103-822: Eboracum ( Classical Latin : [ɛbɔˈraːkũː] ) was a fort and later a city in the Roman province of Britannia . In its prime it was the largest town in northern Britain and a provincial capital. The site remained occupied after the decline of the Western Roman Empire and ultimately developed into the present-day city of York , in North Yorkshire , England . Two Roman emperors died in Eboracum: Septimius Severus in 211 AD, and Constantius Chlorus in 306 AD. The first known recorded mention of Eboracum by name
206-526: A command economy with workshops growing up outside the fortress to supply the needs of the 5,000 troops garrisoned there. Production included military pottery until the mid-3rd century, military tile kilns have been found in the Aldwark - Peasholme Green area, glassworking at Coppergate , metalworks and leatherworks producing military equipment in Tanner Row . In the Roman period, Eboracum
309-478: A certain sense, therefore, Latin was studied as a dead language, while it was still a living." Also problematic in Teuffel's scheme is its appropriateness to the concept of classical Latin. Cruttwell addresses the issue by altering the concept of the classical. The "best" Latin is defined as "golden" Latin, the second of the three periods. The other two periods (considered "classical") are left hanging. By assigning
412-493: A clay mound with a turf front on a new oak foundation, and eventually, wooden battlements were added, which were then replaced by limestone walls and towers. The original wooden camp was refurbished by Agricola in 81, before being completely rebuilt in stone between 107 and 108. The fortress was garrisoned soon afterwards by the Sixth Legion , possibly as soon as 118. Multiple phases of restructuring and rebuilding within
515-433: A detailed analysis of style, whereas Teuffel was more concerned with history. Like Teuffel, Cruttwell encountered issues while attempting to condense the voluminous details of time periods in an effort to capture the meaning of phases found in their various writing styles. Like Teuffel, he has trouble finding a name for the first of the three periods (the current Old Latin phase), calling it "from Livius to Sulla ." He says
618-471: A form of Greek that was considered model. Before then, the term classis , in addition to being a naval fleet, was a social class in one of the diachronic divisions of Roman society in accordance with property ownership under the Roman constitution. The word is a transliteration of Greek κλῆσις (clēsis, or "calling") used to rank army draftees by property from first to fifth class. Classicus refers to those in
721-483: A large number of these casts, in some cases with cloth surviving adhered to the gypsum. Two gypsum burials at York have shown evidence for frankincense and another clear markers of Pistacia spp. (mastic) resin used as part of the funerary rite. These resins had been traded to Eboracum from the Mediterranean and eastern Africa , or southern Arabia, the latter known as the "Frankincense Kingdom" in antiquity This
824-407: A phase of styles. The ancient authors themselves first defined style by recognizing different kinds of sermo , or "speech". By valuing Classical Latin as "first class", it was better to write with Latinitas selected by authors who were attuned to literary and upper-class languages of the city as a standardized style. All sermo that differed from it was a different style. Thus, in rhetoric, Cicero
927-662: A provincial capital Eboracum was a cosmopolitan city with residents from throughout the Roman Empire . Substantial evidence for the use of cereal crops and animal husbandry can be found in Eboracum . A first-century warehouse fire from Coney Street , on the North bank of the Ouse and outside the fortress, showed that spelt wheat was the most common cereal grain used at that time, followed by barley. Cattle, sheep/goat and pig are
1030-478: A result, permanent civilian settlement grew up around the fortress especially on its south-east side. Civilians also settled on the opposite side of the Ouse, initially along the main road from Eboracum to the south-west. By the later 2nd century, growth was rapid; streets were laid out, public buildings were erected and private houses spread out over terraces on the steep slopes above the river. From its foundation
1133-534: A slight alteration in approach, making it clear that his terms applied to Latin and not just to the period. He also changed his dating scheme from AUC to modern BC/AD. Though he introduces das silberne Zeitalter der römischen Literatur , (The Silver Age of Roman Literature) from the death of Augustus to the death of Trajan (14–117 AD), he also mentions parts of a work by Seneca the Elder , a wenig Einfluss der silbernen Latinität (a slight influence of silver Latin). It
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#17327658257281236-476: A timber structure beneath modern-day Coney Street, on the north-east bank of the River Ouse suggests the existence of storehouses for moving goods via the river. The decline of Roman Britain in early fifth century AD led to significant social and economic changes all over Britain. Whilst the latest datable inscription referencing Eboracum dates from 237 AD, the continuation of the settlement after this time
1339-729: Is Cruttwell's Augustan Epoch (42 BC – 14 AD). The literary histories list includes all authors from Canonical to the Ciceronian Age—even those whose works are fragmented or missing altogether. With the exception of a few major writers, such as Cicero, Caesar, Virgil and Catullus, ancient accounts of Republican literature praise jurists and orators whose writings, and analyses of various styles of language cannot be verified because there are no surviving records. The reputations of Aquilius Gallus, Quintus Hortensius Hortalus , Lucius Licinius Lucullus , and many others who gained notoriety without readable works, are presumed by their association within
