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245-543: Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after the disastrous and unorthodox reign of his father, Edward II . Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. His fifty-year reign
490-523: A "natural showman", particularly in his alacrity to heal those suffering from scrofula by his royal touch . In less than two years, between 1338 and 1340, he touched for scrofula in both England and while campaigning in France; another 355 occurred between November 1340 and the same month the following year. He was generous to the point of extravagance. In an alternative view, Norman Cantor has described Edward as an "avaricious and sadistic thug". From what
735-542: A "place amongst the greatest European palaces". At the heart of Windsor Castle is the Middle Ward, a bailey formed around the motte or artificial hill in the centre of the ward. The motte is 50 feet (15 m) high and is made from chalk originally excavated from the surrounding ditch. The keep , called the Round Tower, on the top of the motte is based on an original 12th-century building, extended upwards in
980-471: A "vastly inflated" scale. Investigations after the 1992 fire have shown though that many Rococo features of the modern castle, originally thought to have been 18th-century fittings transferred from Carlton House or France, are in fact 19th-century imitations in plasterwork and wood, designed to blend with original elements. The Grand Reception Room is the most prominent of these Rococo designs, 100 feet (30 m) long and 40 feet (12 m) tall and occupying
1225-415: A 25-year period. This was considered a success by contemporaries and a sign of God's favour. Edward understood the importance of a "strong and united royal family", argues Ormrod. It allowed him, through their marriages, to make alliances within his own aristocracy and also with continental dynasties. However, the latter policy gradually fell apart with the gradual loss of England's European possessions towards
1470-713: A classical statue. In 1642 the English Civil War broke out, dividing the country into the Royalist supporters of Charles, and the Parliamentarians . In the aftermath of the battle of Edgehill in October, Parliament became concerned that Charles might advance on London. John Venn took control of Windsor Castle with twelve companies of foot soldiers to protect the route along the Thames river, becoming
1715-455: A close relationship with Mortimer. Aided by his close companion William Montagu, 3rd Baron Montagu , and a small number of other trusted men, Edward took Mortimer by surprise and captured him at Nottingham Castle on 19 October 1330. Mortimer was executed and Edward's personal reign began. The historian Mark Ormrod argued that at this point Edward had had "little instruction in the art of kingship", and although he had received several books on
1960-452: A constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the prime minister and Cabinet, who by definition enjoy the confidence of the House of Commons. In Bagehot's words: "the sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights – the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn." Although the royal prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval
2205-423: A conventional religion. This is also reflected in his almsgiving . While ancestors such as Henry III had often been haphazard and exuberant in the amounts they gave and when they did so, Edward III maintained a regular 366 meals a week to be provided for the poor with another £25 to be distributed during the four main feasts. However, alongside his conventionality ran a populist streak, and Ormrod has described him as
2450-757: A court along the north side of the Upper Ward. This was intended primarily for the queen and Henry's children. In the Lower Ward, the king ordered the construction of a range of buildings for his own use along the south wall, including a 70 ft (21 m) long chapel, later called the Lady Chapel . This was the grandest of the numerous chapels built for his own use, and comparable to the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris in size and quality. Henry repaired
2695-485: A diplomat and Clerk of The King's Works. Windsor Castle continued to be favoured by monarchs in the 15th century, despite increasing political violence. Henry IV seized the castle during his coup in 1399, although failing to catch Richard II , who had escaped to London. Under Henry V , the castle hosted a visit from the Holy Roman Emperor in 1417, a massive diplomatic event that stretched
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#17327731562132940-531: A forced loan on wool. This soon collapsed — in the words of E. B. Fryde it was a "lamentable failure" — and once again, Edward had to return to Parliament. Edward also attempted to reinforce what he believed to be his ancient rights, such as the return of all goods and chattels of felons to the Crown, and scutage , as well as new proposals, such as that debts should be repaid to the Crown in one payment rather than incrementally. All these schemes collapsed, however,
3185-451: A gallery and a new ceiling. A bridge was built over the ditch to the south of the castle to enable easier access to the park. Elizabeth built a gallery range of buildings on the west end of the Upper Ward, alongside Henry VII's tower. Elizabeth increasingly used the castle for diplomatic engagements, but space continued to prove a challenge as the property was simply not as large as the more modern royal palaces. This flow of foreign visitors
3430-778: A head in the Parliament of 1376, the so-called Good Parliament . The Parliament was called to grant taxation, but the House of Commons took the opportunity to address specific grievances. In particular, criticism was directed at some of the King's closest advisors. Lord Chamberlain William Latimer, 4th Baron Latimer , and Steward of the Household John Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby , were dismissed from their positions. Edward III's mistress, Alice Perrers, who
3675-484: A key medieval route into London, and Windsor Forest , a royal hunting preserve previously used by the Saxon kings. The nearby settlement of Clivore, or Clewer , was an old Saxon residence. The initial wooden castle consisted of a keep on the top of a man-made motte , or mound, protected by a small bailey wall, occupying a chalk inlier , or bluff, rising 100 ft (30 m) above the river. A second wooden bailey
3920-455: A large number of regular reports from himself and his captains to various outlets, including convocation , the City of London and the archbishops, that, while the scholar A. E. Prince acknowledged that taken singularly, these reports may not represent a cohesive public relations within government, they do perhaps indicate, as a whole, the existence of a "simple propaganda organization" with which
4165-455: A low profile, it is likely that he increasingly suspected that Mortimer's behaviour could endanger Edward's own life, as the former's position became more unpopular. This was exacerbated by his execution of Edward's uncle Edmund, Earl of Kent . Contemporary chroniclers suspected, too, that Mortimer had designs on the throne, and it is likely that it was these rumours that encouraged Edward to act against him and his mother, who supposedly maintained
4410-554: A low-born woman who, through her own ambition, made a fortune from the besotted King; and this was the popular view presented to the Good Parliament of 1376, in which she was also accused of taking 2000 to 3000 pounds in gold and silver per annum from the royal treasury . Another contemporary, the Anonimalle Chronicler , complained that this was all "without any notable profit and in great damage to our lord
4655-496: A majority in that House. The prime minister takes office by attending the monarch in a private audience, and after " kissing hands " that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. The sovereign also has the power to dismiss the prime minister, but the last time this power was exercised was in 1834, when William IV dismissed Lord Melbourne ; since then, prime ministers have only left office upon their resignation, which they are expected to offer to
4900-470: A more private Upper Ward and a Lower Ward devoted to the public face of the monarchy. Little further building was carried out at the castle during the 13th century; the Great Hall in the Lower Ward was destroyed by fire in 1296, but it was not rebuilt. Edward III was born at Windsor Castle and used it extensively throughout his reign. In 1344 the king announced the foundation of the new Order of
5145-473: A non-partisan manner. The UK Government has called the monarchy "a unique soft power and diplomatic asset". The Crown also occupies a unique cultural role, serving as an unofficial brand ambassador for British interests and values abroad, increasing tourism at home, and promoting charities throughout civil society . The British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England and early medieval Scotland , which consolidated into
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#17327731562135390-585: A number of major buildings enclosed by the upper bailey wall, forming a central quadrangle. The State Apartments run along the north of the ward, with a range of buildings along the east wall, and the private royal apartments and the King George IV Gate to the south, with the Edward III Tower in the south-west corner. The motte and the Round Tower form the west edge of the ward. A bronze statue of Charles II on horseback sits beneath
5635-514: A palace, and a small town. The present-day castle was created during a sequence of phased building projects, culminating in the reconstruction work after a fire in 1992 . It is in essence a Georgian and Victorian design based on a medieval structure, with Gothic features reinvented in a modern style. Since the 14th century, architecture at the castle has attempted to produce a contemporary reinterpretation of older fashions and traditions, repeatedly imitating outmoded or even antiquated styles. As
5880-400: A private formal rose garden, first laid out by George IV in the 1820s. The present garden was updated by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, after it was used for victory garden production during World War II, tended in part by Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret. In 2020 it was announced that for a limited time the garden would be open to the public for the first time in 40 years. Traditionally
6125-629: A problematic paradigm for Edward, especially at the time of the institution of the Garter. There are no formal references to King Arthur and the Round Table in the surviving early fifteenth century copies of the Statutes of the Garter, but the Garter Feast of 1358 did involve a round table game. Thus, there was some overlap between the projected Round Table fellowship and the actualized Order of
6370-520: A pursuing army led by Philip VI. On 26 August, the English army defeated a far larger French army in the Battle of Crécy . Shortly after this, on 17 October, an English army defeated and captured King David II of Scotland at the Battle of Neville's Cross . With his northern borders secured, Edward felt free to continue his major offensive against France, laying siege to the town of Calais . The operation
6615-495: A result, architect Sir William Whitfield has pointed to Windsor Castle's architecture as having "a certain fictive quality", the Picturesque and Gothic design generating "a sense that a theatrical performance is being put on here", despite late 20th century efforts to expose more of the older structures to increase the sense of authenticity. Although there has been some criticism, the castle's architecture and history lends it
6860-400: A result, the English language experienced a strong revival; in 1362, a Statute of Pleading ordered English to be used in law courts, and the year after, Parliament was for the first time opened in English. At the same time, the vernacular saw a revival as a literary language, through the works of William Langland , John Gower and especially The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer . Yet
