked alongside local gods in cities subject to the Babylonian kings. Starting from the reign of Hammurabi, sanctuaries to Marduk were found in other cities. In

8775-621: The following year. He had discovered and correctly identified the character of the Proto-Sinaitic script , the ancestor of almost all alphabetic scripts. In 1923, Petrie was knighted for services to British Archaeology and Egyptology. Students of UCL commemorated the investiture by writing and performing a musical play. A hundred years later, the questions had changed: "Between investigations on eugenics, decolonial practice, and calls for repatriation, what has become of Flinderella?" The focus of his work shifted permanently to Palestine in 1926. From 1927 until 1938, he excavated in Palestine under

8892-471: The formula starts with Marduk/Asalluhi noticing a problem and reporting to his father. Ea reassures his son about his knowledge and then proceeds to instruct his son on the procedures. In later incantations from the First Millenium BC, the priests usually claim to be direct representations of Marduk/Asalluhi, replacing the divine dialogue between father and son, for example in Marduk's Address to

9009-611: The god list An = Anum the number 50, Enlil's number, was assigned to Marduk instead. A private document dating to the reign of Ashur-uballit I in Assyria refers to a sanctuary of Marduk in the city of Assur . A gate of Marduk was also attested in Assur in the 13th Century. Similar to the Neo-Assyrian period, Marduk was mentioned to receive offerings and gifts in Assur. In the Coronation text of Tukulti-Ninurta, Marduk even received

9126-515: The gods to abandon Babylonia. A kudurru from the reign of Enlil-nadin-apli calls Marduk the "king of the gods, the lord of the lands," a title that Enlil traditionally held. Likewise, when Simbar-shipak , the first king of the Second Dynasty of Sealand, made Enlil a replacement throne for the one made by Nebuchadnezzar, in his mind this was actually dedicated to Marduk. Other texts, such as Akkadian prayers and incantations also call Marduk

9243-439: The king of the gods. The earliest copy of the Enuma Elish, the Babylonian epic of creation, was found in the city of Assur and dated to the 9th century, although the text could go back to the Isin II period. Dalley believes that the Enuma Elish may have been composed during the Old Babylonian Period, although other scholars consider it unlikely. The Enuma Elish describes Marduk's ascendance to kingship by defeating Tiamat. In

9360-464: The lands) originally belonged to Enlil, who was conspicuously missing from the epic except when he gave this title to Marduk Also known as the "Babylonian Job, " the poem describes the narrator's suffering caused by Marduk's anger, causing him to lose his job and to experience hostility from his friends and family. Diviners were incapable of helping him and his personal protective spirits and gods also did not come to help. He claims that nobody understood

9477-460: The local temple to Marduk in Nippur was firmly integrated and well established. The Kassite kings sometimes gave Marduk pompous epithets, showing Marduk's growing popularity, however Enlil still ranks as the most important Mesopotamian god, still heading the list along with Anu and Ea. At least five Kassite kings bore theophoric names containing Enlil, and Kassite kings, especially Nazi-Maruttash and Kudur-Enlil , are known to have visited Nippur at

9594-569: The most accurate survey of Stonehenge . His father had corresponded with Piazzi Smyth about his theories of the Great Pyramid and Petrie travelled to Egypt in early 1880 to make an accurate survey of Giza , making him the first to properly investigate how the pyramids there were constructed; many theories had been advanced on this, and Petrie read them all, but none was based on first hand observation or logic. Petrie's published reports of this triangulation survey, and his analysis of

9711-414: The most dramatic evidence to support this theory is the sudden introduction of distinctly Mesopotamian "niched-facade", also known as "palace facade", architecture found in several early Dynastic sites, most notably the large 1st Dynasty mastabas at Saqqara. A depiction of a building using this kind of architecture is also an integral part of the serekh, the early Egyptian seal of kingship, and is found before

9828-493: The mummies that they were kept with their living families for generations before burial. Under Auguste Mariette 's arrangements, he sent 50% of these portraits to the Egyptian department of antiquities . However, when he later found that Gaston Maspero placed little value on them and left them open to the elements in a yard behind the museum to deteriorate, he angrily demanded that they all be returned, forcing Maspero to pick

