Unitarianism (from Latin unitas 'unity, oneness') is a nontrinitarian branch of Christianity . Unitarian Christians affirm the unitary nature of God as the singular and unique creator of the universe , believe that Jesus Christ was inspired by God in his moral teachings and that he is the savior of humankind, but he is not equal to God himself. Accordingly, Unitarians reject the Ecumenical Councils and ecumenical creeds , and sit outside traditional, main-stream Christianity.
134-410: Edward Everett (April 11, 1794 – January 15, 1865) was an American politician, Unitarian pastor, educator, diplomat, and orator from Massachusetts . Everett, as a Whig , served as U.S. representative , U.S. senator , the 15th governor of Massachusetts , minister to Great Britain , and United States secretary of state . He also taught at Harvard University and served as its president . Everett
268-506: A Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission in 1996. Unitarianism Unitarianism was established in order to restore " primitive Christianity before later corruptions set in". Likewise, Unitarian Christians generally reject the doctrine of original sin . The churchmanship of Unitarianism may include liberal denominations or Unitarian Christian denominations that are more conservative , with
402-633: A Republican were to be elected president. A group of conservative ex-Whigs organized the Constitutional Union Party , which claimed as its sole principle the preservation of the Union. Supporters of Everett put his name forward as a candidate for president, but the party ended up nominating John Bell , and Everett for vice president . Everett reluctantly accepted the post, but did not campaign very much. The Bell–Everett ticket received only 39 electoral votes, all from Southern states. In
536-501: A "Socinian" view was James Freeman . Regarding the virgin birth of Jesus among those who denied the preexistence of Christ, some held to it and others did not. Its denial is sometimes ascribed to the Ebionites ; however, Origen ( Contra Celsum v.61) and Eusebius ( HE iii.27) both indicate that some Ebionites did accept the virgin birth. On the other hand, Theodotus of Byzantium , Artemon , and Paul of Samosata all accepted
670-453: A "horrible" and "detested" bill. However, because of his health he missed a critical vote on the bill, departing the chamber during a debate that ended up lasting all night. This angered Massachusetts anti-slavery interests, who sent him a strongly-worded petition to submit to the Senate. Because of his distaste for the more extreme elements in the abolition debate, Everett's speech in support of
804-571: A Constitutional amendment to alter the way the president was elected, so that Congress would not be required to decide (as it had in the 1824 election ). Rising in opposition to the amendment on March 9, 1826, Everett delivered a three-hour speech in which he generally opposed the need to amend the Constitution. However, he also expounded on the issue of slavery, noting that "the New Testament says 'Slaves obey your masters'", and accepting
938-619: A cage. —Everett, describing how he felt about teaching in 1821 Everett began his public speaking career while he taught at Harvard, which combined with his editorship of the Review to bring him some national prominence. He preached at a service held in the United States Capitol that brought him wide notice and acclaim in political circles. In 1822, he delivered a series of lectures in Boston on art and antiquities. The series
1072-1027: A church hierarchy that includes the election by the synod of a national bishop who serves as superintendent of the Church. Many Hungarian Unitarians embrace the principles of rationalist Unitarianism. Unitarian high schools exist only in Transylvania (Romania), including the John Sigismund Unitarian Academy in Cluj-Napoca , the Protestant Theological Institute of Cluj , and the Berde Mózes Unitárius Gimnázium in Cristuru Secuiesc ; both teach Rationalist Unitarianism. The Unitarian Christian Association (UCA)
1206-684: A collection of both existing and extinct Christian groups (whether historically related to each other or not) that share a common theological concept of the unitary nature of God. Unitarian Christian communities and churches have developed in Central Europe (mostly Romania and Hungary ), Ireland , India , Jamaica , Japan , Canada , Nigeria , South Africa , the United Kingdom , and the United States . In British America , different schools of Unitarian theology first spread in
1340-542: A cultural and intellectual centre of a whole society, a place where ideas about society were openly and critically discussed. Valedictorian Valedictorian ( VD ) is an academic title for the highest-performing student of a graduating class of an academic institution. The valedictorian is generally determined by an academic institution's grade point average (GPA) system but other methods of selection may be factored in such as volunteer work , scholastic awards, research, and extra-curricular activity. The term
1474-493: A disabled student sole honors. While those who do well in school often find success in university and professional life, one study claimed to show that valedictorians were not any more likely to excel at a global scale than other students, with the argument being made that those with passions for subjects are more likely to excel, yet those same students tend to find it more difficult to work hard at subjects that they are not interested in. The valedictory address, or valediction ,
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#17327797235361608-485: A few months until he was sworn in as U.S. Senator from Massachusetts. In the later years of his life, Everett traveled and gave speeches all over the country. He supported efforts to maintain the Union before the Civil War, running for Vice President on the Constitutional Union Party ticket in 1860. He was active in supporting the Union effort during the war and supported Lincoln in the 1864 election . Edward Everett
1742-807: A few years he became the leader of the Unitarian movement. A theological battle with the Congregational Churches resulted in the formation of the American Unitarian Association at Boston in 1825. Certainly, the unitarian theology was being "adopted" by the Congregationalists from the 1820s onwards. This movement is also evident in England at this time. The first school founded by the Unitarians in
1876-515: A fortune in a variety of business endeavors, including marine insurance , and would financially support Everett when he embarked on his career in politics. Everett would also become associated through the Brooks family with John Quincy Adams ' son Charles Francis Adams, Sr. , who married Charlotte's sister Abigail. The Everetts had a happy and fruitful marriage, producing six children who survived infancy: Everett had decided as early as 1821 that he
2010-587: A national bank—and the interests of Massachusetts' propertied class. Everett was re-elected to four additional terms as a National Republican, serving until 1835. The National Republicans formally became the Whig Party in 1834. In Congress Everett sat on the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, and on the Committee on Libraries and Public Buildings, both of which he chaired in his last term. Since he