1442-658: Is a document noting the attendance of Bishop Eborius of Eboracum at the Council of Arles (314) . The Episcopal see at Eboracum was called Eboracensis in Latin and Bishops from the See also attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the Council of Serdica , and the Council of Ariminum . The name is preserved in the abbreviated form Ebor as the official name of the archbishop of York . The cemeteries of Roman York follow
1545-604: Is a left bank tributary of the River Ouse, situated near the York Castle. In the years 1947, 1978, 1982 and end of 2015 flooding occurred causing many areas to be under water. In 1982, a feasibility study was undertaken that indicated flood levels in the Foss are directly related to River Ouse levels. A barrier was proposed to counteract the backwash of the Ouse into the River Foss. In 2016 funds were allocated to upgrade
1648-620: Is attested here and several artifacts decorated with chi-rho symbols are known. Additionally, a small bone plaque from an inhumation grave bore the phrase SOROR AVE VIVAS IN DEO ("Hail sister may you live in God"). Changes in the layout of both the fort and colonia occurred in the late fourth century AD, suggested as representing a social change in the domestic lives of the military garrison here whereby they might have lived in smaller family groups with wives, children or other civilians. The rediscovery and modern understanding of Eboracum began in
1751-532: Is certain. Building work in the city continued in the fourth century under Constantine and later Count Theodosius . The locally produced Crambeck Ware pottery arrives in Eboracum in the fourth century—the most famous form being intricately decorated buff-yellow "parchment ware" painted with bright shades of red. The effect of Constantine 's religious policy allowed the greater development of Christianity in Roman Britain —a bishop of York named "Eborius"
1854-443: Is clear that his mindset had shifted from Golden and Silver Ages to Golden and Silver Latin, also to include Latinitas , which at this point must be interpreted as Classical Latin. He may have been influenced in that regard by one of his sources E. Opitz, who in 1852 had published specimen lexilogiae argenteae latinitatis , which includes Silver Latinity. Though Teuffel's First Period was equivalent to Old Latin and his Second Period
1957-548: Is dated c. 95–104 AD , and is an address containing the settlement's name, Eburaci , on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in what is now the modern Northumname="Hall"> Hall 1996 , p. 13</ref> During the Roman period, the name was written both Eboracum and Eburacum (in nominative form). The name Eboracum comes from the Common Brittonic *Eburākon , which means " yew tree place".< Hall 1996 , p. 27;
2060-644: Is evidence that the Emperor Hadrian visited in 122 on his way north to plan his great walled frontier. He either brought, or sent earlier, the Sixth Legion to replace the existing garrison. Emperor Septimius Severus visited Eboracum in 208 and made it his base for campaigning in Scotland. (The fortress wall was probably reconstructed during his stay and at the east angle it is possible to see this work standing almost to full height.) The Imperial court
2163-555: Is known as "classical" Latin literature . The term refers to the canonical relevance of literary works written in Latin in the late Roman Republic , and early to middle Roman Empire . "[T]hat is to say, that of belonging to an exclusive group of authors (or works) that were considered to be emblematic of a certain genre." The term classicus (masculine plural classici ) was devised by the Romans to translate Greek ἐγκριθέντες (encrithentes), and "select" which refers to authors who wrote in
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#17327658257282266-473: Is not that of the golden age... Evidently, Teuffel received ideas about golden and silver Latin from an existing tradition and embedded them in a new system, transforming them as he thought best. In Cruttwell's introduction, the Golden Age is dated 80 BC – AD 14 (from Cicero to Ovid ), which corresponds to Teuffel's findings. Of the "Second Period", Cruttwell paraphrases Teuffel by saying it "represents
2369-601: Is that period in which the climax was reached in the perfection of form, and in most respects also in the methodical treatment of the subject-matters. It may be subdivided between the generations, in the first of which (the Ciceronian Age) prose culminated, while poetry was principally developed in the Augustan Age. The Ciceronian Age was dated 671–711 AUC (83–43 BC), ending just after the death of Marcus Tullius Cicero. The Augustan 711–67 AUC (43 BC – 14 AD) ends with
2472-587: Is the first known reference (possibly innovated during this time) to Classical Latin applied by authors, evidenced in the authentic language of their works. Imitating Greek grammarians, Romans such as Quintilian drew up lists termed indices or ordines modeled after the ones created by the Greeks, which were called pinakes . The Greek lists were considered classical, or recepti scriptores ("select writers"). Aulus Gellius includes authors like Plautus , who are considered writers of Old Latin and not strictly in
2575-570: Is the northernmost confirmed use of aromatic resins in mortuary contexts during the Roman period. An excavation in advance of building work underneath the Yorkshire Museum in 2010 located a male skeleton with significant pathology to suggest that he may have died as a gladiator in Eboracum. The military presence at Eboracum was the driving force behind early developments in its economy . In these early stages, Eboracum operated as