7105-609: A royal fleet of galleys and had attempted to establish an administration for these ships and others which were arrested (privately owned ships pulled into royal/national service). Henry III , his successor, continued this work. Notwithstanding the fact that he, along with his predecessor, had hoped to develop a strong and efficient naval administration, their endeavours produced one that was informal and mostly ad hoc. A formal naval administration emerged during Edward's reign, comprising lay administrators and led by William de Clewre, Matthew de Torksey and John de Haytfield successively bearing
7350-479: A royal residence. The early Norman kings preferred to use the former palace of Edward the Confessor in the village of Old Windsor . The first king to use Windsor Castle as a residence was Henry I , who celebrated Whitsuntide at the castle in 1110 during a period of heightened insecurity. Henry's marriage to Adela , the daughter of Godfrey of Louvain , took place in the castle in 1121. During this period
7595-567: A shortage of farm labour and a corresponding rise in wages. The great landowners struggled with the shortage of manpower and the resulting inflation in labour cost. To curb the rise in wages, the King and Parliament responded with the Ordinance of Labourers in 1349, followed by the Statute of Labourers in 1351. These attempts to regulate wages could not succeed in the long run, but in the short term they were enforced with great vigour. All in all,
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7840-712: A similar relationship to the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland as to the government of the UK. The sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament , and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the Senedd . In Scottish matters, the sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government . However, as devolution
8085-412: A walk, he secretly rode away". Central to Edward III's policy was reliance on the higher nobility for purposes of war and administration. While Edward II had regularly been in conflict with a great portion of his peerage, his son successfully created a spirit of camaraderie between himself and his greatest subjects. Both Edward I and Edward II had been limited in their policy towards the nobility, allowing
8330-634: Is one of the longest in English history , and saw vital developments in legislation and government, in particular the evolution of the English Parliament , as well as the ravages of the Black Death . He outlived his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince , and was succeeded by his grandson, Richard II . Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France , and her lover, Roger Mortimer . At
8575-708: Is considered by historian John Robinson to be "one of the supreme achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic" design. At the east end of St George's Chapel is the Lady Chapel, originally built by Henry III in the 13th century and converted into the Albert Memorial Chapel between 1863 and 1873 by George Gilbert Scott . Built to commemorate the life of Prince Albert , the ornate chapel features lavish decoration and works in marble, glass mosaic and bronze by Henri de Triqueti , Susan Durant , Alfred Gilbert and Antonio Salviati . The east door of
8820-622: Is further both mentioned in and the subject of songs, loyal toasts, and salutes. " God Save the King " (or, alternatively, "God Save the Queen") is the British national anthem . Oaths of allegiance are made to the Sovereign and their lawful successors. The monarch takes little direct part in government. The authority to use the sovereign's formal powers is almost all delegated, either by statute or by convention , to ministers or officers of
9065-533: Is guarded by the Norman Gatehouse. This gatehouse , which, despite its name, dates from the 14th century, is heavily vaulted and decorated with carvings, including surviving medieval lion masks , traditional symbols of majesty, to form an impressive entrance to the Upper Ward. Wyatville redesigned the exterior of the gatehouse, and the interior was later heavily converted in the 19th century for residential use. The Upper Ward of Windsor Castle comprises
9310-409: Is known of Edward's character, he could be impulsive and temperamental, as was seen by his actions against Stratford and the ministers in 1340/41. Other escapades were not just impulsive but dangerous, such as in 1349, when he sailed to Calais with only a small bodyguard. At the same time, he was well known for his clemency; Mortimer's grandson was not only absolved, he came to play an important part in
9555-488: Is likely that this Thomas is a composite. She argues that "the entire existence of 'Thomas of Windsor' in some modern books and websites appears to be based on the spurious story by two chroniclers that Philippa was heavily pregnant when she interceded for the Calais burghers in early August 1347". She also notes that for William, who also died young, there is much evidence for his existence, including "his funeral or tomb, or for
9800-676: Is marked by the State Opening of Parliament , during which the monarch reads the speech from the throne in the chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. If not dissolved sooner, Parliaments are automatically dissolved after five years. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 temporarily removed
10045-800: Is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the monarch acts on the advice of the prime minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly , if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland . The sovereign is deemed the "fount of justice"; although the monarch does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on
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10290-465: Is no evidence of any infidelity on his part before Alice Perrers became his lover, and by that time the Queen was already terminally ill. This devotion extended to the rest of the family as well; in contrast to many of his predecessors, Edward never experienced opposition from any of his five adult sons. Edward III, argues the scholar Michael A.R. Graves, left a "dual legacy". These were the large brood of children and grandchildren he left, and his claim to
10535-482: Is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the sovereign cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers", and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation. The royal prerogative includes
10780-420: Is reflected in his hobbies. Unlike his father's passion for manual work, including carpentry, thatching and rowing, Edward III "shared to the full the conventional tastes and pleasure of the aristocracy", with his principal interest being architecture. This conservativism is also reflected in his religious views, which, expressed as they were through the patronage of friaries and visiting of shrines , demonstrate
11025-581: Is the Good Parliament, where the Commons for the first time — albeit with noble support — were responsible for precipitating a political crisis. In the process, both the procedure of impeachment and the office of the Speaker were created. Even though the political gains were of only temporary duration, this parliament represented a watershed in English political history. The political influence of
11270-523: Is the largest green-oak structure built since the Middle Ages, and is decorated with brightly coloured shields celebrating the heraldic element of the Order of the Garter ; the design attempts to create an illusion of additional height through the gothic woodwork along the ceiling. The Lantern Lobby used to welcome guests features flowing oak columns forming a vaulted ceiling, imitating an arum lily , and
11515-409: Is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences. The sovereign is the " fount of honour ", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages , appoints members of the orders of chivalry , grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the prime minister, some honours are within
11760-600: Is where the pre-fire chapel built for Queen Victoria was located. The new Private Chapel is relatively intimate, only able to fit thirty worshippers, but combines architectural elements of the St George's Hall roof with the Lantern Lobby and the stepped arch structure of the Henry VIII chapel vaulting at Hampton Court . The result is an "extraordinary, continuous and closely moulded net of tracery", complementing
12005-681: The Mirror for Princes and various psalters and religious texts. Since the Norman Conquest had united the Duchy of Normandy and its French estates with those of the Crown and the land of England, English kings had held several territories, including Poitou , Aquitaine , Normandy , Anjou and Maine , and these holdings — at one point covering more of France than that held by the French king — had frequently led to conflict. In 1325, Edward II
12250-603: The Battle of Halidon Hill , even while under threat from foreign raids. However, Berwick was taken after the besieged Scots set fire to the town, forcing them to treat ; at one point Edward's queen was under siege in Bamburgh Castle , but this was too late to save the Scots' campaign. He reinstated Balliol on the throne and received a substantial amount of land in southern Scotland. These victories proved hard to sustain, as forces loyal to David II gradually regained control of
12495-411: The Battle of Poitiers . The greatly outnumbered English forces not only routed the French, but captured the French king John II and his youngest son, Philip . After a succession of victories, the English held great possessions in France, the French king was in English custody, and the French central government had almost totally collapsed. There has been a historical debate as to whether Edward's claim to
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#173277315621312740-542: The British Army , and the Royal Air Force ), and accredits British High commissioners and ambassadors, and receives heads of missions from foreign states. The sovereign has the power to appoint the prime minister. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the monarch appoints the individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of a party or coalition that has
12985-817: The British monarchy , is the form of government used by the United Kingdom by which a hereditary monarch reigns as the head of state , with their powers regulated by the British Constitution . The term may also refer to the role of the royal family within the UK's broader political structure . The monarch since 8 September 2022 is King Charles III , who ascended the throne on the death of Queen Elizabeth II , his mother. The monarch and their immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. Although formally
13230-545: The English Civil War , when it was used as a military headquarters by Parliamentary forces and a prison for Charles I . At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Charles II rebuilt much of Windsor Castle with the help of the architect Hugh May , creating a set of extravagant Baroque interiors. After a period of neglect during the 18th century, George III and George IV renovated and rebuilt Charles II's palace at colossal expense, producing
13475-578: The February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed prime minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election , in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third-largest party) agreed to form
13720-540: The Frogmore estate. The Long Walk, a double lined avenue of trees, runs for 2.65 miles (4.26 km) south of the castle, and is 240 ft (73 m) wide. The original 17th century elms were replaced with alternating chestnut and plane trees. The impact of Dutch elm disease led to large-scale replanting after 1945. The Home Park adjoins the northern edge of the more extensive Windsor Great Park , occupying some 5,000 acres (2,020 ha) and including some of