2144-650: A pre-existent Jesus who was subordinate to God the Father were Lucian of Antioch , Eusebius of Caesarea , Arius , Eusebius of Nicomedia , Asterius the Sophist , Eunomius , and Ulfilas , as well as Felix, Bishop of Urgell . Proponents of this Christology also associate it (more controversially) with Justin Martyr and Hippolytus of Rome . Antitrinitarian Michael Servetus did not deny the pre-existence of Christ, so he may have believed in it. (In his "Treatise Concerning
2278-554: A signatory to the Oregon State Constitution, founded the first Unitarian church in Oregon in 1865. Eleven Nobel Prizes have been awarded to Unitarians: Robert Millikan and John Bardeen (twice) in physics; Emily Green Balch , Albert Schweitzer and Linus Pauling for peace; George Wald and David H. Hubel in medicine; Linus Pauling in chemistry; and Herbert A. Simon in economics. Four presidents of
2412-423: A speech. In France the term Major de promotion ("first in class") is used, although the term is not related to any ceremonial role, as there are rarely graduation ceremonies in schools or universities. The most common method of selection is typically based upon the highest grade point average . Some institutions confer the title on the class member chosen to deliver the final graduation address, regardless of
2546-446: A story for all ages; and include sermons, prayers, hymns and songs. Some will allow attendees to publicly share their recent joys or concerns. This section relates to Unitarian churches and organizations today which are still specifically Christian, whether within or outside Unitarian Universalism. Unitarian Universalism, conversely, refers to the embracing of non-Christian religions. Some Unitarian Christian groups are affiliated with
2680-476: A student's grade point average, the level of rigor within a student's academic program of studies, a vote by school administrators, the level of participation in and dedication to extracurricular activities , and one's public-speaking skills and abilities. In other schools, the position may be elected by the school body or appointed directly by the school administration based on various systems of merit. Some schools may feature "co-valedictorians" in lieu of conferring
2814-647: A teaching job at Harvard. The position included preparatory studies in Europe, so Everett spent two years in studies at the University of Göttingen , and another two years traveling around Europe. At Harvard he taught ancient Greek literature for several years before starting an extensive and popular speaking career. He served ten years in the United States Congress before winning election as Governor of Massachusetts in 1835. As Governor he introduced
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#17327797235362948-621: A theology and as a denominational family of churches , was defined and developed in Poland, Transylvania, England, Wales, India, Japan, Jamaica, the United States, and beyond in the 16th century through the present. Although common beliefs existed among Unitarians in each of these regions, they initially grew independently from each other. Only later did they influence one another and accumulate more similarities. The Ecclesia minor or Minor Reformed Church of Poland , better known today as
3082-719: A tool for missionary work or encouraging conversions. In India, three different schools of Unitarian thought influenced varying movements, including the Brahmo Samaj , the Unitarian Church of the Khasi Hills , and the Unitarian Christian Church of Chennai , in Madras, founded in 1795. As of 2011, "Thirty-five congregations and eight fellowships comprising almost 10,000 Unitarians now form
3216-423: Is a proper noun and follows the same English usage as other Christian theologies that have developed within a religious group or denomination (such as Calvinism , Anabaptism , Adventism , Lutheranism , Wesleyanism , etc.). The term existed shortly before it became the name of a distinct religious tradition, thus occasionally it is used as a common noun to describe any understanding of Jesus Christ that denies
3350-497: Is an Anglicised derivation of the Latin vale dicere ("to say farewell"), historically rooted in the valedictorian's traditional role as the final speaker at the graduation ceremony commencement before the students receive their diplomas. The valedictory address, also known as the valediction , is generally considered a final farewell to classmates, before they disperse to pursue their individual paths after graduating. The term
3484-423: Is considered a factor in the decline of classical deism because there were people who increasingly preferred to identify themselves as Unitarians rather than deists. Several tenets of Unitarianism overlap with the predominant Muslim view of Jesus and Islamic understanding of monotheism . The Christology commonly called " Socinian " (after Fausto Sozzini , one of the founders of Unitarian theology) refers to
3618-737: Is not required. The modern Unitarian Church in Hungary (25,000 members) and the Transylvanian Unitarian Church (75,000 members) are affiliated with the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (ICUU) and claim continuity with the historical Unitarian Christian tradition established by Ferenc Dávid in 1565 in Transylvania under John II Sigismund Zápolya . The Unitarian churches in Hungary and Transylvania are structured and organized along
3752-488: Is not widely used outside the United States , Canada , and the Philippines , although some countries may award equivalent titles. In Australia, the title is sometimes awarded to a member of a graduating university class on the basis of a contribution to the school rather than academic success. The highest-ranking student in a graduating class is often referred to as dux (Latin for "leader"), and may or may not give
3886-489: Is now known as Framingham State University ). Other accomplishments during Everett's tenure include the authorization of an extension of the railroad system from Worcester to the New York state line, and assistance in the quieting of border tensions between Maine and the neighboring British (now Canadian ) province of New Brunswick . Massachusetts was involved in this dispute because, as part of Maine's separation from
4020-459: Is the closing or farewell statement delivered at a graduation ceremony. It is an oration at commencement (in Canada, called convocation in university and graduation in high school) exercises in U.S. and some Canadian high schools, colleges, and universities delivered by one of the graduates. The mode of discourse generally is inspirational and persuasive. The various aims of this address are to inspire
4154-513: The American Unitarian Association began to allow non-Christian and non-theistic churches and individuals to be part of their fellowship. As a result, people who held no Unitarian belief began to be called Unitarians because they were members of churches that belonged to the American Unitarian Association. After several decades, the non-theistic members outnumbered the theological Unitarians. Unitarianism, both as
Edward Everett - Misplaced Pages Continue