9945-640: The name Osiris is a Greek pronunciation, and that the god would have been called Asar in Egyptian, while the Sumerian god of the Eridu area was also called Asar (the Babylonian Marduk ). The Uruk period of Ancient Mesopotamia (4100–2900 BC calibrated) predates the Naqada II period of Ancient Egypt (3500-3200 BC) and indeed there is evidence of colonies of this Uruk civilization over a wide area—from

10062-459: The narrator praises Marduk's mercy which was the main point of the text despite the expressions of Marduk's anger. In the Erra epic, Erra convinced Marduk to leave Esagil and to go to the netherworld, leaving Erra to become king. Afterwards, Erra wreaks havoc on all the cities and causes instability. Marduk came back and lamented the state of Babylon. Unlike the Enuma Elish which championed Marduk as

10179-537: The native Badarian culture to become their rulers. Petrie adduced new architectural styles—the distinctly Mesopotamian "niched-facade" architecture—pottery styles, cylinder seals and a few artworks, as well as numerous Predynastic rock and tomb paintings depicting Mesopotamian style boats, symbols, and figures. This came to be called the "dynastic race theory" The theory further argued that the Mesopotamians then conquered both Upper and Lower Egypt and founded

10296-459: The other gods, such as Ishtar , Zababa , Shamash and of course Marduk. A key development during the Old Babylonian period was the association of Marduk with the pantheon of Eridu. Marduk was syncretized with Asalluhi in the later half of the Old Babylonian period, and the opening of the Code of Hammurabi identify Ea as the father of Marduk, a genealogy that would remain canonical. God lists from

10413-474: The personality of the archaeologist, who, he felt, needed to possess broad knowledge as well as insatiable curiosity. His own abundance of that characteristic was never questioned. In 1913, Petrie sold his large collection of Egyptian antiquities to University College , London, where it is now housed in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology . One of his trainees, Howard Carter , went on to discover

10530-604: The preservation of artefacts. He held the first chair of Egyptology in the United Kingdom , and excavated many of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt in conjunction with his wife, Hilda Urlin . Some consider his most famous discovery to be that of the Merneptah Stele , an opinion with which Petrie himself concurred. Undoubtedly at least as important is his 1905 discovery and correct identification of

10647-486: The professorship, training many of the best archaeologists of the day. In 1904, Petrie published Methods and Aims in Archaeology, the definitive work of his time, in which he defined the goals and methodology of his profession along with the more practical aspects of archaeology—such as details of excavation, including the use of cameras in the field. Insights include the contention that research results were dependent on

10764-420: The rain and clouds that came from Tiamat's corpse. Abusch, citing Jacobsen, also believes that Marduk was a storm god, and may have been associated with water and vegetation before joining the pantheon of Eridu as it is improbable to suppose that all of Marduk's traits with water as being taken from the circle of Enki. However, there is no other evidence suggesting that Marduk was originally a local storm god, and

10881-506: The religious beliefs of the two cultures, and in depictions of regalia. For example the primeval mound of the Egyptian first creation was called the Island of Nun, and was surrounded by the Waters of Nun, while the Sumerian name for the great temple in their original city of Eridu was Nun.ki—the 'Mighty Place'—and it was built on an island in the reed swamps. Several scholars have also noted that

10998-407: The remains in conjunction with the previously unknown burial styles, uncharacteristic tomb architecture, and abundance of foreign artifacts, implied this race must have been an invading ruling elite that was responsible for the seemingly sudden rise of Egyptian civilization. Based on plentiful cultural evidence, Petrie determined that the invader race had come from Mesopotamia, and imposed themselves on

11115-506: The same amount of offerings as Ashur . The statue of Marduk was carried off by Tukulti-Ninurta I to Assyria, where it would stay until it was returned. The cult of Marduk in Assyria would remain attested in the Neo-Assyrian period. Marduk was found in Ugarit in an Akkadian hymn that may have been part of the scribal school curriculum. During the Kassite period, Nabu, previously the scribe of Marduk, came to be viewed as Marduk's son. By

11232-471: The society's Archaeological Journal by his good friend and fellow archaeologist Flaxman Charles John Spurrell . Petrie published a total of 97 books. Marduk Marduk ( Cuneiform : 𒀭𒀫𒌓 ᵈ AMAR.UTU; Sumerian : amar utu.k "calf of the sun; solar calf"; Hebrew : מְרֹדַךְ , Modern :   Merōdaḵ , Tiberian :   Mərōḏaḵ ) is a god from ancient Mesopotamia and patron deity of Babylon who eventually rose to power in