13965-588: The House of Lancaster to the throne in 1399 ( John of Gaunt was Duke of Lancaster ), whereas the rule decided by Edward I would have favoured Philippa 's descendants, among them the House of York , beginning with Richard of York , her great-grandson. The large number of cousins that were created is sometimes argued to have laid the foundations for the Wars of the Roses in the fifteenth century. Edward III and his wife Philippa had eight sons and five daughters born over
14210-647: The Hundred Years' War . In the early stages of the war, Edward's strategy was to build alliances with other Continental rulers. In 1338, Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor , named Edward Vicar general of the Holy Roman Empire and promised his support. As late as 1373, the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373 established an Anglo-Portuguese Alliance . These measures produced few results. The only major military victory during this phase of
14455-470: The Kingdom of Great Britain , and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Beginning in the 16th century, the monarch was the nominal head of what came to be the vast British Empire , which covered a quarter of the world's land area at its greatest extent in 1921. The title Emperor of India was added to the British monarch's titles between 1876 and 1948. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 recognised
14700-531: The Lascelles Principles , if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse and would do so under three conditions. When Harold Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, Queen Elizabeth II granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss
14945-524: The Luftwaffe bombing campaigns of the Second World War . An extensive restoration of several state rooms took place after the castle survived a fire in 1992 . It is a popular tourist attraction, a venue for hosting state visits , and was the main residence of Elizabeth II from 2011 to 2022. Windsor Castle grounds cover 13 acres (5.3 hectares) and combines the features of a fortification,
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#173277315621315190-539: The River Thames , Windsor Castle was built as a motte-and-bailey , with three wards surrounding a central mound. Gradually replaced with stone fortifications , the castle withstood a prolonged siege during the First Barons' War at the start of the 13th century. Henry III built a luxurious royal palace within the castle during the middle of the century, and Edward III went further, rebuilding
15435-422: The county of Ponthieu . Instead of seeking a peaceful resolution to the conflict by paying homage to the French king, as his father had done, Edward responded by laying claim to the French crown as the grandson of Philip IV of France . The French rejected this based on the precedents for agnatic succession set in 1316 and 1322 and upheld the rights of Philip IV's nephew Philip VI, leading to tensions that caused
15680-557: The royal touch , as some prior English kings did. He was also capable of unusual clemency. He was in many ways a conventional medieval king whose main interest was warfare, but he also had a broad range of non-military interests. Admired in his own time, and for centuries after, he was later denounced as an irresponsible adventurer by Whig historians , but modern historians credit him with significant achievements. King Edward II of England had court favourites who were unpopular with his nobility, such as Piers Gaveston and Hugh Despenser
15925-461: The 1369 Loire campaign, the Earl of Pembroke shared command with Sir John Chandos ; although the latter was appointed seneschal of France by the Black Prince, Pembroke refused to work beneath him on account of his superior social status. Ultimately, though, the task of raising the armies that they would lead fell to both: the aristocracy could raise the largest number of tenants and retainers after
16170-508: The 1370s was imminent" — and intended much of her wealth to provide for her two daughters, whose lives would be even more precarious in the following reign. She was correct in her surmise: by the time the Good Parliament met, Edward was too weak but to acquiesce in her banishment . This did not, however, last very long; she had returned to his inner circle later that year and remained there until his death. However, in 1378 her previous fears resurfaced, and this time put on trial before Parliament in
16415-659: The 1820s originals, both on the grounds of modern taste and cost. Wyatville's design retains three rooms originally built by May in the 17th century in partnership with the painter Antonio Verrio and carver Grinling Gibbons . The Queen's Presence Chamber, the Queen's Audience Chamber and the King's Dining Room are designed in a Baroque, Franco-Italian style, characterised by "gilded interiors enriched with florid murals", first introduced to England between 1648 and 1650 at Wilton House . Verrio's paintings are "drenched in medievalist allusion" and classical images. These rooms were intended to show an innovative English "baroque fusion" of
16660-606: The 1820s, the result remains "one of the greatest set-pieces of Regency decoration". The White, Green and Crimson Drawing Rooms include a total of 62 trophies : carved, gilded wooden panels illustrating weapons and the spoils of war, many with Masonic meanings. Restored or replaced after the fire, these trophies are famous for their "vitality, precision and three-dimensional quality", and were originally brought from Carlton House in 1826, some being originally imported from France and others carved by Edward Wyatt. The soft furnishings of these rooms, although luxurious, are more modest than
16905-422: The 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified" rather than the "efficient" part of government. That part of the government's executive authority which remains theoretically and nominally vested in the sovereign is known as the royal prerogative . The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative powers only on
17150-400: The 21st century, it is "virtually impossible" that a person with a predominantly British ancestry is not descended from Edward III, as they would have around 32,000 ancestors from 1600. Conversely, Rutherford has calculated that statistically, the odds on a 20th-century British person not being descended from Edward III is 0.995 = 4.64 × 10 . Mark Ormrod has noted that in this period, politics
17395-525: The Anglo-Saxon period, while the feudal system continued to develop. Windsor Castle Windsor Castle is a royal residence at Windsor in the English county of Berkshire , about 25 miles (40 km) west of central London. It is strongly associated with the English and succeeding British royal family , and embodies almost a millennium of architectural history . The original castle
17640-563: The April Parliament had forced the King into submission, but under normal circumstances, the powers of the king in medieval England were virtually unlimited, a fact that Edward was able to exploit. Historian Nicholas Rodger called Edward III's claim to be the "Sovereign of the Seas" into question, arguing there was hardly any royal navy before the reign of Henry V (1413–1422). Despite Rodger's view, King John had already developed
17885-502: The Black Prince commanded a force at Crécy, and ten years later his younger brothers Lionel, John and Edmund had joined the war. However, while his sons were fighting in France, they could not be procreating the royal line; by 1358, only Lionel had married and provided Edward with a grandchild. By the mid-1360s his family had furthered his continental policy, both diplomatically and militarily, sufficiently that he allowed his son Edward and his daughter Isabella to do that rarest of things in
18130-508: The Black Prince , was created Duke of Cornwall , the first English duke, in 1337. In 1351 the Earl of Lancaster was elevated to the Duke of Lancaster . In 1362, the second son of King Edward III, Lionel of Antwerp , was made the first Duke of Clarence . Furthermore, Edward bolstered the sense of community within this group by the creation of a new order of chivalry . In January 1344 a great feast
18375-516: The Commons originally lay in their right to grant taxes. The financial demands of the Hundred Years' War were enormous, and the King and his ministers tried different methods of covering the expenses. Edward had a steady income from crown lands , and could also take up substantial loans from Italian and domestic financiers. To finance warfare, he had to resort to taxation of his subjects. Taxation took two primary forms: levy and customs. The levy
18620-414: The Commons — gained political influence. A consensus emerged that in order for a tax to be just, the King had to prove its necessity, it had to be granted by the community of the realm, and it had to be to the benefit of that community. In addition to imposing taxes, Parliament would also present petitions for redress of grievances to the King, most often concerning misgovernment by royal officials. This way
18865-498: The Crown , or other public bodies . Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the monarch, such as the King's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament , depend upon decisions made elsewhere. In formal terms: The sovereign's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours . This role has been recognised since
19110-506: The Edwardian War. Victories at Crécy (1346) and Poitiers , in 1356, led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny , in which England made territorial gains, and Edward renounced his claim to the French throne. Edward's later years were marked by foreign policy failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his decreasing activity and poor health. Edward was temperamental and thought himself capable of feats such as healing by
19355-470: The English baronage , formerly a somewhat indistinct group, became restricted to those who received a personal summons to Parliament. This happened as Parliament gradually developed into a bicameral institution, composed of a House of Lords and a House of Commons. Yet it was not in the Lords, but in the Commons that the greatest changes took place, with the expanding political role of the Commons. Informative
19600-532: The English Church was suspected to be financing the nation's enemies, while the practice of provisions (the Pope's providing benefices for clerics) caused resentment in the English population. The statutes of Provisors and Praemunire , of 1350 and 1353 respectively, aimed to amend this by banning papal benefices, as well as limiting the power of the papal court over English subjects. The statutes did not sever
19845-531: The English abbeys. Water was piped into the Upper Ward to create a fountain. Mary also expanded the buildings used by the Knights of Windsor in the Lower Ward, using stone from Reading Abbey . Elizabeth I spent much of her time at Windsor Castle and used it a safe haven in crises, "knowing it could stand a siege if need be". Ten new brass cannons were purchased for the castle's defence. It became one of her favourite locations and she spent more money on
20090-470: The English were faced with the prospect of fighting a war on two fronts. The French carried out raids on English coastal towns, leading to rumours in England of a full-scale French invasion. When Edward took power, he found his family in "complete disarray", says Ormrod. His nobility was divided into factions after the troublesome reign of his father and was weakened by line failure among many families. While
20335-607: The French crown originally was genuine, or if it was simply a political ploy meant to put pressure on the French government. Regardless of the original intent, the stated claim now seemed to be within reach. Yet a campaign in 1359, meant to complete the undertaking, was inconclusive. In 1360, therefore, Edward accepted the Treaty of Brétigny , whereby he renounced his claims to the French throne, but secured his extended French possessions in full sovereignty. Edward kept his subjects fully informed of political and military developments abroad by
20580-465: The French throne. In the first instance, his endowment of his sons as Dukes of Clarence, Lancaster and York allowed them to create their own dynasties which were both part of the royal family and the aristocracy, which, following Henry Bolingbroke 's usurpation of Edward's grandson, Richard II, "bedevilled" the Lancastrian dynasty . Secondly, while the resumption of Edward's claims and war in France