2678-641: Is to be distinguished by: until 75 BC Old Latin 75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin 200–700 Late Latin 700–1500 Medieval Latin 1300–1500 Renaissance Latin 1300– present Neo-Latin 1900– present Contemporary Latin River Foss The River Foss is in North Yorkshire , England. It is a tributary of the River Ouse . It rises in the Foss Crooks Woods near Oulston Reservoir close to
2781-516: The Foss Navigation and Drainage Act 1801 ( 41 Geo. 3. (U.K.) c. cxv) were enacted to make the Foss navigable and saw the end of the King's Pool. The Foss Navigation Company canalised the river from 1778, to make it navigable as far as Sheriff Hutton . The York Drainage and Sanitary Improvement Act 1853 ( 16 & 17 Vict. c. lvi) saw York Corporation purchase the River Foss from
2884-619: The Antonines ), and the 3rd through 6th centuries. Of the Silver Age proper, Teuffel points out that anything like freedom of speech had vanished with Tiberius : ...the continual apprehension in which men lived caused a restless versatility... Simple or natural composition was considered insipid; the aim of language was to be brilliant... Hence it was dressed up with abundant tinsel of epigrams, rhetorical figures and poetical terms... Mannerism supplanted style, and bombastic pathos took
2987-641: The Mithras cult, which was popular among the military, has been found including a sculpture showing Mithras slaying a bull and a dedication to Arimanius , the god of evil in the Mithraic tradition. The Mithraic relief located in Micklegate suggests the location of a temple to Mithras right in the heart of the Colonia . Another example is the dedication of a temple to Serapis a Hellenistic - Egyptian God by
3090-746: The Ninth Legion north from Lincoln across the Humber. Eboracum was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress ( castra ) on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss . In the same year, Cerialis was appointed Governor of Britain. A legion at full strength at that time numbered some 5,500 men, and provided new trading opportunities for enterprising local people, who doubtless flocked to Eboracum to take advantage of them. As
3193-688: The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . The Rev. Charles Wellbeloved was one of the founders of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society and a curator of the antiquities in the Yorkshire Museum until his death in 1858. He published a systematic account of Roman York titled Eboracum or York under the Romans in 1842, including first hand records of discoveries during excavations in 1835. William Hargrove brought many new discoveries to
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3296-399: The Roman fort of Eboracum was aligned on a north-east/south-east bearing on the north bank of the River Ouse . It measured 1,600 × 1,360 pedes monetales (474 × 403 m) and covered an area of 50 acres (200,000 m). The standard layout of streets running through the castra is assumed, although some evidence exists for the via praetoria , via decumana and via sagularis . Much of
3399-516: The Romans , Eboracum was the major military base in the north of Britain and, following the 3rd century division of the province of Britannia , the capital of northern Britain, Britannia Inferior . By 237 Eboracum had been made a colonia , the highest legal status a Roman city could attain, one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers. This mark of Imperial favour
3502-419: The Yorkshire Museum . The true paths of all original Roman roads leading out of Eboracum are not known, although eleven have been suggested. The known roads include Dere Street leading North-West from the city through Clifton towards the site of Cataractonium (modern Catterick ), Cade's Road Towards Petuaria (modern Brough ), and Ermine Street towards Lindum (modern Lincoln ). A road bypassing
3605-483: The classici scriptores declined in the medieval period as the best form of the language yielded to medieval Latin , inferior to classical standards. The Renaissance saw a revival in Roman culture, and with it, the return of Classic ("the best") Latin. Thomas Sébillet 's Art Poétique (1548), "les bons et classiques poètes françois", refers to Jean de Meun and Alain Chartier , who the first modern application of
3708-466: The prima classis ("first class"), such as the authors of polished works of Latinitas , or sermo urbanus . It contains nuances of the certified and the authentic, or testis classicus ("reliable witness"). It was under this construct that Marcus Cornelius Fronto (an African - Roman lawyer and language teacher) used scriptores classici ("first-class" or "reliable authors") in the second century AD. Their works were viewed as models of good Latin. This
3811-591: The 17th century. Several prominent figures have been involved in this process. Martin Lister was the first to recognise that the Multangular Tower was Roman in date in a 1683 paper with the Royal Society . John Horsley 's 1732 Britannia Romana , or "The Roman Antiquities of Britain", included a chapter on Roman York and at least partly informed Francis Drake 's 1736 Eboracum —the first book of its kind on Roman York. Drake also published accounts in
3914-664: The Classical Latin period formed the model for the language taught and used in later periods across Europe and beyond. While the Latin used in different periods deviated from "Classical" Latin, efforts were periodically made to relearn and reapply the models of the Classical period, for instance by Alcuin during the reign of Charlemagne , and later during the Renaissance , producing the highly classicising form of Latin now known as Neo-Latin . "Good Latin" in philology