4288-578: The Brattle Street Church , to study for the ministry. This Everett did under the tutelage of Harvard President John Thornton Kirkland , earning his MA in 1813. During this time in particular he developed a facility for working with both the written and spoken word. The Reverend Buckminster died in 1812, and Everett was immediately offered the post at the Brattle Street Church on a probationary basis after his graduation, which
4422-653: The Freemasons , he refused, and supported Whig John Davis for governor that year. Davis won the election, which was held in November 1834. In February 1835, the state legislature elected Davis to the United States Senate . In an arrangement brokered in part by Daniel Webster, Everett was promised the Whig nomination for governor (a move that upset Lieutenant Governor Samuel Turell Armstrong , who also sought
4556-571: The Holy Spirit . This Christology existed in some form or another prior to Sozzini. Theodotus of Byzantium , Artemon and Paul of Samosata denied the pre-existence of Christ. These ideas were continued by Marcellus of Ancyra and his pupil Photinus in the 4th century AD. In the Radical Reformation and Anabaptist movements of the 16th century this idea resurfaced with Sozzini's uncle, Lelio Sozzini . Having influenced
4690-644: The International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (ICUU), founded in 1995. The ICUU has "full member" groups in Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, EUU, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Romania, South Africa, Spain. Sri Lanka and the United States. Brazil is a Provisional Member. The ICUU includes small "Associate Groups", including Congregazione Italiana Cristiano Unitariana, Turin (founded in 2004) and
4824-637: The Logos , or the Word, a being begotten or created by God, who dwelt with God in heaven. There are many varieties of this form of Unitarianism, ranging from the belief that the Son was a divine spirit of the same substance (called Subordinationism ) or of a similar substance to that of God (called Semi-Arianism ) to the belief that he was an angel or other lesser spirit creature of a wholly different nature from God. Not all of these views necessarily were held by Arius ,
4958-596: The Mount Vernon Papers . Everett was disheartened by the sectional divisions between the Northern and Southern states during the late 1850s. In 1859 he was the keynote speaker at an anti- John Brown rally that filled Faneuil Hall to capacity. The 1860 election threatened to produce a national crisis, with pro-slavery Southerners splitting the Democratic Party and threatening secession if
5092-752: The National Gallery in Athens .) This collaboration between Webster and Everett was the start of a lifelong political association between the two men. Everett delivered speeches commemorating the opening battles of the American Revolution in Concord, Massachusetts in 1825 and Lexington, Massachusetts in 1835. On May 8, 1822, Everett married Charlotte Gray Brooks (1800–1859), a daughter of Peter Chardon Brooks and Ann Gorham, who like Everett were of old New England lineage. Brooks had made
5226-478: The National Urban League , and Florence Nightingale in humanitarianism and social justice; John Bowring , Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Elizabeth Gaskell in literature; Frank Lloyd Wright in the arts; Josiah Wedgwood , Richard Peacock and Samuel Carter MP in industry; Thomas Starr King in ministry and politics; and Charles William Eliot in education. Julia Ward Howe was a leader in
5360-619: The New England Colonies and subsequently in the Mid-Atlantic States . The first official acceptance of the Unitarian faith on the part of a congregation in North America was by King's Chapel in Boston, from where James Freeman began teaching Unitarian doctrine in 1784 and was appointed rector. Later in 1785, he created a revised Unitarian Book of Common Prayer based on Lindsey's work. Unitarianism
5494-605: The Polish Brethren to a formal declaration of this belief in the Racovian Catechism , Fausto Sozzini involuntarily ended up giving his name to this Christological position, which continued with English Unitarians such as John Biddle , Thomas Belsham , Theophilus Lindsey , and James Martineau . In America, most of the early Unitarians were "Arian" in Christology (see below), but among those who held to
Edward Everett - Misplaced Pages Continue
5628-524: The Polish Brethren , was born as the result of a controversy that started on January 22, 1556, when Piotr of Goniądz (Peter Gonesius), a Polish student, spoke out against the doctrine of the Trinity during the general synod of the Reformed ( Calvinist ) churches of Poland held in the village of Secemin . After nine years of debate, in 1565, the anti-Trinitarians were excluded from the existing synod of
5762-629: The Polish Reformed Church (henceforth the Ecclesia maior ) and they began to hold their own synods as the Ecclesia minor . Though frequently called " Arians " by those on the outside, the views of Fausto Sozzini (Faustus Socinus) became the standard in the church, and these doctrines were quite removed from Arianism. So important was Socinus to the formulation of their beliefs that those outside Poland usually referred to them as Socinians . The Polish Brethren were disbanded in 1658 by
5896-557: The Sejm (Polish Parliament). They were ordered to convert to Roman Catholicism or leave Poland. Most of them went to Transylvania or Holland, where they embraced the name "Unitarian". Between 1665 and 1668 a grandson of Socinus, Andrzej Wiszowaty Sr. , published Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum quos Unitarios vocant ( Library of the Polish Brethren who are called Unitarians 4 vols. 1665–1669). The Unitarian Church in Transylvania
6030-469: The True Jesus Church , and the writings of Michael Servetus (all of which maintain that Jesus is God as a single person). Recently, some religious groups have adopted the 19th-century term biblical unitarianism to distinguish their theologies from Unitarianism. Unitarianism is a Christian theology and practice that precedes and is distinct from Unitarian Universalism . In the 1890s
6164-548: The United States House of Representatives . Other political factions also endorsed his candidacy, and he was easily elected in the November 1824 election. He had expected to continue teaching at Harvard while serving, but was informed by its Board of Overseers that he had been dismissed because of the election victory. He took this news well, even agreeing to refund to the college the costs of his European travels. He continued to remain associated with Harvard, joining
6298-502: The United States Senate . He was elected by the state legislature, and took the office on March 4, 1853. In the Senate he sat on the Foreign Relations Committee , and on the Committee on Territories. He was opposed to the extension of slavery in the western territories, but was concerned that the radical Free Soil Party 's hardline stance would result in disunion. The aloofness that characterized Everett's style in
6432-840: The University of Leiden in the Netherlands for the ministry of the Dutch Reformed Church in Cape Town . There are two active Unitarian churches in Ireland, one in Dublin and the other in Cork. Both are member churches of the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland . Unitarianism was a latecomer to Denmark. Some of the inspiration came from Norway and England – family members of