20825-460: The French war started anew, and Edward's son John of Gaunt was given the responsibility of a military campaign. The effort failed, and with the Treaty of Bruges in 1375, the great English possessions in France were reduced to only the coastal towns of Calais , Bordeaux , and Bayonne . Alice Perrers was originally one of Philippa's household ladies, having been appointed by 1359. Within five years, by which time she would have been 18, and after
21070-426: The French wars and was eventually made a Knight of the Garter. His favourite pursuit was the art of war and, in this, he conformed to the medieval notion of good kingship. As a warrior he was so successful that one modern military historian has described him as the greatest general in English history. He seems to have been unusually devoted to Queen Philippa. Much has been made of Edward's sexual licentiousness, but there
21315-463: The Garter , probably in 1348. The new order carried connotations from the legend by the circular shape of the garter. Edward's wartime experiences during the Crécy campaign (1346–7) seem to have been a determining factor in his abandonment of the Round Table project. It has been argued that the total warfare tactics employed by the English at Crécy in 1346 were contrary to Arthurian ideals and made Arthur
21560-464: The Garter. Polydore Vergil tells of how the young Joan of Kent — allegedly the King's favourite at the time — accidentally dropped her garter at a ball at Calais. Edward responded to the ensuing ridicule of the crowd by tying the garter around his own knee with the words honi soit qui mal y pense (shame on him who thinks ill of it). This reinforcement of the aristocracy and the emerging sense of national identity must be seen in conjunction with
21805-462: The Great Hall that lay along the north side of the Lower Ward, and enlarged it with a new kitchen and built a covered walkway between the Hall and the kitchen. Henry's work was characterised by the religious overtones of the rich decorations, which formed "one of the high-water marks of English medieval art". The conversion cost more than £10,000. The result was to create a division in the castle between
22050-503: The King boosted domestic morale. These then ended up as part of popular chronicles, either verbatim or in part, whether newsletters or public letters. The middle years of Edward's reign were a period of significant legislative activity. Perhaps the best-known piece of legislation was the Statute of Labourers of 1351 , which addressed the labour shortage problem caused by the Black Death . The statute fixed wages at their pre-plague level and checked peasant mobility by asserting that lords had
22295-506: The King himself. His contemporary Jean Froissart wrote in his Chronicles : "His like had not been seen since the days of King Arthur." D. A. L. Morgan has drawn attention to the continuing popularity of Edward into the next century, observing that "by 1500 Edward III was well into his stride as the greatest King ever to have ruled England", quoting The Great Chronicle of London on Henry VII , who if not for his avarice , "mygth have been pereless of alle princis that regnyd ovyr England syne
22540-467: The King's Chamber in the palace, and had the roof of the Great Kitchen rebuilt in 1489. He also built a three-storied tower on the west end of the palace, which he used for his personal apartments. Windsor began to be used for international diplomatic events, including the grand visit of Philip I of Castile in 1506. William de la Pole , one of the surviving Yorkist claimants to the throne,
22785-609: The King's gained a reputation as a naval warrior. Meanwhile, the fiscal pressure on the kingdom caused by Edward's expensive alliances led to discontent at home. The regency council at home was frustrated by the mounting national debt, while the King and his commanders on the Continent were angered by the failure of the government in England to provide sufficient funds. To deal with the situation, Edward himself returned to England, arriving in London unannounced on 30 November 1340. Finding
23030-472: The King, but it was the lower men who acted as recruiting sergeants in the regions. Unlike during his father's or great grandfather's campaigns in Scotland, the feudal levy ― whereby military service was provided for free in exchange for land rights ― by the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War it had become the norm for men of all ranks to be paid for their service from the King. In return, the crown shouldered
23275-482: The Lower Ward is St George's Chapel. This huge building is the spiritual home of the Order of the Garter and dates from the late 15th and early 16th century, designed in the Perpendicular Gothic style. The ornate wooden choir stalls are of 15th century design, having been restored and extended by Henry Emlyn at the end of the 18th century, and are decorated with a unique set of brass plates showing
23520-479: The Middle Ages: marry for love. Neither the former's match with Joan of Kent and the latter's to Enguerrand VII de Coucy , were particularly advantageous to the King; the first was a clandestine marriage, while de Courcy was a French hostage. Ormrod concludes that, by 1376: Edward III's greatest misfortune was that he lived long enough to witness the complete collapse of [his] elaborate dynastic plan. By 1377,
23765-462: The Round Table at the castle. Edward began to construct a new building in the castle to host this order, but it was never finished. Chroniclers described it as a round building, 200 ft (61 m) across, and it was probably in the centre of the Upper Ward. Shortly afterwards, Edward abandoned the new order for reasons that remain unclear, and instead established the Order of the Garter , again with Windsor Castle as its headquarters, complete with
24010-613: The Round Tower. Inspired by Hubert Le Sueur 's statue of Charles I in London, the statue was cast by Josias Ibach in 1679, with the marble plinth featuring carvings by Grinling Gibbons . The Upper Ward adjoins the North Terrace, which overlooks the River Thames , and the East Terrace, which overlooks the Home Park; both of the current terraces were constructed by Hugh May in the 17th century. The East Terrace has
24255-474: The Scots in 1328. The young king also came into conflict with his guardian. Mortimer knew his position in relation to the King was precarious and subjected Edward to disrespect. The King married Philippa of Hainault at York Minster on 24 January 1328, and the birth of their first child, Edward of Woodstock , on 15 June 1330 only increased tension with Mortimer. Eventually, the King decided to take direct action against Mortimer. Although up until now Edward had kept
24500-464: The Scots intermittently. Also controversial was the King's patronage of a small group of royal favourites rather than his nobility generally. This, says the historian Michael Prestwich , "unbalanced the whole system of royal patronage". However, the birth of a male heir in 1312 — the future Edward III — soon improved Edward II's relations with the French, and a moderate element within the nobility temporarily quelled baronial opposition. The young prince
24745-633: The State Apartments as "a superb and unrivalled sequence of rooms widely regarded as the finest and most complete expression of later Georgian taste." Others, such as architect Robin Nicolson and critic Hugh Pearman , have described them as "bland" and "distinctly dull". Wyatville's most famous work are those rooms designed in a Rococo style. These rooms take the fluid, playful aspects of this mid-18th century artistic movement, including many original pieces of Louis XV style , but project them on
24990-502: The State Apartments was mostly designed by Wyatville in the early 19th century. Wyatville intended each room to illustrate a particular architectural style and to display the matching furnishings and fine arts of the period. With some alterations over the years, this concept continues to dominate the apartments. Different rooms follow the Classical , Gothic and Rococo styles, together with an element of Jacobethan in places. Many of
25235-417: The Upper Ward are characterised by the use of small bits of flint in the mortar for galletting , originally started at the castle in the 17th century to give stonework from disparate periods a similar appearance. The skyline of the Upper Ward is designed to be dramatic when seen from a distance or silhouetted against the horizon, an image of tall towers and battlements influenced by the picturesque movement of
25480-425: The Upper Ward was judged to be "to all intents and purposes a nineteenth century creation ... the image of what the early nineteenth-century thought a castle should be", as a result of the extensive redesign of the castle by Wyatville under George IV . The walls of the Upper Ward are built of Bagshot Heath stone faced on the inside with regular bricks, the gothic details in yellow Bath stone . The buildings in
25725-460: The Younger . Gaveston was killed during a noble rebellion against Edward in 1312, while Despenser was hated by the English nobility. Edward was also unpopular with the common people due to his repeated demands that they provide unpaid military service in Scotland. None of his campaigns there were successful, and this led to a further decline in his popularity, particularly with the nobility. His image
25970-532: The accommodation rather than the defences. The castle played a role during the revolt of the English barons : the castle was besieged in 1214, and John used the castle as his base during the negotiations before the signing of Magna Carta at nearby Runnymede in 1215. In 1216 the castle was besieged again by baronial and French troops under the command of the Count of Nevers , but John's constable , Engelard de Cigogné , successfully defended it. The damage done to
26215-600: The achievements of the Good Parliament were reversed. Edward III did not have much to do with any of this; after around 1375 he played a limited role in the government of the realm. Around 29 September 1376, he fell ill with a large abscess . After a brief period of recovery in February 1377, the King died of a stroke at Sheen on 21 June. Edward III was succeeded by his ten-year-old grandson, King Richard II , son of Edward of Woodstock, since Woodstock himself had died on 8 June 1376. In 1376, Edward had signed letters patent on
26460-443: The advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the prime minister or Privy Council . In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the prime minister's advice – the prime minister, and not the sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the prime minister; no records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as
26705-468: The affairs of the realm in disorder, he purged the royal administration of a great number of ministers and judges. These measures did not bring domestic stability, and a stand-off ensued between the King and John de Stratford , Archbishop of Canterbury , during which Stratford's relatives Robert Stratford , Bishop of Chichester , and Henry de Stratford were temporarily stripped of title and imprisoned respectively. Stratford claimed that Edward had violated
26950-411: The age of seventeen, he led a successful coup d'état against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of England, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland , he declared himself rightful heir to the French throne , starting the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). Following some initial setbacks, this first phase of the war went exceptionally well for England and would become known as
27195-476: The arms of the Knights of the Garter over the last six centuries. On the west side, the chapel has a grand Victorian door and staircase, used on ceremonial occasions. The east stained glass window is Victorian, and the oriel window to the north side of it was built by Henry VIII for Catherine of Aragon . The vault in front of the altar houses the remains of Henry VIII, Jane Seymour and Charles I , with Edward IV buried nearby. The chapel