4017-520: The Commander of the Sixth Legion , Claudius Hieronymianus . Other known deities from the city include: Tethys , Veteris , Venus , Silvanus , Toutatis , Chnoubis and the Imperial Numen . There was also a Christian community in Eboracum although it is unknown when this was first formed and in archaeological terms there is virtually no record of it. The first evidence of this community
4120-525: The Conqueror dammed the Foss just south of York Castle, close to its confluence with the Ouse creating a moat around the castle. It caused the river to flood further upstream in what is now the Hungate and Layerthorpe areas, forming a large lake that was known as the "King's Pool" or the "King's Fish Pond" and which provided fish for the markets. The lake was approximately 100 acres in extent and fishing
4223-627: The Ebor Way and Centenary Way as far as West Lilling also follow the Foss for part of their way. Several species of fish are found in the river, such as Pike , Dace , Chub , Gudgeon , Perch and Roach . At the start of the century, Barbel have been introduced into the river. Flooding of the River Ouse occurs periodically in York. This is part of a series of schemes designed by the Yorkshire Water Authority. The River Foss
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4326-469: The Empire, he may have retained an interest in Eboracum and the reconstruction of the south-west front of the fortress with polygonally-fronted interval towers and the two great corner towers, one of which (the Multangular Tower ) still survives, is probably his work. In the colonia, Constantine's reign was a time of prosperity and a number of extensive stone town houses of the period have been excavated. For
4429-463: The English translation of A History of Roman Literature gained immediate success. In 1877, Charles Thomas Cruttwell produced a similar work in English. In his preface, Cruttwell notes "Teuffel's admirable history, without which many chapters in the present work could not have attained completeness." He also credits Wagner. Cruttwell adopts the time periods found in Teuffel's work, but he presents
4532-715: The Foss Navigation Company. The York Improvement (Foss Abandonment) Act 1859 ( 22 Vict. c. xix) allowed the river above Yearsley Bridge was abandoned as a waterway. Stillington Hall was a mansion on the west side of the Foss and adjoining the village of the same name. It was the home of the Croft family, who are descended from a common ancestor with the house of Croft, of Croft Castle in Herefordshire. Remains of Roman jetties, wharves and warehouses have been found by excavations and building works on
4635-434: The Foss flowing back on itself. The water pumped out should maintain a water level of 6.5m AOD behind the barrier. When both sides of the barrier are equalised, the barrier is raised. Castle Mills Lock is 34 metres long and 6 metres wide. There are mooring points in the lock basin on the Ouse side and overnight mooring on the Foss is prohibited. Beyond Rowntree Wharf there are few opportunities for turning. In 1069 William
4738-691: The Foss is a spring in the Howardian Hills adjacent to, and flowing into, Oulston Reservoir near Newburgh Priory , four miles (6.5 km) north of Easingwold . From there to the Blue Bridge in York , where it joins the Ouse , it is 19.5 miles (31 km) in length. For part of its way it runs close to the B1363 between Brandsby and Stillington. The river flows in wide meanders in a southerly direction for most of its course towards York. As of 2010
4841-421: The Golden Age. A list of canonical authors of the period whose works survived in whole or in part is shown here: The Golden Age is divided by the assassination of Julius Caesar . In the wars that followed, a generation of Republican literary figures was lost. Cicero and his contemporaries were replaced by a new generation who spent their formative years under the old constructs, and forced to make their mark under
4944-602: The Imperial Period, and is divided into die Zeit der julischen Dynastie ( 14–68); die Zeit der flavischen Dynastie (69–96), and die Zeit des Nerva und Trajan (96–117). Subsequently, Teuffel goes over to a century scheme: 2nd, 3rd, etc., through 6th. His later editions (which came about towards the end of the 19th century) divide the Imperial Age into parts: 1st century (Silver Age), 2nd century (the Hadrian and
5047-567: The River Foss from the Castle Mills to Foss Bridge, making it eight yards wide at the top and four yards at the bottom, and, in 1731 the Little Foss, the extension to enclose the castle was drained. In the 18th century, the water was so low that marshy islands were created (hence the modern name Foss Islands). Citizens used the river as a rubbish tip which became a health hazard. The Foss Navigation Act 1793 ( 33 Geo. 3 . c. 99) and
5150-492: The Roman Empire . Once again, Cruttwell evidences some unease with his stock pronouncements: "The Natural History of Pliny shows how much remained to be done in fields of great interest." The idea of Pliny as a model is not consistent with any sort of decline. Moreover, Pliny did his best work under emperors who were as tolerant as Augustus had been. To include some of the best writings of the Silver Age, Cruttwell extended
5253-474: The Second Period in his major work, das goldene Zeitalter der römischen Literatur ( Golden Age of Roman Literature ), dated 671–767 AUC (83 BC – AD 14), according to his own recollection. The timeframe is marked by the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix and the death of the emperor Augustus . Wagner's translation of Teuffel's writing is as follows: The golden age of the Roman literature
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#17327658257285356-430: The advance would be perceptible by us." In time, some of Cruttwell's ideas become established in Latin philology. While praising the application of rules to classical Latin (most intensely in the Golden Age, he says "In gaining accuracy, however, classical Latin suffered a grievous loss. It became cultivated as distinct from a natural language... Spontaneity, therefore, became impossible and soon invention also ceased... In