6566-548: The religion of Jesus, not a religion about Jesus" to Unitarians, though the phrase was used earlier by Congregationalist Rollin Lynde Hartt in 1924. Worship within the Unitarian tradition accommodates a wide range of understandings of God , while the focus of the service may be simply the celebration of life itself. Each Unitarian congregation is at liberty to devise its own form of worship, though commonly, Unitarians will light their chalice (symbol of faith), have
6700-613: The state Board of Education , the first of its type in the nation. In 1831, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society . After being narrowly defeated in the 1839 election , Everett was appointed Minister to Great Britain, serving until 1845. He next became President of Harvard, a job he quickly came to dislike. In 1849, he became an assistant to longtime friend and colleague Daniel Webster , who had been appointed Secretary of State. Upon Webster's death Everett served as Secretary of State for
6834-475: The 16th to 18th centuries, Unitarians in Britain often faced significant political persecution, including John Biddle , Mary Wollstonecraft , and Theophilus Lindsey . In England, the first Unitarian Church was established in 1774 on Essex Street, London , where today's British Unitarian headquarters is still located. As is typical of dissenters and nonconformists , Unitarianism does not constitute one single Christian denomination ; rather, it refers to
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#17327797235366968-517: The Board of Overseers in 1827 and serving for many years. The political situation in the country was quite fluid in the late 1820s. The Federalist Party had collapsed, and the victorious Democratic-Republican Party had become diffuse, resulting in political factionalism in place of party affiliation. Everett was associated with the " National Republican " faction of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay . He supported Clay's " National System "—which called for protective tariffs, internal improvements , and
7102-536: The Brattle Street Church, and idolized him. He wrote that Everett's voice was "of such rich tones, such precise and perfect utterance, that, although slightly nasal, it was the most mellow and beautiful and correct of all instruments of the time." In 1820 Everett was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . That year he became editor of the North American Review , a literary magazine to which he had contributed articles while studying in Europe. In addition to editing he made numerous contributions to
7236-455: The British government, and Everett, as ambassador, advanced these cases. In this he was generally successful, given the friendly British stance. One aspect of the slave trade interdiction proposed by Everett found its way into the treaty negotiated by Webster: the stationing of an American squadron off the coast of Africa to cooperate with the British effort. The issue of slaving-related seizures caused some friction at home, especially after Webster
7370-489: The Bét Dávid Unitarian Association, Oslo (founded 2005). The largest Unitarian denomination worldwide today is also the oldest Unitarian denomination (since 1565, first use of the term "Unitarian" 1600): the Unitarian Church of Transylvania (in Romania , which is in union with the Unitarian Church in Hungary). The church in Transylvania still looks to the statement of faith, the Summa Universae Theologiae Christianae secundum Unitarios (1787), though today assent to this
7504-404: The Danish Lutheran Church, to one where this was no longer assumed ( ). Biblical Unitarianism identifies the Christian belief that the Bible teaches that God the Father is one singular being , and that Jesus Christ is a distinct being, his son, but not divine. A few denominations use this term to describe themselves, clarifying the distinction between them and those churches which, from
7638-456: The Divine Trinity" Servetus taught that the Logos (Word) was the reflection of Christ, and "that reflection of Christ was 'the Word with God" that consisted of God Himself, shining brightly in heaven, "and it was God Himself" and that "the Word was the very essence of God or the manifestation of God's essence, and there was in God no other substance or hypostasis than His Word, in a bright cloud where God then seemed to subsist. And in that very spot
7772-550: The Favorable Progress of Literature in America". He pointed out that America's situation as an expanding nation with a common language and a democratic foundation gave its people a unique and distinctive opportunity for creating truly American literature. Unfettered by Europe's traditions and bureaucracy, Americans could use the experiences of settling the west to develop a new style of intellectual thought. The crowd reacted with lengthy applause, and not long afterward an informal non-partisan caucus nominated Everett as its candidate for
7906-409: The Fillmore administration had no interest in annexing Cuba, he made it clear that the U.S. did not want to foreclose the option by engaging in an essentially political alliance, and reinforced the notion that the U.S. saw Cuba as its concern and not a matter for outside interference. While he was still serving as secretary of state, Everett was approached by Massachusetts Whig leaders about running for
8040-404: The German city of Göttingen . There he entered the university , where he studied French , German , and Italian , along with Roman law , archaeology, and Greek art . He was a disciplined student, but he and George Ticknor , with whom he had traveled, were also quite sociable. Everett noted that they were viewed by many at the university as curiosities, and were often the focus of attention. He
8174-402: The German liberal theology associated primarily with Friedrich Schleiermacher , the psilanthropist view increased in popularity. Its proponents took an intellectual and humanistic approach to religion. They embraced evolutionary concepts, asserted the "inherent goodness of man", and abandoned the doctrine of biblical infallibility , rejecting most of the miraculous events in the Bible (including
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#17327797235368308-407: The Massachusetts press. Everett would be dogged by the speech for the rest of his political career. Everett retired from Congress in 1835, after deciding that he did not really like the rough-and-tumble nature of the proceedings in the House. He had been offered the nomination for governor of Massachusetts by the Anti-Masonic Party in 1834; although he was known to be against secret societies like
8442-409: The Republicans. On January 9, 1865, at the age of 70, Everett spoke at a public meeting in Boston to raise funds for the southern poor in Savannah. At that meeting he caught a cold, which turned into pneumonia four days later, after he had testified for three hours in a civil dispute concerning property he owned in Winchester, Massachusetts . Everett wrote a letter to the publishers N. A. & R. A.