27440-536: The attendant Poor Knights of Windsor . As part of this process Edward decided to rebuild Windsor Castle, in particular Henry III's palace, in an attempt to construct a castle that would be symbolic of royal power and chivalry. Edward was influenced both by the military successes of his grandfather, Edward I, and by the decline of royal authority under his father, Edward II, and aimed to produce an innovative, "self-consciously aesthetic, muscled, martial architecture". Edward placed William of Wykeham in overall charge of
27685-670: The building in 1871 and little of the original structure remains. Other ranges originally built by Edward III sit alongside the Horseshoe, featuring stone perpendicular tracery . As of 2011, they are used as offices, a library and as the houses for the Dean and Canons . Behind the Horseshoe Cloister is the Curfew Tower, one of the oldest surviving parts of the Lower Ward and dating from the 13th century. The interior of
27930-531: The castle during the second siege was immediately repaired in 1216 and 1221 by Cigogné on behalf of John's successor Henry III , who further strengthened the defences. The walls of the Lower Ward were rebuilt in stone, complete with a gatehouse in the location of the future Henry VIII Gate, between 1224 and 1230. Three new towers, the Curfew, Garter and the Salisbury towers, were constructed. The Middle Ward
28175-582: The castle's accommodation to its limits. By the middle of the 15th century England was increasingly divided between the rival royal factions of the Lancastrians and the Yorkists . Castles such as Windsor did not play a decisive role during the resulting Wars of the Roses (1455–1485), which were fought primarily in the form of pitched battles between the rival factions. Henry VI , born at Windsor Castle and known as Henry of Windsor, became king at
28420-406: The centre, and then members of the court acted as his generals. This included the King's family, and Edward utilised the martial capabilities of his sons, particularly his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince. This was not only pragmatic, in that they were all good warriors, but had the added propaganda value of demonstrating the hereditary nature of Edward's claim to the French throne. However, command
28665-696: The chapel is a range of buildings including the lodgings of the Military Knights , and the residence of the Governor of the Military Knights . These buildings originate from the 16th century and are still used by the Knights, who represent the Order of the Garter each Sunday. On the south side of the Ward is King Henry VIII's gateway, which bears the coat of arms of Catherine of Aragon and forms
28910-451: The chapel, covered in ornamental ironwork, is the original door from 1246. At the west end of the Lower Ward is the Horseshoe Cloister, originally built in 1480, near to the chapel to house its clergy. It houses the vicars-choral, or lay clerks of the chapel. This curved brick and timber building is said to have been designed to resemble the shape of a fetlock , one of the badges used by Edward IV. George Gilbert Scott heavily restored
29155-432: The country. A Scottish uprising in 1344 required the raising of another army and a supporting navy. Edward, having repaired Roxburgh Castle , launched a number of ineffective strikes against the Scots. In 1338, Edward agreed a truce with the Scots. One reason for the change of strategy towards Scotland was a growing concern for the relationship between England and France. As long as Scotland and France were in an alliance ,
29400-462: The creation of few new peerages during the sixty years preceding Edward III's reign. Edward III reversed this trend when, in 1337, as a preparation for the imminent war, he created six new earls on the same day. At the same time, Edward expanded the ranks of the peerage upwards, by introducing the new title of duke for close relatives of the king; creating the first three dukedoms of England (Cornwall, Lancaster, and Clarence). His eldest son, Edward
29645-470: The current design of the state apartments, full of Rococo , Gothic and Baroque furnishings. Queen Victoria made a few minor changes to the castle, which became the centre for royal entertainment for much of her reign. During the First World War , the historic estate inspired the naming of the royal House of Windsor . In the reign of George VI , it was used as a refuge by the royal family during
29890-452: The death of her husband, she is speculated to have become the lover of the elderly King. She maintained an active business life outside her career in the royal household, particularly as a moneylender , while also making the most out of her royal connections, accepted gifts from courtiers and those wishing to further their causes with the King. Edward presented her with gifts, including land, manors and jewels, and in 1371 these included those of
30135-451: The deaths of his most trusted men, some from the 1361–62 recurrence of the plague. William Montagu, 1st Earl of Salisbury , Edward's companion in the 1330 coup, died as early as 1344. William de Clinton, 1st Earl of Huntingdon , who had also been with Edward at Nottingham , died in 1354. One of the earls created in 1337, William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton , died in 1360, and the next year Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster , perhaps
30380-469: The decade after the Norman conquest of 1066. William established a defensive ring of motte and bailey castles around London; each was a day's march – about 20 miles (32 km) – from the City and from the next castle, allowing for easy reinforcements in a crisis. Windsor Castle, one of this ring of fortifications, was strategically important because of its proximity to both the River Thames ,
30625-408: The earls that his father had created so many bitter enemies, and therefore that was the demography that Edward wanted to reorganise in his favour. These promotions reinforced his own and the Crown's position and, with war approaching, he created six new recruitment conduits from the regions directly to the royal army. For the earls themselves, the prospect was not so positive: due to the parlous state of
30870-472: The early 19th century under architect Jeffry Wyatville by 30 feet (9.1 m) to produce a more imposing height and silhouette. The interior of the Round Tower was further redesigned in 1991–1993 to provide additional space for the Royal Archives , an additional room being built in the space left by Wyatville's originally hollow extension. The Round Tower is in reality far from cylindrical , due to
31115-413: The end of the century. For example, he organised the marriage of his sister Eleanor of Woodstock to the Count of Guelders as part of a pro-Netherlandish , anti-French policy in 1332. Yet when the coalition collapsed in 1340, the fact that he had only lost her in that particular marriage market was a positive. From around this time, says Ormrod, "the Hundred Years' War became a family enterprise": Edward
31360-485: The end of the war, some 3,580 ounces (101 kg) of gold and silver plate had been looted. Prince Rupert of the Rhine , a prominent Royalist general, attempted to relieve Windsor Castle that November. Rupert's small force of cavalry was able to take the town of Windsor, but was unable to overcome the walls at Windsor Castle – in due course, Rupert was forced to retreat. Over the winter of 1642–1643, Windsor Castle
31605-571: The evolution of the Dominions of the Empire into separate, self-governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations . Also in this period, the monarchy in Ireland eventually became limited to Northern Ireland . In the years after World War II , the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the Empire to an end. George VI and his successors adopted
31850-464: The exception of the Hall, Chapel and the Great Chamber, the new interiors all shared a similar height and width. The defensive features, however, were primarily for show, possibly to provide a backdrop for jousting between the two-halves of the Order of the Garter. Edward built further luxurious, self-contained lodgings for his court around the east and south edges of the Upper Ward, creating
32095-422: The expense of considerably weakening the castle's defences. Early in his reign, Henry had given the eastern Lady Chapel to Cardinal Wolsey for Wolsey's future mausoleum. Benedetto Grazzini converted much of this into an Italian Renaissance design, before Wolsey's fall from power brought an end to the project, with contemporaries estimating that around £60,000 (£295 million in 2008 terms) had been spent on
32340-540: The extent of this Anglicisation must not be exaggerated. The statute of 1362 was in fact written in the French language and had little immediate effect, and Parliament was opened in that language as late as 1377. The Order of the Garter, though a distinctly English institution, included also foreign members such as John IV, Duke of Brittany , and Robert of Namur . While Edward's early reign had been energetic and successful, his later years were marked by inertia, military failure and political strife. The day-to-day affairs of
32585-456: The finest and most complete expression of later Georgian taste". Inside the castle walls is the 15th-century St George's Chapel , considered by the historian John Martin Robinson to be "one of the supreme achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic " design. Originally designed to project Norman dominance around the outskirts of London and oversee a strategically important part of
32830-418: The first claim on their men's services. In spite of concerted efforts to uphold the statute, it eventually failed due to competition among landowners for labour The law has been described as an attempt "to legislate against the law of supply and demand ", which made it doomed to fail. Nevertheless, the labour shortage had created a community of interest between the smaller landowners of the House of Commons and
33075-524: The first coalition government since World War II. The third occurred shortly thereafter, in June 2017 , when the Conservative Party lost its majority in a snap election, though the party remained in power as a minority government . The sovereign has the power to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the sovereign's summons. The new parliamentary session
33320-457: The first year of Richard II 's reign. She was found guilty and sentenced to be exiled. Further, her property was forfeited to the Crown. Military failure abroad, and the associated fiscal pressure of constant campaigns, led to political discontent in England. Finance was a particular grievance; although it was rarely raised as an issue before 1371, after that time complaints about the royal household's expenditure were frequent. The problems came to
33565-495: The fourteenth century, the French had the upper hand, apart from Sluys in 1340 and, perhaps, off Winchelsea in 1350. Yet, the French never invaded England and King John II of France died in captivity in England. There was a need for an English navy to play a role in this and to handle other matters, such as the insurrection of the Anglo-Irish lords and acts of piracy. Edward's military command structure began with himself at
33810-420: The governor of the castle for the duration of the war. The contents of St George's Chapel were both valuable and, to many Parliamentary forces, inappropriately high church in style. Looting began immediately: Edward IV's bejewelled coat of mail was stolen; the chapel's organs, windows and books destroyed; the Lady Chapel was emptied of valuables, including the component parts of Henry VIII's unfinished tomb. By
34055-454: The greater landowners of the House of Lords . The resulting measures angered the peasants, leading to the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. The reign of Edward III coincided with the so-called Babylonian Captivity of the papacy at Avignon . During the wars with France, opposition emerged in England against perceived injustices by a papacy largely controlled by the French crown. Papal taxation of