5459-399: The ancient definition, and some of the very best writing of any period in world history was deemed stilted, degenerate, unnatural language. The Silver Age furnishes the only two extant Latin novels: Apuleius's The Golden Ass and Petronius's Satyricon . Writers of the Silver Age include: Of the additional century granted by Cruttwell to Silver Latin, Teuffel says: "The second century
5562-618: The area from Crayke to the pre-1991 city boundary of York covering 9,085 hectares and 162.54 km of waterways. The Foss IDB is part of the York Consortium of Drainage Boards that oversees 10 IDB's in the Yorkshire region. The typical river level range at the Foss Barrier is between 5.05m and 7.90m. The highest river level recorded was 10.20 metres and the river level reached 9.34 metres on 23 January 2008. The source of
5665-521: The attention of the public through published articles in his newspaper the Herald and the Courant and published a series of guides with references to casual finds. The first large-scale excavations were undertaken by S. Miller from Glasgow University in the 1920s with a focus on the defences. Substantial physical remains have been excavated in York in the last two centuries including the city walls ,
5768-485: The banks of the Foss, suggesting that water-borne transport and trade were important from early in the history of the city. The modern Foss benefits most from leisure activity and several long-distance walks cross its path. The Foss Walk follows much of the river course from Blue Bridge to Oulston Reservoir and on to Easingwold, a distance of 28 miles (45 km). Part of the Howardian Way near Yearsley and both
5871-426: The body being encased in gypsum and then in a lead coffin . Variations on this combination exist. The gypsum casts, when found undisturbed, frequently retain a cast impression of the deceased in a textile shroud – surviving examples of both adults and children show a selection of textiles used to wrap the body before interment, but usually plain woven cloth. The high number of sarcophagi from Eboracum has provided
5974-408: The ceremonial use of food; dining scenes are used on tombstones to represent an aspirational image of the deceased in the afterlife, reclining on a couch and being served food and wine. The tombstones of Julia Velva, Mantinia Maercia and Aelia Aeliana each depict a dining scene. Additionally, several inhumation burials from Trentholme Drive contained hen's eggs placed in ceramic urns as grave goods for
6077-402: The common vernacular , however, as Vulgar Latin ( sermo vulgaris and sermo vulgi ), in contrast to the higher register that they called latinitas , sometimes translated as "Latinity". Latinitas was also called sermo familiaris ("speech of the good families"), sermo urbanus ("speech of the city"), and in rare cases sermo nobilis ("noble speech"). Besides the noun Latinitas , it
6180-505: The common Danish and Norwegian languages – roots of words and the original meaning. The old Norse word Fos (waterfall) means impetuous. The River Foss was dammed, and even though the elevation to the River Ouse is small, a waterfall was formed. This may have led to the name Fos which became Foss. The responsibility for the management of the river's drainage area is the Foss Internal drainage board (IDB). It has responsibility for
6283-474: The death of Augustus. The Ciceronian Age is further divided by the consulship of Cicero in 691 AUC (63 BC) into a first and second half. Authors are assigned to these periods by years of principal achievements. The Golden Age had already made an appearance in German philology, but in a less systematic way. In a translation of Bielfeld's Elements of universal erudition (1770): The Second Age of Latin began about
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#17327658257286386-561: The deceased. A range of evidence of Roman religious beliefs among the people of Eboracum have been found including altars to Mars , Hercules , Jupiter and Fortune . In terms of number of references, the most popular deities were the spiritual representation ( genius ) of Eboracum and the Mother Goddess . There is also evidence of local and regional deities. Evidence showing the worship of eastern deities has also been found during excavations in York. For example, evidence of
6489-543: The derivation from Latin ebur ( ivory ) instead refers to boar's tusks. The Roman conquest of Britain began in 43 AD, but advance beyond the Humber did not take place until the early 70s AD. This was because the people in the area, known as the Brigantes by the Romans, became a Roman client state . When Brigantian leadership changed, becoming more hostile to Rome, Roman general Quintus Petillius Cerialis led
6592-443: The extinction of freedom... Hence arose a declamatory tone, which strove by frigid and almost hysterical exaggeration to make up for the healthy stimulus afforded by daily contact with affairs. The vein of artificial rhetoric, antithesis and epigram... owes its origin to this forced contentment with an uncongenial sphere. With the decay of freedom, taste sank... In Cruttwell's view (which had not been expressed by Teuffel), Silver Latin
6695-445: The former was regarded as good or proper Latin; the latter as debased, degenerate, or corrupted. The word Latin is now understood by default to mean "Classical Latin"; for example, modern Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin. Cicero and his contemporaries of the late republic referred to the Latin language, in contrast to other languages such as Greek, as lingua latina or sermo latinus . They distinguished