11349-414: The spade, may point to him originally being a god of agriculture, or more likely as a god of canals and by extension fertility. Unlike Abusch, Oshima believes that Marduk's association with water came from his association with canals. He is depicted as the supplier of water in Prayer to Marduk no.2, dating to the Kassite period, and was praised as the bringer of water from rivers, seasonal floods and rains to

11466-550: The statue of Marduk under Šamaš-šuma-ukin . Esarhaddon also crafted a narrative justifying both Sennacherib's destruction and his rebuilding by citing Marduk's divine anger as the cause for Babylon's destruction, who originally decreed for the city to be abandoned for seventy years, but Marduk relented and allowed Esarhaddon to rebuild it. Nabonassar claimed that Marduk proclaimed him lordship and had ordered him to "plunder his enemy's land" (referring to Assyria), who only ruled Babylonia due to divine anger. He claimed that he killed

11583-552: The temples and the cult statues, there was no explicit mention of the fate of Marduk's statue, although Esarhaddon would later claim that the cult statue was taken from Babylon. Sennacherib followed with what has been called a religious reform, the infrastructure of Assur being refashioned in the model of Babylon's, and the Assyrian edition of the Enuma Elish replaced Marduk with the god Ashur (spelled as Anshar ) and Babylon with Assur (spelled as Baltil). Other texts referencing Marduk were also adapted and changed to fit Ashur instead, and

11700-424: The text breaks off. Nergal is then shown to be escorting Enmesharra and his sons to Marduk, who first beheads the sons, and Enmesharra's radiance was then taken and given to Shamash. Nabu was also given the power of Ninurta, Nergal those of Erra, and Marduk took Enlil's power. Marduk, Nabu and Nergal then shared the throne, which likely previously belonged to Anu, together. The gods were then assigned their cities, and

11817-495: The time of the Isin II dynasty , an established syncretism of Babylon and Nippur (and by extension Marduk and Enlil) was in place. The names of the city walls were switched, with Imgur-Enlil and Nimit-Enlil in Babylon while Imgur-Marduk and Nimit-Marduk were in Nippur. A first millennium bilingual hymn to Nippur links Babylon and Nippur together: Nippur is the city of Enlil, Babylon is his favorite. Nippur and Babylon, their meaning

11934-407: The tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922.     Mr. Flinders Petrie, a contributor of interesting experiments on kindred subjects to Nature , informs me that he habitually works out sums by aid of an imaginary sliding rule , which he sets in the desired way and reads off mentally.     He does not usually visualise the whole rule, but only that part of it with which he

12051-460: The university offered him work as the successor to Édouard Naville . Petrie accepted the position and was given the sum of £250 per month to cover the excavation expenses. In November 1884, Petrie arrived in Egypt to begin his excavations. He first went to a New Kingdom site at Tanis , with 170 workmen. He cut out the middle man role of foreman on this and all subsequent excavations, taking complete overall control himself and removing pressure on

12168-470: The usage of wind and storm as weapons are not limited to storm gods. Schwemer points to Ninurta (who is not a storm god) as the original model for Marduk using storms, winds and floods as weapons. Schwemer also summarizes that although Marduk has characteristics that overlap with the storm god profile, it does not mean that Marduk or other gods in similar position (such as Ninurta, Martu , Telepinu and Tishpak ) are necessarily storm gods. Marduk's symbol,

12285-565: The workmen from the foreman to discover finds quickly but sloppily. Though he was regarded as an amateur and dilettante by more established Egyptologists, this made him popular with his workers, who made several small but significant finds that would have been lost under the old system. In 1886, while working for the Egypt Exploration Fund, Petrie excavated at Tell Nebesheh in the Eastern Nile Delta. This site

12402-553: The younger generation of the gods, giving Kingu the Tablet of Destinies and appointing him as the commander. Marduk volunteers to do battle against Tiamat and defeats her. The world was fashioned from Tiamat's corpse with Babylon as the center, and Marduk assumes kingship and receives his fifty names. The fifty names taken was based on the An = Anum god list, the columnar arrangement removed and slotted in. One of his titles, bēl mātāti (king of