34300-644: The greatest beneficiaries in terms of grants and estates. Another common denominator was that most of them had also been trusted companions of Edward before the coup; Ufford, for example, jousted with him and attended him in his homage before Philip VI of France , while Montagu had been his "closest supporter", and had run secret diplomatic missions to the Pope for him before the coup. James Bothwell has noted that, while these men may have been less well off before they were promoted, they were not less experienced, either politically or militarily. These promotions were especially important to Edward because it had been from among
34545-496: The greatest of Edward's captains, succumbed to what was probably plague. Their deaths left the majority of the magnates younger and more naturally aligned to the princes than to the King himself. Increasingly, Edward began to rely on his sons for the leadership of military operations. The king's second son, Lionel of Antwerp , attempted to subdue by force the largely autonomous Anglo-Irish lords in Ireland . The venture failed, and
34790-404: The hitherto separate arts of architecture, painting and carving. A handful of rooms in the modern State Apartments reflect either 18th-century or Victorian Gothic design. The State Dining Room, for example, whose current design originates from the 1850s but which was badly damaged during the 1992 fire, is restored to its appearance in the 1920s, before the removal of some of the gilded features on
35035-414: The homage. The young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was King Charles's sister and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward II deposed. To build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had her son engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault . An invasion of England
35280-417: The influence of Windsor Castle can easily be seen. The new castle was used to hold French prisoners taken at the Battle of Poitiers in 1357, including King John II , who was held for a considerable ransom . Later in the century, the castle also found favour with Richard II . Richard conducted restoration work on St George's Chapel, the work being carried out by Geoffrey Chaucer , who served as
35525-429: The justices had been given the power not only to investigate crimes and make arrests but also to try cases, including those of felony . With this, an enduring fixture in the administration of local English justice had been created. Parliament as a representative institution was already well established by the time of Edward III, but the reign was nevertheless central to its development. During this period, membership in
35770-400: The keep suffered a substantial collapse – archaeological evidence shows that the southern side of the motte subsided by over 6 ft (2 m). Timber piles were driven in to support the motte and the old wooden keep was replaced with a new stone shell keep , with a probable gateway to the north-east and a new stone well. A chemise , or low protective wall, was subsequently added to
36015-465: The keep. Henry II came to the throne in 1154 and built extensively at Windsor between 1165 and 1179. Henry replaced the wooden palisade surrounding the upper ward with a stone wall interspersed with square towers and built the first King's Gate. The first stone keep was suffering from subsidence, and cracks were beginning to appear in the stonework of the south side. Henry replaced the keep with another stone shell keep and chemise wall, but moved
36260-420: The king", and argued that Alice be removed from the King's circle even though he was still living, albeit known to be dying. Modern historians have credited her with more agency than merely using "womanly wiles" to get her own way, noting her head for business and the law. Bothwell also notes that she probably recognised the precariousness of her own position after the King had died — "which it was obvious to all in
36505-415: The king's family had been depleted, his territories reduced, his diplomacy wrecked, and his own control of affairs nullified. A fourth son, Thomas of Windsor, is also sometimes posited as being born in 1347 and dying the following year. However, the historian Kathryn Warner has suggested that, as William of Woodstock was also born and died the same year, and combined with the paucity of material evidence, it
36750-577: The kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century. England was conquered by the Normans in 1066, after which Wales also gradually came under the control of Anglo-Normans . The process was completed in the 13th century when the Principality of Wales became a client state of the English kingdom. The Anglo-Normans also established the Lordship of Ireland . Meanwhile, Magna Carta began
36995-511: The kitchen courtyard. The great hall had numerous large windows looking out across the ward. The range had an unusual, unified roof-line and, with a taller roof than the rest of the palace, would have been highly distinctive. The Rose Tower, designed for the king's private use, set off the west corner of the range. The result was a "great and apparently architecturally unified palace ... uniform in all sorts of ways, as to roof line, window heights, cornice line, floor and ceiling heights". With
37240-422: The late 18th century. Archaeological and restoration work following the 1992 fire has shown the extent to which the current structure represents a survival of elements from the original 12th-century stone walls onwards, presented within the context of Wyatville's final remodelling. The State Apartments form the major part of the Upper Ward and lie along the north side of the quadrangle. The modern building follows
37485-667: The latter because the lords claimed that such a method of taxation infringed upon their traditional rights. According to Fryde, "one of Edward's most onerous and wasteful liabilities" came in February 1339, when he effectively pawned the Great Crown of England to the Archbishop of Trier , for which the King promised repayment of £16,650. Edward met his creditors in Ghent in 1340, but, unable to immediately satisfy their demands, notes Bertie Wilkinson, "pretending that he wanted to take
37730-407: The laws of the land by arresting royal officers. A certain level of conciliation was reached at the Parliament of April 1341. Here Edward was forced to accept severe limitations to his financial and administrative freedom, in return for a grant of taxation. Yet in October the same year, Edward repudiated this statute and Archbishop Stratford was politically ostracised. The extraordinary circumstances of
37975-430: The lesser baronage was less affected by political misadventure as their seniors, they were also weaker due to their rights being more insubstantive. Edward had to pacify two noble parties: one which had been against his father from the beginning, and another which had opposed Mortimer's and Isabella's minority regime. James Bothwell argues that, while he managed to reconcile the sides bloodlessly and with minimum acrimony, it
38220-408: The medieval foundations laid down by Edward III , with the ground floor comprising service chambers and cellars, and the much grander first floor forming the main part of the palace. On the first floor, the layout of the western end of the State Apartments is primarily the work of architect Hugh May , whereas the structure on the eastern side represents Jeffry Wyatville's plans. The interior of
38465-420: The modern shape of the quadrangle. The Norman gate was built to secure the west entrance to the Ward. In the Lower Ward, the chapel was enlarged and remodelled with grand buildings for the canons built alongside. The earliest weight-driven mechanical clock in England was installed by Edward III in the Round Tower in 1354. William of Wykeham went on to build New College, Oxford and Winchester College , where
38710-533: The monarch has authority over the government —which is known as " His/Her Majesty's Government "—this power may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and within constraints of convention and precedent . In practice the monarch's role, including that of Head of the Armed Forces , is limited to functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the prime minister , which are performed in
38955-421: The monarch to dismiss them; such ministers are euphemistically described as "leaving the government". In a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been three hung parliaments. The first followed
39200-415: The monarch upon losing their majority in the House of Commons. While the sovereign also appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown , by convention they do so only on the recommendation of the prime minister. It is therefore the prime minister who controls the composition of the government. In practice, the prime minister will request a member of the government resign in preference to advising
39445-520: The new stained glass windows commemorating the fire, designed by Joseph Nuttgen and Prince Philip . The Great Kitchen, with its newly exposed 14th-century roof lantern sitting alongside Wyatville's fireplaces, chimneys and Gothic tables, is also a product of the reconstruction after the fire. The ground floor of the State Apartments retains various famous medieval features. The 14th-century Great Undercroft still survives, some 193 feet (59 m) long by 31 feet (9.4 m) wide, divided into 13 bays. At
39690-599: The north side of the Upper Ward, called Little Cloister, King's Cloister and the Kitchen Court. At the front of the palace lay the St George's Hall range, which combined a new hall and a new chapel. This range had two symmetrical gatehouses, the Spicerie Gatehouse and the Kitchen Gatehouse. The Spicerie Gatehouse was the main entrance into the palace, while the Kitchen Gatehouse simply led into
39935-429: The now-dead Philippa. Alice, in what may have been an attempt to keep her new estates after the King's death, tied them up in a series of enfeoffments . This meant that legally they ceased to be royal gifts which could be resumed to the Crown, but hers to receive from her feoffees when she chose. These gifts included 50 manors in 25 counties and £20,000 in jewels. The contemporary chronicler Thomas Walsingham saw her as
40180-459: The oldest broadleaved woodlands in Europe. In the Home Park, to the north of the castle, stands a private school, St George's , which provides choristers to the chapel. Eton College is located about half a mile from the castle, across the River Thames , reflecting the fact that it was a royal foundation of Henry VI . Windsor Castle was originally built by William the Conqueror in
40425-440: The only lasting mark he left was the suppressive Statutes of Kilkenny in 1366. In France, meanwhile, the decade following the Treaty of Brétigny was one of relative tranquillity, but on 8 April 1364, John II died in captivity in England, after unsuccessfully trying to raise his own ransom at home. He was followed by the vigorous Charles V , who enlisted the help of the capable Bertrand du Guesclin , Constable of France In 1369,
40670-400: The order of succession to the crown, citing in second position his third son John of Gaunt, but ignoring Philippa , daughter of his second son Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence . Philippa's exclusion contrasted with a decision by Edward I in 1290, which had recognized the right of women to inherit the crown and to pass it on to their descendants. The order of succession determined in 1376 led
40915-461: The palace to make an even grander set of buildings in what would become "the most expensive secular building project of the entire Middle Ages in England". Edward's core design lasted through the Tudor period , during which Henry VIII and Elizabeth I made increasing use of the castle as a royal court and centre for diplomatic entertainment. Windsor Castle survived the tumultuous period of
41160-467: The peace accord, staged an invasion of Scotland and won a great victory at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332. They attempted to install Edward Balliol as king of Scotland in place of the infant David II , but Balliol was soon expelled and was forced to seek the help of Edward III. The English king responded by laying siege to the important border town of Berwick and defeated a large relieving army at