8576-468: The UK ambassadorship as a way to distance himself from the unpopular president; Webster eventually resigned in 1843. Everett remained at his post until 1845, when after the accession of James K. Polk to the presidency he was replaced by Democrat Louis McLane . His last months in the post were occupied with the Oregon boundary dispute , which was eventually resolved by McLane along lines negotiated by Everett. Even before his departure from London, Everett
8710-411: The Unitarian Chapel was known as the "Mayors' Nest". Numerous Unitarian families were highly significant in the social and political life of Britain from Victorian times to the middle of the 20th century. They included the Nettlefolds , Martineaus , Luptons , Kitsons , Chamberlains and Kenricks. In Birmingham, England , a Unitarian church – the Church of the Messiah – was opened in 1862. It became
8844-454: The Unitarian Union of North East India." The American Unitarian Conference (AUC) was formed in 2000 and stands between UUA and ICUU in attachment to the Christian element of modern Unitarianism. The American Unitarian Conference is open to non-Christian Unitarians, being particularly popular with non-Christian theists and deists . As of 2009, The AUC has three congregations in the United States. Unitarian Christian Ministries International
8978-426: The Unitarian faith on the part of a congregation in America was by King's Chapel in Boston, which settled James Freeman (1759–1835) in 1782, and revised the Prayer Book into a mild Unitarian liturgy in 1785. In 1800, Joseph Stevens Buckminster became minister of the Brattle Street Church in Boston, where his brilliant sermons, literary activities, and academic attention to the German "New Criticism" helped shape
9112-472: The Unitarian preacher and theologian Ferenc Dávid ( c. 1520 –1579). Among its adherents were a significant number of Italians who took refuge in Bohemia , Moravia , Poland, and Transylvania in order to escape from the religious persecution perpetrated against them by the Roman Catholic and Magisterial Protestant churches. In the 17th century, significant repression in Poland led many Unitarians to flee or be killed for their faith. From
9246-421: The United States was the Clinton Liberal Institute , in Clinton, Oneida County, New York , founded in 1831. Unitarians charge that the Trinity , unlike unitarianism, fails to adhere to strict monotheism. Unitarians maintain that Jesus was a great man and a prophet of God, perhaps even a supernatural being, but not God himself. They believe Jesus did not claim to be God and that his teachings did not suggest
9380-418: The United States were Unitarians: John Adams , John Quincy Adams , Millard Fillmore , and William Howard Taft . Adlai Stevenson II , the Democratic presidential nominee in 1952 and 1956, was a Unitarian; he was the last Unitarian to be nominated by a major party for president as of 2024. Although a self-styled materialist, Thomas Jefferson was pro-Unitarian to the extent of suggesting that it would become
9514-416: The Whigs in 1839. The election, held November 11, 1839, was so close that the results were scrutinized by the (Whig-dominated) legislature when it met in January 1840. A joint legislative committee reported that Morton received exactly one-half the votes cast, sufficient to secure his victory. (One vote less for Morton would have resulted in the Whig legislature deciding the election.) Everett refused to contest
9648-412: The belief that Jesus Christ began his life when he was born as a human. In other words, the teaching that Jesus pre-existed his human body is rejected. There are various views ranging from the belief that Jesus was simply a human ( psilanthropism ) who, because of his greatness, was adopted by God as his Son ( adoptionism ) to the belief that Jesus literally became the son of God when he was conceived by
9782-660: The churches associated with the Christian Church in Italy . Notable Unitarians include classical composers Edvard Grieg and Béla Bartók ; Ralph Waldo Emerson , Theodore Parker , Yveon Seon and Thomas Lamb Eliot in theology and ministry; Oliver Heaviside , Erasmus Darwin , Joseph Priestley , John Archibald Wheeler , Linus Pauling , Sir Isaac Newton and inventor Sir Francis Ronalds in science; George Boole in mathematics; Susan B. Anthony in civil government; Frances Ellen Watkins Harper , Whitney Young of
9916-541: The doctrine of the Trinity or affirms the belief that God is only one person . In that case, it would be a Nontrinitarian belief system not necessarily associated with the Unitarian movement. For example, the Unitarian movement has never accepted the Godhood of Jesus, and therefore does not include those nontrinitarian belief systems that do, such as Oneness Pentecostalism , United Pentecostal Church International ,
10050-501: The document even though it contained the Three-Fifths Compromise . Reaction to this speech was highly critical, and Everett was attacked by political friends and foes for this apparent endorsement of slavery. He attempted to justify his statements by pointing out that he rejected the slave trade and the act of kidnapping someone into slavery, but this did not mitigate the damage, and he was heavily criticized for it in
10184-542: The establishment of normal schools for the training of teachers. Based on details of the Prussian education system which Everett had learned about, this groundbreaking accomplishment would be emulated by other states. The state Board of Education was established in 1837, with reformer Horace Mann as its secretary. The state's first normal school opened in Lexington the next year (it afterward moved to Framingham and
10318-432: The existence of a triune God . Unitarian Christology can be divided according to whether or not Jesus is believed to have had a pre-human existence. Both forms maintain that God is one being and one person and that Jesus is the (or a) Son of God , but generally not God himself. In the early 19th century, Unitarian Robert Wallace identified three particular classes of Unitarian doctrines in history: Unitarianism
10452-427: The face and personality of Christ shone bright." ) Isaac Newton had Arian beliefs as well. Famous 19th-century Arian Unitarians include Andrews Norton and William Ellery Channing (in his earlier years). Although there is no specific authority on convictions of Unitarian belief aside from rejection of the Trinity, the following beliefs are generally accepted: In 1938, The Christian Leader attributed "
10586-497: The founders, and the wife of Edward Grieg. 1900–1918 the society priest was Uffe Birkedal, who had previously been a Lutheran priest. He held the first worship 18 February 1900. A founding general assembly 18 May 1900 elected Mary Bess Westenholz as the first chairman of the Society. The Society newsletter was named 'Protestantisk Tidende' 1904–1993, and then renamed 'Unitaren', reflecting a gradually changing perception of being part of
10720-564: The incoming freshman class, not students already enrolled. Another New Jersey case raised the question of whether accommodations for students under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and related laws should affect valedictorian honors. In Hornstine v. Township of Moorestown , a U.S. District Court judge blocked the Moorestown Superintendent of Schools from retroactively changing school policy to deny
10854-450: The issue. Abolitionism and temperance were two issues that became more politically prominent during Everett's tenure, and both of those matters, as well as Whig indifference, would play a role in his defeat in the 1839 election . The abolitionist Liberty Party began to take shape in 1838, and the ill-timed passage of a temperance law banning the sale of less than 15 US gallons (57 L) of alcohol would drive popular support away from