6798-406: The fortress are recorded. Rebuilding in stone began in the early second century AD under Trajan , but may have taken as long as the start of the reign of Septimius Severus to be completed; a period of over 100 years. Estimates suggest that over 48,000 m of stone were required, largely consisting of Magnesian Limestone from the quarries near the Roman settlement of Calcaria ( Tadcaster ). There
6901-422: The fundamental characteristics of a language. The latter provides unity, allowing it to be referred to by a single name. Thus Old Latin, Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin , etc., are not considered different languages, but are all referred to by the term, Latin . This is an ancient practice continued by moderns rather than a philological innovation of recent times. That Latin had case endings is a fundamental feature of
7004-579: The highest excellence in prose and poetry." The Ciceronian Age (known today as the "Republican Period") is dated 80–42 BC, marked by the Battle of Philippi . Cruttwell omits the first half of Teuffel's Ciceronian, and starts the Golden Age at Cicero's consulship in 63 BC—an error perpetuated in Cruttwell's second edition. He likely meant 80 BC, as he includes Varro in Golden Latin. Teuffel's Augustan Age
7107-457: The language "is marked by immaturity of art and language, by a vigorous but ill-disciplined imitation of Greek poetical models, and in prose by a dry sententiousness of style, gradually giving way to a clear and fluent strength..." These abstracts have little meaning to those not well-versed in Latin literature. In fact, Cruttwell admits "The ancients, indeed, saw a difference between Ennius , Pacuvius , and Accius , but it may be questioned whether
7210-511: The language. Whether a given form of speech prefers to use prepositions such as ad , ex , de, for "to", "from" and "of" rather than simple case endings is a matter of style. Latin has a large number of styles. Each and every author has a style, which typically allows his prose or poetry to be identified by experienced Latinists. Problems in comparative literature have risen out of group styles finding similarity by period, in which case one may speak of Old Latin, Silver Latin, Late Latin as styles or
7313-462: The later 3rd century, the western Empire experienced political and economic turmoil and Britain was for some time ruled by usurpers independent of Rome. It was after crushing the last of these that Emperor Constantius I came to Eboracum and, in 306, became the second Emperor to die there. His son Constantine was instantly proclaimed as successor by the troops based in the fortress. Although it took Constantine eighteen years to become sole ruler of
7416-444: The legionary bath-house and headquarters building, civilian houses, workshops, storehouses and cemeteries. Classical Latin language Classical Latin is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a literary standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire . It formed parallel to Vulgar Latin around 75 BC out of Old Latin , and developed by the 3rd century AD into Late Latin . In some later periods,
7519-518: The main channel of the River Foss having been deepened in 1608. Eventually the lake was too shallow to remain viable as a defence. In 1644 the lake was shallow enough for Parliamentarian forces under Sir Thomas Fairfax to consider crossing it on foot to break the Siege of York during the English Civil War . In 1727 an order was placed upon Arthur Ingram, 6th Viscount of Irvine to scour
7622-693: The major Roman roads out of the settlement; excavations in the Castle Yard (next to Clifford's Tower ), beneath the railway station , at Trentholme Drive and the Mount have located significant evidence of human remains using both inhumation and cremation burial rites. The cemetery beneath the railway station was subject to excavations in advance of railway works of 1839–41, 1845, and 1870–7. Several sarcophagi were unearthed during this phase of excavations including those of Flavius Bellator and Julia Fortunata. Inhumation burial in sarcophagi can often include
7725-449: The major sources of meat. Hunting scenes, as shown through Romano-British "hunt cups", suggest hunting was a popular pastime and that diet would be supplemented through the hunting of hare, deer and boar. A variety of food preparation vessels ( mortaria ) have been excavated from the city and large millstones used in the processing of cereals have been found in rural sites outside the colonia at Heslington and Stamford Bridge . In terms of
7828-431: The modern understanding of the fortress defences has come from extensive excavations undertaken by L. P. Wenham . The layout of the fortress also followed the standard for a legionary fortress, with wooden buildings inside a square defensive boundary. These defences, originally consisting of turf ramparts on a green wood foundation, were built by the Ninth Legion between 71 and 74 AD. Later these were replaced by
7931-448: The other, would savour of artificial restriction rather than that of a natural classification." The contradiction remains—Terence is, and is not a classical author, depending on the context. Teuffel's definition of the "First Period" of Latin was based on inscriptions, fragments, and the literary works of the earliest known authors. Though he does use the term "Old Roman" at one point, most of these findings remain unnamed. Teuffel presents
8034-562: The period of classical Latin. The classical Romans distinguished Old Latin as prisca Latinitas and not sermo vulgaris . Each author's work in the Roman lists was considered equivalent to one in the Greek. In example, Ennius was the Latin Homer , Aeneid was the equivalent of Iliad , etc. The lists of classical authors were as far as the Roman grammarians went in developing a philology . The topic remained at that point while interest in