41405-567: The personal gift of the sovereign and are not granted on ministerial advice. The sovereign alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter , the Order of the Thistle , the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit . The sovereign is personally immune from criminal prosecution or arrest, as well as from civil actions, and their property is not subject to execution or foreclosure . The Crown , however, as distinct from
41650-541: The pilasters. Anthony Salvin 's Grand Staircase is also of mid-Victorian design in the Gothic style, rising to a double-height hall lit by an older 18th-century Gothic vaulted lantern tower called the Grand Vestibule, designed by James Wyatt and executed by Francis Bernasconi . The staircase has been criticised by historian John Robinson as being a distinctly inferior design to the earlier staircases built on
41895-468: The plague did not lead to a full-scale breakdown of government and society, and recovery was remarkably swift. This was to a large extent thanks to the competent leadership of royal administrators such as Treasurer William Edington and Chief Justice William de Shareshull . It was not until the mid-1350s that military operations on the Continent were resumed on a large scale. In 1356, Edward's eldest son, Edward, Prince of Wales , won an important victory in
42140-522: The powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The sovereign is the Head of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy ,
42385-483: The present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. The conquest of England in 1066 by William, Duke of Normandy , was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in
42630-417: The prime minister, but in practice, the prime minister's term nowadays comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. Before a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, royal assent (the monarch's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1708 assent has always been granted. The sovereign has
42875-489: The principal castle gateway in about 1510 and constructed a tennis court at the base of the motte in the Upper Ward. He also built a long terrace, called the North Wharf, along the outside wall of the Upper Ward; constructed of wood, it was designed to provide a commanding view of the River Thames below. The design included an outside staircase into the king's apartments, which made the monarch's life more comfortable at
43120-410: The process of reducing the English monarch's political powers. In the 16th century, English and Scottish monarchs played a central role in what became the religious English Reformation and Scottish Reformation , and the English king became King of Ireland . Beginning in 1603, the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign . From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by
43365-409: The property than on any of her other palaces. She conducted some modest building works at Windsor, including a wide range of repairs to the existing structures. She converted the North Wharf into a permanent, huge stone terrace, complete with statues, carvings and an octagonal, outdoor banqueting house, raising the western end of the terrace to provide more privacy. The chapel was refitted with stalls,
43610-413: The queen's purification after his birth, or for any kind of celebration held to mark the birth of another royal child". The medievalist Nicholas Orme has noted that medieval chroniclers were particularly accurate when it came to recording royal births. The geneticist Adam Rutherford has calculated Edward had over 300 great-great-grandchildren and, therefore, over 20,000 descendants by 1600. Thus, by
43855-432: The rebellions and political strife of 1549, Windsor was again used as a safe-haven for the king and the Duke of Somerset . Edward famously commented while staying at Windsor Castle during this period that "Methink I am in a prison, here are no galleries, nor no gardens to walk in". Under both Edward and his sister, Mary I , some limited building work continued at the castle, in many cases using resources recovered from
44100-424: The rebuilding and design of the new castle and while work was ongoing Edward stayed in temporary accommodation in the Round Tower. Between 1350 and 1377 Edward spent £51,000 on renovating Windsor Castle; this was the largest amount spent by any English medieval monarch on a single building operation, and over one and a half times Edward's typical annual income of £30,000. Some of the costs of the castle were paid from
44345-485: The recommended work was carried out. Nonetheless, Charles employed Nicholas Stone to improve the chapel gallery in the Mannerist style and to construct a gateway in the North Terrace. Christian van Vianen, a noted Dutch goldsmith, was employed to produce a baroque gold service for the St George's Chapel altar. In the final years of peace, Charles demolished the fountain in the Upper Ward, intending to replace it with
44590-683: The republican Commonwealth of England , which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . Following the installation of William III and Mary II as co-monarchs in the Glorious Revolution , the Bill of Rights 1689 , and its Scottish counterpart the Claim of Right Act 1689 , further curtailed the power of the monarchy and excluded Catholics from succession to the throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create
44835-620: The responsibility for paying for the bulk of equipment. The military historian Andrew Ayton has described this transition as amounting to a "military revolution", and one spearheaded by the King himself. By the early 1340s, it was clear that Edward's policy of alliances was too costly, and yielded too few results. The following years saw more direct involvement by English armies, including in the Breton War of Succession , but these interventions also proved fruitless at first. Edward defaulted on Florentine loans of 1,365,000 florins , resulting in
45080-646: The rest of his reign. These creations — although expensive — received very little ill will among the extant aristocracy, including the royal family. The 1337 creations were Hugh de Audley to the Earldom of Gloucester , William de Bohun to that of Northampton , William de Clinton to Huntingdon , Henry of Grosmont to Lancaster , William de Montagu to Salisbury and Robert de Ufford to Suffolk . Of these, Bohun, Clinton, Montagu and Ufford had played leading roles in Edward's coup against Mortimer; they were likewise
45325-426: The resulting drunken behaviour of the two kings. The absence of space at Windsor continued to prove problematic, with James' English and Scottish retinues often quarrelling over rooms. Charles I was a connoisseur of art, and paid greater attention to the aesthetic aspects of Windsor Castle than his predecessors. Charles had the castle completely surveyed by a team including Inigo Jones in 1629, but little of
45570-452: The results of ransoms following Edward's victories at the battles of Crécy , Calais and Poitiers . Windsor Castle was already a substantial building before Edward began expanding it, making the investment all the more impressive, and much of the expenditure was lavished on rich furnishings. The castle was "the most expensive secular building project of the entire Middle Ages in England". Edward's new palace consisted of three courts along
45815-424: The rooms on the eastern end of the castle had to be restored following the 1992 fire, using "equivalent restoration" methods – the rooms were restored so as to appear similar to their original appearance, but using modern materials and concealing modern structural improvements. These rooms were also partially redesigned at the same time to more closely match modern tastes. Art historian Hugh Roberts has praised
46060-419: The royal finances, most of them did not receive a minimum of 1000 marks a year that was promised to them to uphold their new estate. All except Gloucester had to be satisfied with irregular grants of land to boost their incomes, but these would often not be available until the incumbent died and they escheated to the King. In 1337, Philip VI of France confiscated the English king's Duchy of Aquitaine and
46305-579: The ruin of the lenders. A change came in July 1346, when Edward staged a major offensive, sailing for Normandy with a force of 15,000 men. His army sacked the city of Caen , and marched across northern France, to meet up with Flemish forces in Flanders . It was not Edward's initial intention to engage the French army, but at Crécy , just north of the Somme , he found favourable terrain and decided to fight
46550-588: The same site by both Wyatt and May. Some parts of the State Apartments were completely destroyed in the 1992 fire and this area was rebuilt in a style called "Downesian Gothic", named after the architect Giles Downes . The style comprises "the rather stripped, cool and systematic coherence of modernism sewn into a reinterpretation of the Gothic tradition". Downes argues that the style avoids "florid decoration", emphasising an organic, flowing Gothic structure. Three new rooms were built or remodelled by Downes at Windsor. Downes' new hammer-beam roof of St George's Hall
46795-569: The secondary entrance to the castle. Windsor Castle's position on top of steep ground has meant that the castle's gardens are limited in scale. The castle gardens stretch east from the Upper Ward across a 19th-century terrace. Windsor Castle is surrounded by extensive parkland. The immediate area stretching to the east of the castle is a 19th-century creation known as the Home Park . The Home Park includes parkland and two working farms, along with many estate cottages mainly occupied by employees and
47040-405: The shape and structure of the motte beneath it. The current height of the tower has been criticised as being disproportionate to its width; archaeologist Tim Tatton-Brown, for example, has described it as a mutilation of the earlier medieval structure. The western entrance to the Middle Ward is now open, and a gateway leads north from the ward onto the North Terrace. The eastern exit from the ward
47285-470: The similar chapel that Henry VI had ordered to be constructed at nearby Eton College . Richard III made only a brief use of Windsor Castle before his defeat at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, but had the body of Henry VI moved from Chertsey Abbey in Surrey to the castle to allow it to be visited by pilgrims more easily. Henry VII made more use of Windsor. In 1488, shortly after succeeding to
47530-440: The site of Edward III's great hall. This room, restored after the fire, includes a huge French Rococo ceiling, characterised by Ian Constantinides, the lead restorer, as possessing a "coarseness of form and crudeness of hand ... completely overshadowed by the sheer spectacular effect when you are at a distance". The room is set off by a set of restored Gobelins French tapestries . Although decorated with less gold leaf than in
47775-542: The size of the royal retinue visiting Windsor had to be restricted because of the growing numbers. During the Pilgrimage of Grace , a huge uprising in the north of England against Henry's rule in 1536, the king used Windsor as a secure base in the south from which to manage his military response. Throughout the Tudor period, Windsor was also used as a safe retreat in the event of plagues occurring in London. Henry rebuilt
48020-413: The south coast of England for several years and were unpopular amongst English sailors. Up to 16,000 French sailors were killed and French captain, Nicolas Béhuchet — who could otherwise have expected to be ransomed — was hanged from his own yardarm . Edward saw God's hand in his triumph and a triumphal coin was struck in commemoration — showing Edward in a ship, probably meant to be Béhuchet's own — and
48265-486: The sovereign's authority to dissolve Parliament, however, this power was restored by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 . The sovereign's power of prorogation was unaffected, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar . In 1950 the King's Private Secretary Sir Alan "Tommy" Lascelles , writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper, asserted a constitutional convention: according to