10988-579: The late 19th century, evolved into modern British Unitarianism and, primarily in the United States, Unitarian Universalism . In 16th-century Italy, Biblical Unitarianism was powered by the ideas of the Non-trinitarian theologians Lelio and Fausto Sozzini , founders of Socinianism ; their doctrine was embraced and further developed by the Unitarian Church of Transylvania during the 16th and 17th centuries. Today, it's represented by
11122-657: The latter being known as biblical Unitarians . The birth of the Unitarian faith is proximate to the Radical Reformation , beginning almost simultaneously among the Protestant Polish Brethren in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and in the Principality of Transylvania in the mid-16th century; the first Unitarian Christian denomination known to have emerged during that time was the Unitarian Church of Transylvania , founded by
11256-512: The magazine, which flourished during his tenure and reached a nationwide audience. He was also instrumental in expanding Harvard's collections of German language works, including grammars, lexicons, and a twenty-volume edition of the collected works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , whom Everett had visited in Weimar and whose works he championed on the pages of the Review . I die daily of a cramped spirit, fluttering and beating from side to side of
11390-653: The major cities of the continent before returning to the United States in 1819. Among those he met in England were the Prussian diplomat Wilhelm von Humboldt , an influential architect of the Prussian education system , and William Wilberforce , a leading English abolitionist . While in Constantinople Everett acquired a number of ancient Greek texts which are now in the Harvard archives. Everett took up his teaching duties later in 1819, hoping to implant
11524-682: The mid-1850s he toured, speaking about Washington whom he compared favorably to Frederick the Great and the Duke of Marlborough . Not only did Everett donate the proceeds from this touring (about $ 70,000), he also refused to deduct his travel expenses. He also agreed to write a weekly column for the New York Ledger in exchange for a $ 10,000 gift to the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association . These columns were eventually bound and sold as
11658-543: The morning of his death, in which he said: "I have been very ill." He died in Boston on January 15, and was interred at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge . Edward Everett Square, near his birthplace in Dorchester, is named for him. It is the intersection of Columbia Road, Massachusetts Avenue, East Cottage Street and Boston Street. A marker is placed near where his birthplace stood, and a statue of Everett stands near
11792-418: The namesake of this Christology. It is still Nontrinitarian because, according to this belief system, Jesus has always been beneath God, though higher than humans. Arian Christology was not a majority view among Unitarians in Poland, Transylvania or England. It was only with the advent of American Unitarianism that it gained a foothold in the Unitarian movement. Among early Christian theologians who believed in
11926-506: The nomination). Everett easily defeated the perennial Democratic Party candidate, Marcus Morton , in November 1835. He was re-elected by comfortable margins in the three following years, all facing Morton. In 1836 he was elected a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts . One of the most notable achievements of Everett's tenure was the introduction of a state board of education to improve school quality and
12060-477: The petition was weak, for which he was further criticized. The rancor of the situation greatly upset Everett, and he submitted his resignation letter on May 12, 1854, after only a little more than one year into his six-year term, once again citing poor health. Free of political obligations, Everett traveled the country with his family, giving public speeches. One cause he took up was the preservation of George Washington 's home at Mount Vernon . Over several years in
12194-468: The post was apparent early on, and by April 1847 he was negotiating with Harvard's overseers about the conditions of the job. These talks were ultimately unfruitful, and Everett, on the advice of his doctor, resigned the post in December 1848. He had been suffering for sometime from a number of maladies, some of them prostate -related. In the following years, his health would become increasingly fragile. He
12328-464: The predominant religion in the United States. In the United Kingdom, although Unitarianism was the religion of only a small minority of the population, its practitioners had an enormous impact on Victorian politics, not only in the larger cities – Birmingham , Leeds , Manchester and Liverpool – but in smaller communities such as Leicester , where there were so many Unitarian mayors that
12462-433: The pulpit decades before remained in evidence during these years. At President Pierce 's White House socials, wrote one observer, Everett seemed as "cold-blooded and impassible, bright and lonely as the gilt weather-cock over the church in which he officiated ere he became a politician." Everett opposed the 1854 Kansas–Nebraska Act , which allowed the territories to choose whether to allow slavery by popular vote, calling it
12596-468: The remaining lame-duck months of his administration. In this post Everett drafted the official letter that accompanied the Perry Expedition to Japan , reversed Webster's claim denying Peruvian sovereignty over the guano-rich Lobos Islands, and refused to engage the United States in an agreement with the United Kingdom and France to guarantee Spanish control of Cuba . Although he stated that
12730-482: The results despite calls from the party to do so; he wrote, "I am willing to let the election go." After leaving office, Everett traveled in Europe with his family for several months. When the Whigs, led by William Henry Harrison , won the 1840 presidential election , Everett was appointed Ambassador to Great Britain at the recommendation of his friend Daniel Webster, who had been appointed Secretary of State . Everett
12864-488: The scholarly methods of Germany at Harvard and bring a generally wider appreciation of German literature and culture to the United States. For his Greek class he translated Philipp Karl Buttmann 's Greek lexicon. Among his students were future Speaker of U.S. House of Representatives Robert Charles Winthrop , presidential son and future U.S. Representative Charles Francis Adams , and future philosopher and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson . Emerson had first heard Everett speak at
12998-407: The speaker's academic credentials. Historically and traditionally, however, schools confer the title upon the top ranked graduate of the class, whether determined by GPA or some other means such as a faculty vote, who thereby earns the honor of delivering the valedictory address. Some institutions award the title based upon various criteria such as an overall academic record of grades and credits ,
13132-542: The square in Richardson Park. Everett's name appears on the facade of the Boston Public Library's McKim Building , which he helped found, serving for twelve years as president of its board. His name was also given to his nephew, Edward Everett Hale , as well as Hale's grandson, the actor Edward Everett Horton . Everett, Massachusetts , separated from Malden in 1870, was named in his honor, as
13266-549: The state in 1820, it retained ownership of public lands in the disputed area. The border issue had been simmering for some years, but tensions rose substantially in the late 1830s as both sides pushed development activity into the disputed area, and the United States refused to accept a mediation proposal made by the Dutch king. In 1838 Everett proposed to President Martin Van Buren that a special commission be established to address