12519-550: Was a dedicated believer in the superiority of the Northern peoples over the Latinate and Southern peoples. In his 1906 sociological series "Question of the day", he expressed these views, ascribing social problems of England to racial degeneration brought on by communism , trade unionism , and government assistance to people groups he found inferior. His racist views spilled over into his academic opinions. Believing that society

12636-556: Was born on 3 June 1853 in Charlton , Kent , England, the son of William Petrie (1821–1908) and Anne (née Flinders) (1812–1892). Anne was the daughter of British Captain Matthew Flinders , who led the first circumnavigation of Australia (and after whom Petrie was named). William Petrie was an electrical engineer who developed carbon arc lighting and later developed chemical processes for Johnson, Matthey & Co. Petrie

12753-592: Was created in celebration of Petrie's seventieth birthday, when funds were raised to commission and produce 20 medals to be awarded "once in every three years for distinguished work in Archaeology, preferably to a British subject". The first medal was awarded to Petrie himself (1925), and the first few recipients included Sir Aurel Stein (1928), Sir Arthur Evans (1931), Abbé Henri Breuil (1934), J.D. Beazley (1937), Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1950), Alan Wace (1953), and Sir Leonard Woolley (1957). Petrie remains controversial for his pro- eugenics and racist views, and

12870-563: Was examined in the exhibition "A Future for the Past: Petrie's Palestinian Collection". In August 2012, more than a hundred people gathered at Petrie's grave, to commemorate the 70th anniversary of his death. His headstone is marked only with his name and an ankh symbol, the Egyptian hieroglyph for "life". A number of Petrie's discoveries were presented to the Royal Archaeological Society and described in

12987-810: Was in charge of the edition of many texts discovered by his British colleague, and Petrie offered important collections of artefacts to the University of Strasbourg. In 1897, the Kaiser-Wilhelms-Universität Straßburg gratefully conferred to Petrie the title of doctor honoris causa, and in June 1902 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS). He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1905. From 1889 to 1899, Petrie directed

13104-651: Was often called the "Enlil of the gods" in the First Millennium. A statue of Marduk, conveniently named "King of the gods of Heaven and the Underworld" was placed in Enlil's sanctuary in Babylon, and Marduk receives the title bēl mātāti "king of the lands" in the Enuma Elish. The previous patron deity of Borsippa. Although Hammurabi recognized Tutu's dominion as extending over Borsippa and E-zida, Tutu became another name for Marduk after Hammurabi, but became

13221-567: Was raised in a Christian household (his father being a member of the Plymouth Brethren ), and was educated at home. He had no formal education. His father taught his son how to survey accurately, laying the foundation for his archaeological career. At the age of eight, he was tutored in French, Latin, and Greek, until he had a collapse and was taught at home. He also ventured his first archaeological opinion aged eight, when friends visiting

13338-476: Was taken to the river ordeal. Marduk claims that everything was done for the good of the god Ashur and prays to the gods to let him live . After various alternate cultic commentaries, the Assyrian version of the Enuma Elish was recited, proclaiming Ashur's superiority. However, despite the content, the Marduk Ordeal was not simply an anti-Marduk piece of literature. At no point was Marduk actually accused of

13455-526: Was the first to use seriation in Egyptology, a new method for establishing the chronology of a site. Petrie was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter . On the centennial of Petrie's birth in 1953, his widow Hilda Petrie created a student travel scholarship to Egypt. Many thousands of artefacts recovered during excavations led by Petrie can be found in museums worldwide. The Petrie Medal

13572-578: Was the influx of a Mesopotamian "foreign elite" who made their way to Egypt by sailing around the coastline of the Arabian Peninsula into the Red Sea ultimately dragging their boats across the desert to the Nile. Rohl notes numerous pre-dynastic rock carvings found in several locations from Wadi Abbad to Abydos which is suggested depict large Mesopotamian style boats with crews of up to 75, some of which appear being pulled across land. Rohl believes

13689-679: Was widely accepted by mainstream scholarship, the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop was publicising his theory that the Ancient Egyptians were "Black Africans." Diop "paid special attention to the emergence of the Dynastic Race Theory", and claimed that European scholars supported this theory to avoid having to admit that the Ancient Egyptians were black and to characterise them as "Semitic" or "Caucasian". Other prominent Afrocentrists, including Martin Bernal , later also argued against

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