8137-410: The period through the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 AD). The philosophic prose of a good emperor was in no way compatible with either Teuffel's view of unnatural language, or Cruttwell's depiction of a decline. Having created these constructs, the two philologists found they could not entirely justify them. Apparently, in the worst implication of their views, there was no such thing as Classical Latin by
8240-583: The philological notion of classical Latin through a typology similar to the Ages of Man , setting out the Golden and Silver Ages of classical Latin. Wilhem Wagner, who published Teuffel's work in German, also produced an English translation which he published in 1873. Teuffel's classification, still in use today (with modifications), groups classical Latin authors into periods defined by political events rather than by style. Teuffel went on to publish other editions, but
8343-419: The place of quiet power. The content of new literary works was continually proscribed by the emperor, who exiled or executed existing authors and played the role of literary man, himself (typically badly). Artists therefore went into a repertory of new and dazzling mannerisms, which Teuffel calls "utter unreality." Cruttwell picks up this theme: The foremost of these [characteristics] is unreality, arising from
8446-1157: The proprietive suffix *-āko(n) "having" (cf. Welsh -og , Gaelic -ach ) meaning " yew tree place" (cf. efrog in Welsh , eabhrach/iubhrach in Irish Gaelic and eabhrach/iobhrach in Scottish Gaelic , by which names the city is known in those languages). The name was then Latinized by replacing the Celtic neuter nominative ending -on by its Latin equivalent -um , a common use noted also in Gaul and Lusitania ( Ebora Liberalitas Julia ). Various place names, such as Évry , Ivry , Ivrey , Ivory and Ivrac in France would all come from *eburacon / *eburiacon ; for example: Ivry-la-Bataille (Eure, Ebriaco in 1023–1033), Ivry-le-Temple ( Evriacum in 1199), and Évry (Essonne, Everiaco in 1158). Peter Schrijver has instead counter-argued that " eburos did not mean yew tree" and that
8549-407: The river is navigable for some 1.5 miles (2 km) upstream of Castle Mills Lock. The bridges by Peasholme Green and Foss Bank restrict the headroom to an air space of 2.4 metres. The Foss Barrier was built across the river near its mouth at Castle Mills. When closed, it prevents floodwater from the Ouse forcing the flow of the Foss back on itself. When the Ouse reaches 7.4m above ordnance datum,
8652-415: The rules of politus (polished) texts may give the appearance of an artificial language. However, Latinitas was a form of sermo (spoken language), and as such, retains spontaneity. No texts by Classical Latin authors are noted for the type of rigidity evidenced by stylized art, with the exception of repetitious abbreviations and stock phrases found on inscriptions. The standards, authors and manuals from
8755-475: The south wall of the fortress, between the fortress and the River Ouse has not been formally planned, although its path is conjectured to run beneath the York Museum Gardens . The River Ouse and River Foss provided important access points for the importation of heavy goods. The existence of two possible wharves on the east bank of the River Foss support this idea. A large deposit of grain, in
8858-451: The staff at the barrier are alerted. When the level reaches 7.8m AOD the barrier is lowered after running pumps for several minutes to clear silt and debris from the river bed to make a watertight fit. It takes four minutes to lower the barrier. To avoid the build-up of water behind the barrier causing the Foss to burst its banks, water is pumped around the barrier into the Ouse by eight pumps that pump water at 50 tonnes per second preventing
8961-437: The term "pre-classical" to Old Latin and implicating it to post-classical (or post-Augustan) and silver Latin, Cruttwell realized that his construct was not accordance with ancient usage and assertions: "[T]he epithet classical is by many restricted to the authors who wrote in it [golden Latin]. It is best, however, not to narrow unnecessarily the sphere of classicity; to exclude Terence on the one hand or Tacitus and Pliny on
9064-421: The time of Caesar [his ages are different from Teuffel's], and ended with Tiberius. This is what is called the Augustan Age, which was perhaps of all others the most brilliant, a period at which it should seem as if the greatest men, and the immortal authors, had met together upon the earth, in order to write the Latin language in its utmost purity and perfection... and of Tacitus, his conceits and sententious style
9167-539: The village of Yearsley and runs south through the Vale of York to the Ouse in the centre of York . The name most likely comes from the Latin word Fossa, meaning ditch. It is mentioned in the Domesday Book . The York district was settled by Norwegian and Danish people, so parts of the place names could be old Norse. Referring to the etymological dictionary "Etymologisk ordbog", ISBN 82-905-2016-6 deals with
9270-556: The watchful eye of a new emperor. The demand for great orators had ceased, shifting to an emphasis on poetry. Other than the historian Livy , the most remarkable writers of the period were the poets Virgil , Horace , and Ovid . Although Augustus evidenced some toleration to republican sympathizers, he exiled Ovid, and imperial tolerance ended with the continuance of the Julio-Claudian dynasty . Augustan writers include: In his second volume, Imperial Period , Teuffel initiated