13400-619: The subsequent growth of Unitarianism in New England. Unitarian Henry Ware (1764–1845) was appointed as the Hollis professor of divinity at Harvard College, in 1805. Harvard Divinity School then shifted from its conservative roots to teach Unitarian theology (see Harvard and Unitarianism ). Buckminster's close associate William Ellery Channing (1780–1842) was settled over the Federal Street Church in Boston, 1803, and in
13534-420: The title on a single individual from among the graduating class. This may occur in the case of a numerical tie in grade point averages, as part of a Latin honors system. A valedictorian is usually given a gold medal during the graduation ceremony, with the salutatorian receiving a silver medal. The awarding of the valedictorian honor may be the subject of heated controversy. Often the differences separating
13668-562: The top student from the nearest competitors are small, and sometimes there are accusations that the winner took advantage of the rules in a way that seemed unfair, such as taking easy courses to get additional credits. Some schools have dropped the honor or changed the rules to allow multiple recipients. In turn, such changes have led to complaints that it is unfair to change the rules after a competition has begun. The New Jersey Commissioner of Education , for example, required schools to make changes to valedictorian award policy effective only for
13802-517: The virgin birth). Notable examples are James Martineau , Theodore Parker , Ralph Waldo Emerson and Frederic Henry Hedge . Famous American Unitarian William Ellery Channing was a believer in the virgin birth until later in his life, after he had begun his association with the Transcendentalists. Arianism is often considered a form of Unitarianism. The Christology of Arianism holds that Jesus, before his human life, existed as
13936-607: The virgin birth. In the early days of Unitarianism, the stories of the virgin birth were accepted by most. There were a number of Unitarians who questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible, including Symon Budny , Jacob Palaeologus , Thomas Belsham, and Richard Wright , and this made them question the virgin birth story. Beginning in England and America in the 1830s, and manifesting itself primarily in Transcendentalist Unitarianism , which emerged from
14070-573: The wake of the election of Abraham Lincoln , seven, later eleven Southern states began seriously debating secession. Everett was an active participant in advancing the unsuccessful Crittenden Compromise in a last-ditch attempt to avoid war during the early months of 1861. When the American Civil War broke out in April 1861, he became an active supporter of the Union cause. He did not at first think highly of Lincoln, but came to support him as
14204-468: The war progressed. In 1861 and 1862 Everett toured the Northern states, lecturing on the causes of the war, and also wrote on behalf of the Union cause for the New York Ledger . Proposals were put forward that Everett serve as a roving ambassador in Europe to counter Confederate diplomatic initiatives, but these were never brought to fruition. In November 1863, when Gettysburg National Cemetery
14338-621: The woman suffrage movement, the first ever woman to be elected to the Academy of Arts and Letters, and author of the " Battle Hymn of the Republic ", volumes of poetry, and other writing. Although raised a Quaker, Ezra Cornell , founder of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, attended the Unitarian church and was one of the founders of Ithaca's First Unitarian Church. Eramus Darwin Shattuck,
14472-679: The word first appears in a title in Stephen Nye 's A Brief History of the Unitarians, called also Socinians (1687). The movement gained popularity in England in the wake of the Enlightenment and began to become a formal denomination in 1774 when Theophilus Lindsey organised meetings with Joseph Priestley , founding the first avowedly Unitarian congregation in the country. This occurred at Essex Street Church in London. Official toleration came in 1813 . The first official acceptance of
14606-526: The year he served in the pulpit, came to be disenchanted with the somewhat formulaic demands of the required oratory, and with the sometimes parochial constraints the congregation placed on him. The workload also took its toll on young Everett, who around this time acquired the nickname "Ever-at-it", which would be used throughout his life. For a change of pace, Everett traveled to Washington, D.C. , where he visited with Daniel Webster and other Federalist Party luminaries from Massachusetts. In late 1814 Everett
14740-748: Was a Unitarian ministry incorporated in South Carolina until its dissolution in 2013 when it merged with the Unitarian Christian Emerging Church. The Unitarian Christian Emerging Church has recently undergone reorganization and today is known as the Unitarian Christian Church of America. In addition, the Unitarian Universalist Faith Alliance and Ministries follow a Progressive Christian format honoring Sacred Space and Creation Spirituality. The Unitarian Christian Church of America (UCCA)
14874-772: Was already well known to President Adams, he was a frequent guest at the White House , and came to champion the president's agenda in the House. He supported tariff legislation that protected Massachusetts' growing industrial interests, favored renewal of the charter of the Second Bank of the United States , and opposed the Indian Removal Act . Everett's most controversial action in Congress took place relatively early during his tenure there. In 1826 Congress debated
15008-525: Was at first charged with handling the northeast border issues he first encountered as governor. A new British administration, friendlier to the United States than the previous one, sent Lord Ashburton to Washington to negotiate directly with Webster, and Everett's role was reduced to acquiring documents from British records, and pressing the American case to the Foreign Office . In this role Everett
15142-659: Was being considered as a possible successor to Josiah Quincy as President of Harvard . Everett returned to Boston in September 1845 to learn that the Overseers had offered him the post. Although he had some misgivings, principally due to some of the tedious aspects of the job and difficult matter of maintaining student discipline, he accepted the offer, and entered into his duties in February 1846. The three years he spent there were extremely unhappy. Everett found that Harvard
15276-613: Was born on April 11, 1794, in Dorchester, Massachusetts (then independent from Boston ), the fourth of eight children, to the Reverend Oliver Everett and Lucy Hill Everett, the daughter of Alexander Sears Hill. His father, a native of Dedham, Massachusetts , was a descendant of early colonist Richard Everett , and his mother's family also had deep colonial roots. His father had served as pastor of New South Church , retiring due to poor health two years before Everett
15410-539: Was born. He died in 1802, when Edward was eight, after which his mother moved the family to Boston. He attended local schools, and then a private school of Ezekiel Webster. During this time Ezekiel's brother Daniel sometimes taught classes; Everett and Daniel Webster would later form a close friendship. His sister was Sarah Preston Hale . Everett attended Boston Latin School in 1805, and then briefly Phillips Exeter Academy , where his older brother Alexander Hill Everett
15544-639: Was dedicated, Everett, by then widely renowned as the finest orator in the country, was invited to be the featured speaker. In his two-hour formal oration he compared the Battle of Gettysburg to battles of antiquity such as Marathon , and spoke about how opposing sides in previous civil wars (such as the War of the Roses and the Thirty Years' War ) were able to reconcile their differences afterward. Everett's oration
15678-572: Was first recognized by the Edict of Torda , issued by the Transylvanian Diet under Prince John II Sigismund Zápolya (January 1568), and was first led by Ferenc Dávid (a former Calvinist bishop, who had begun preaching the new doctrine in 1566). The term "Unitarian" first appeared as unitaria religio in a document of the Diet of Lécfalva , Transylvania , on 25 October 1600, though it
15812-426: Was followed by the now far more famous Gettysburg Address of President Lincoln. For his part, Everett was deeply impressed by the concise speech and wrote to Lincoln noting "I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes." In the 1864 election , Everett supported Lincoln, serving as a presidential elector from Massachusetts for
15946-651: Was followed soon afterwards by chapels in Sydney and Adelaide, and later regional centres including Ballarat. The modern church, no longer unitarian Christian, retains properties in Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne, and smaller congregations elsewhere in Australia and New Zealand. The Unitarian movement in South Africa was founded in 1867 by David Faure , member of a well-known Cape family. He encountered advanced liberal religious thought while completing his studies at
16080-684: Was formed on 1 October 2016 through the merging of the Unitarian Christian Emerging Church and the Unitarian Christian Conference. The church's current ministry in on-line and through local fellowship gatherings. The current senior pastor and current president of the UCCA is the Reverend Dr. Shannon Rogers. The UCCA has both ordained and lay members. The first Unitarian Church in Australia was built in 1854 in Melbourne and
16214-1012: Was founded in the United Kingdom in 1991 by Rev. Lancelot Garrard (1904–93) and others to promote specifically Christian ideas within the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches (GAUFCC), the national Unitarian body in Great Britain. Just as the UUCF and ICUU maintain formal links with the Unitarian Universalist Association in the US, so the UCA is an affiliate body of the GAUFCC in Great Britain. The majority of Unitarian Christian publications are sponsored by an organization and published specifically for their membership. Generally, they do not serve as
16348-489: Was granted a Ph. D in September 1817, which he believed to be the first such degree awarded to an American. During his sojourn at Göttingen, Everett traveled to see other German cities, including Hanover , Weimar , Dresden , and Berlin . He received permission from Harvard to extend his time in Europe, and spent two more years traveling across the continent (from Constantinople and the Black Sea to Paris ), visiting
16482-446: Was instrumental in acquiring and distributing a map that vindicated the United States from accusations that it had cheated Britain out of land in the 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty . Another major issue between the countries was the seizure of American ships by British naval forces interdicting the slave trade off the coast of Africa. Owners of ships accused but acquitted of complicity in the trade filed claims to recover their losses with
16616-509: Was made permanent in November 1813. Everett dedicated himself to the work, and became a highly popular Unitarian preacher. Listeners wrote of his "florid and affluent fancy", and his "daring imagery", while one critic wrote what would become a common criticism of his speaking style: "[Everett] spoke like some superior intelligence, discoursing to mortals of what they ought to feel and know, but as if [he] himself were too far exalted to require such feelings, and such knowledge himself." Everett, over
16750-516: Was not interested in teaching. On August 26, 1824, Everett gave an unexpectedly significant speech at Harvard's Phi Beta Kappa Society that would alter his career trajectory. Publicity for the event was dominated by the news that the Marquis de Lafayette , the French hero of the American Revolution , would be in attendance, and the hall was packed. The subject of Everett's speech was "Circumstances of
16884-509: Was not widely used in Transylvania until 1638, when the formal recepta Unitaria Religio was published. The word Unitarian had been circulating in private letters in England, in reference to imported copies of such publications as the Library of the Polish Brethren who are called Unitarians (1665). Henry Hedworth was the first to use the word "Unitarian" in print in English (1673), and
17018-507: Was offered a newly endowed position as professor of Greek literature at Harvard. The position came with authorization to travel for two years in Europe, and Everett readily accepted. He was formally invested as a professor in April 1815. Everett was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815. Everett made his way across western Europe, visiting London and the major Dutch cities en route to
17152-528: Was one of the great American orators of the antebellum and Civil War eras. He was the featured orator at the dedication ceremony of the Gettysburg National Cemetery in 1863, where he spoke for over two hours—immediately before President Abraham Lincoln delivered his famous two-minute Gettysburg Address . The son of a pastor, Everett was educated at Harvard, and briefly ministered at Boston 's Brattle Street Church before taking
17286-470: Was replaced as Secretary of State by a succession of Southern politicians. Everett in particular had to school John C. Calhoun on the diplomatic ramifications of pursuing claims after slaves mutinied aboard a ship plying the American coast and sailed it to the Bahamas . Everett rebuffed several offers for other diplomatic posts proffered by Webster, who was unhappy serving under Tyler and apparently sought
17420-578: Was short of resources, and that he was not popular with the rowdy students. One of his most notable achievements was the expansion of Harvard's academic programs to include a "school of theoretical and practical science", then known as the Lawrence Scientific School . On April 15, 1848, he delivered the eulogy for John Quincy Adams , who had died two months earlier while serving in the House of Representatives . Everett's unhappiness with
17554-484: Was somewhat rejuvenated by a visit to the springs at Sharon Springs, New York . When the Whigs won the 1848 national election and returned to power in 1849, Everett returned to politics. He served as an aide to Daniel Webster, who President Millard Fillmore appointed Secretary of State. When Webster died in October 1852, Fillmore appointed Everett, apparently at Webster's request, to serve as Secretary of State during
17688-590: Was teaching. At the age of 13, he was admitted to Harvard College . In 1811, at age 17, he graduated as the valedictorian of his class. Unlike some of the other students at the time, Everett was an earnest and diligent student who absorbed all of what was taught. While a student, he was a member of the Porcellian Club , and of the Hasty Pudding Club. Uncertain what to do next, Everett was encouraged by his pastor, Joseph Stevens Buckminster of
17822-408: Was the borough of Everett, Pennsylvania , and Mount Everett in western Massachusetts. Elementary schools in Dorchester and in Lincoln, Nebraska are named for him, as was a school in St. Cloud, Minnesota that was torn down in 1887. Everett donated 130 books to St. Cloud, beginning the community's first library. The Edward Everett House, located at 16 Harvard Street in Charlestown, was designated as
17956-410: Was well attended, and he repeated it in subsequent years. He made a major speech in December 1823 advocating American support of the Greeks in their struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire . This subject was adopted by Daniel Webster, who also made it the subject of a speech in Congress. (Everett's support for Greek independence made him something of a hero in Greece, and his portrait hangs in
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