9373-603: The wholly fictitious king Ebraucus (derived from the Old Welsh spelling of the place name, (Cair) Ebrauc ), ruling in the days of biblical King David , was an invention of Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae .</ref> The word for "yew" was *ebura in Proto-Celtic (cf. Old Irish ibar "yew-tree", Irish : iúr (older iobhar ), Scottish Gaelic : iubhar , Welsh : efwr " alder buckthorn ", Breton : evor "alder buckthorn"), combined with
9476-489: The words. According to Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary , the term classical (from classicus) entered modern English in 1599, some 50 years after its re-introduction to the continent. In Governor William Bradford 's Dialogue (1648), he referred to synods of a separatist church as "classical meetings", defined by meetings between "young men" from New England and "ancient men" from Holland and England. In 1715, Laurence Echard 's Classical Geographical Dictionary
9579-442: Was a "rank, weed-grown garden," a "decline." Cruttwell had already decried what he saw as a loss of spontaneity in Golden Latin. Teuffel regarded the Silver Age as a loss of natural language, and therefore of spontaneity, implying that it was last seen in the Golden Age. Instead, Tiberius brought about a "sudden collapse of letters." The idea of a decline had been dominant in English society since Edward Gibbon 's Decline and Fall of
9682-484: Was a happy period for the Roman State, the happiest indeed during the whole Empire... But in the world of letters the lassitude and enervation, which told of Rome's decline, became unmistakeable... its forte is in imitation." Teuffel, however, excepts the jurists; others find other "exceptions", recasting Teuffels's view. Style of language refers to repeatable features of speech that are somewhat less general than
9785-459: Was able to define sublime, intermediate, and low styles within Classical Latin. St. Augustine recommended low style for sermons. Style was to be defined by deviation in speech from a standard. Teuffel termed this standard "Golden Latin". John Edwin Sandys , who was an authority in Latin style for several decades, summarizes the differences between Golden and Silver Latin as follows: Silver Latin
9888-593: Was allowed by licence, except for the King's Men. The King's Pool was part of the city's inner defences during the Middle Ages as the marsh was virtually impassable and explains why there is no city wall between Layerthorpe Postern and the Red Tower. In the 17th century, the King's Pool and the Foss were in decline because silt from upriver collected in the Pool, and not enough water came down to move it on despite
9991-486: Was based in York until at least 211, when Severus died and was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta . A biographer, Cassius Dio , described a scene in which the Emperor utters the final words to his two sons on his death bed: "Agree with each other, make the soldiers rich, and ignore everyone else." Severus was cremated in Eboracum shortly after his death. Dio described the ceremony: "His body arrayed in military garb
10094-400: Was equal to the Golden Age, his Third Period die römische Kaiserheit encompasses both the Silver Age and the centuries now termed Late Latin , in which the forms seemed to break loose from their foundation and float freely. That is, men of literature were confounded about the meaning of "good Latin." The last iteration of Classical Latin is known as Silver Latin. The Silver Age is the first of
10197-471: Was placed upon a pyre, and as a mark of honour the soldiers and his sons ran about it and as for the soldier's gifts, those who had things at hand to offer them put them upon it and his sons applied the fire." (The location of the cremation was not recorded. A hill to the west of modern York, known as Severus Hill , is associated by some antiquarians as the site where this cremation took place, but no archaeological investigation has corroborated this claim.) In
10300-413: Was probably a recognition of Eboracum as the largest town in the north and the capital of Britannia Inferior. At around the same time Eboracum became self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants and veteran soldiers. In 296 Britannia Inferior was divided into two provinces of equal status with Eboracum becoming the provincial capital of Britannia Secunda . As a busy port and
10403-737: Was published. In 1736, Robert Ainsworth 's Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius turned English words and expressions into "proper and classical Latin." In 1768, David Ruhnken 's Critical History of the Greek Orators recast the molded view of the classical by applying the word "canon" to the pinakes of orators after the Biblical canon , or list of authentic books of the Bible. In doing so, Ruhnken had secular catechism in mind. In 1870, Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel 's Geschichte der Römischen Literatur ( A History of Roman Literature ) defined
10506-472: Was referred to with the adverb latine ("in (good) Latin", literally "Latinly") or its comparative latinius ("in better Latin", literally "more Latinly"). Latinitas was spoken and written. It was the language taught in schools. Prescriptive rules therefore applied to it, and when special subjects like poetry or rhetoric were taken into consideration, additional rules applied. Since spoken Latinitas has become extinct (in favor of subsequent registers),
10609-509: Was the major manufacturing centre for Whitby Jet . Known as gagates in Latin, it was used from the early 3rd century as material for jewellery and was exported from here throughout Britain and into Europe. Examples found in York take the form of rings, bracelets, necklaces, and pendants depicting married couples and the Medusa . There are fewer than 25 jet pendants in the Roman world, of which six are known from Eboracum. These are housed in
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