48510-430: The sovereign's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the sovereign "can do no wrong", and so cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The sovereign exercises the "prerogative of mercy", which
48755-526: The sovereign's property without permission. Following Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia , and assumed the title "King of the Anglo-Saxons". His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to
49000-407: The sovereign, can be the subject of proceedings for tort and contract since 1947 . There are more than 160 laws granting express immunity to the sovereign or their property in various respects. For example, the sovereign is exempt from anti-discrimination legislation and other workers' rights, health and safety, or pensions laws, as well as numerous taxes, and environmental inspectors cannot enter
49245-504: The state had less appeal to Edward than military campaigning, so during the 1360s Edward increasingly relied on the help of his subordinates, in particular William Wykeham A relative upstart, Wykeham was made Keeper of the Privy Seal in 1363 and Chancellor in 1367, though due to political difficulties connected with his inexperience, the Parliament forced him to resign the chancellorship in 1371. Compounding Edward's difficulties were
49490-467: The subject on his betrothal to Phillipa, "it is extremely doubtful that he read or comprehended these works". His reign, continues Ormrod, was to be guided by his practical, rather than theoretical, experience. Edward III was not content with the peace agreement made in his name, but the renewal of the war with Scotland originated in private, rather than royal initiative. A group of English magnates known as The Disinherited, who had lost land in Scotland by
49735-403: The subsequent Treaty of Picquigny was wholly unintended. Edward IV's reign looked back on that of Edward III — with its martial and administrative progress — as something to model their own on, argues Morgan. Edward IV's own Household Books , summarise the approach as "we take to bylde upon a more perfit new house", and indeed many of their grants and warrants contain a final clause that whatever
49980-569: The system was beneficial for both parties. Through this process, the Commons, and the community they represented, became increasingly politically aware, and the foundation was laid for the particular English brand of constitutional monarchy. It became the norm for the king's ministers to argue his case before Parliament, the Commons to grant the king the tax he requested, and then the king's concessions to Parliament would be announced at its end. The King occasionally attempted to avoid resorting to Parliament to raise taxes, such as in 1338 when he attempted
50225-839: The term is rarely used today, the fifteen Commonwealth realms are, with respect to their monarch, in personal union . The monarch is also head of state of the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories . King Charles III [REDACTED] William, Prince of Wales [REDACTED] Charles III ( King-in-Council ) [REDACTED] Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) [REDACTED] Charles III [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee In
50470-439: The throne, he held a massive feast for the Order of the Garter at the castle. He completed the roof of St George's Chapel, and set about converting the older eastern Lady Chapel into a proposed shrine to Henry VI, whose canonisation was then considered imminent. In the event, Henry VI was not canonised and the project was abandoned, although the shrine continued to attract a flood of pilgrims. Henry VII appears to have remodelled
50715-428: The ties between the king and the Pope, who were equally dependent upon each other. Other legislation of importance includes the Treason Act 1351 . It was precisely the harmony of the reign that allowed a consensus on the definition of this controversial crime. Yet the most significant legal reform was probably that concerning the Justices of the Peace . This institution began before the reign of Edward III but, by 1350,
50960-486: The time of the 1992 fire, the Undercroft had been divided into smaller rooms; the area is now opened up to form a single space in an effort to echo the undercrofts at Fountains and Rievaulx Abbeys , although the floor remains artificially raised for convenience of use. The "beautifully vaulted" 14th-century Larderie passage runs alongside the Kitchen Courtyard and is decorated with carved royal roses, marking its construction by Edward III. The Lower Ward lies below and to
51205-449: The title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fourteen other independent sovereign states that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms . Although the monarch is shared, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm. Although
51450-437: The title of Clerk of the King's Ships . Robert de Crull was the last to fill this position during Edward III's reign and would have the longest tenure in this position. It was during his tenure that Edward's naval administration would become a base for what evolved during the reigns of successors such as Henry VIII 's Council of Marine and Navy Board and Charles I 's Board of Admiralty . Rodger also argues that for much of
51695-417: The tower contains a former dungeon, and the remnants of a sally port , a secret exit for the occupants in a time of siege. The upper storey contains the castle bells placed there in 1478, and the castle clock of 1689. The French-style conical roof is a 19th-century attempt by Anthony Salvin to remodel the tower in the fashion of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 's recreation of Carcassonne . On the opposite side of
51940-427: The tyme of Edwardthe thyrd". This view persisted for a while but, with time, Edward's image changed. The Whig historians of a later age preferred constitutional reform to foreign conquest and accused Edward of ignoring his responsibilities to his own nation. Bishop Stubbs , in his The Constitutional History of England , states: King of England The monarchy of the United Kingdom , commonly referred to as
52185-439: The uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom , the monarch (exclusively referred to in legislation as "the Sovereign ", and styled His or Her Majesty ) is the head of state . The monarch's image is used to signify British sovereignty and government authority – their profile, for instance, appears on Bank of England notes and all British coins and their portrait in government buildings. The Sovereign
52430-406: The walls in from the edge of the motte to relieve the pressure on the mound, and added massive foundations along the south side to provide additional support. Inside the castle Henry remodelled the royal accommodation. Bagshot Heath stone was used for most of the work, and stone from Bedfordshire for the internal buildings. King John undertook some building works at Windsor, but primarily to
52675-415: The war in France. Just as the war with Scotland had done, the fear of a French invasion helped strengthen a sense of national unity and nationalise the aristocracy that had been largely Anglo-Norman since the Norman conquest . Since the time of Edward I, popular myth suggested that the French planned to extinguish the English language, and as his grandfather had done, Edward III made the most of this scare. As
52920-477: The war was the English naval victory at Sluys on 24 June 1340, which secured control of the English Channel . This victory decimated a superior French fleet and lowered the threat of a French invasion of England, which increased English desires to attack France. This situation lasted less than a year. Edward was unlikely to have been happy with this victory due to his continuing financial problems. The English also captured 166 French merchantmen; they had been raiding
53165-404: The west of the Round Tower, reached through the Norman Gate. Originally largely of medieval design, most of the Lower Ward was renovated or reconstructed during the mid-Victorian period by Anthony Salvin and Edward Blore , to form a "consistently Gothic composition". The Lower Ward holds St George's Chapel and most of the buildings associated with the Order of the Garter. On the north side of
53410-410: The winter, and fences were burned as firewood. In 1647 Charles, then a prisoner of Parliament, was brought to the castle for a period under arrest, before being moved to Hampton Court . In 1648 there was a Royalist plan, never enacted, to seize Windsor Castle. The Parliamentary Army Council moved into Windsor in November and decided to try Charles for treason. Charles was held at Windsor again for
53655-408: The work. Henry continued the project, but it remained unfinished when he himself was buried in the chapel, in an elaborate funeral in 1547. By contrast, the young Edward VI disliked Windsor Castle. Edward's Protestant beliefs led him to simplify the Garter ceremonies, to discontinue the annual Feast of the Garter at Windsor and to remove any signs of Catholic practices with the Order. During
53900-563: The wretched man" and that none would fight for him. A contemporary chronicler described Edward as rex inutilis , or a "useless king". Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was described in a contemporary prophecy as "the boar that would come out of Windsor". The reign of his father, Edward II, was a particularly problematic period of English history. The King had alienated several English nobles and Scottish allies by abandoning his father 's war with Scotland soon after his accession, and continued to lose battles against
54145-402: The young age of nine months. His long period of minority, coupled with the increasing tensions between Henry's Lancastrian supporters and the Yorkists, distracted attention from Windsor. The Garter Feasts and other ceremonial activities at the castle became more infrequent and less well attended. Edward IV seized power in 1461. When Edward captured Henry's wife, Margaret of Anjou , she
54390-520: Was a grant of a proportion of all moveable property, normally a tenth for towns and a fifteenth for farmland. This could produce large sums of money, but each such levy had to be approved by Parliament, and the king had to prove the necessity. The customs therefore provided a welcome supplement, as a steady and reliable source of income. An "ancient duty" on the export of wool had existed since 1275. Edward I had tried to introduce an additional duty on wool, but this unpopular maltolt , or "unjust exaction",
54635-472: Was brought back to be detained at the castle. Edward began to revive the Order of the Garter, and held a particularly lavish feast in 1472. Edward began the construction of the present St. George's Chapel in 1475, resulting in the dismantling of several of the older buildings in the Lower Ward. By building the grand chapel Edward was seeking to show that his new dynasty were the permanent rulers of England, and may also have been attempting to deliberately rival
54880-421: Was built in the 11th century, after the Norman invasion of England by William the Conqueror . Since the time of Henry I (who reigned 1100–1135), it has been used by the reigning monarch and is the longest-occupied palace in Europe. The castle's lavish early 19th-century state apartments were described by the art historian Hugh Roberts as "a superb and unrivalled sequence of rooms widely regarded as
55125-410: Was captured for the queen's entertainment in William Shakespeare 's play, The Merry Wives of Windsor . James I used Windsor Castle primarily as a base for hunting, one of his favourite pursuits, and for socialising with his friends. Many of these occasions involved extensive drinking sessions, including one with Christian IV of Denmark in 1606 that became infamous across Europe for
55370-420: Was constructed to the east of the keep, forming the later Upper Ward. By the end of the century, another bailey had been constructed to the west, creating the basic shape of the modern castle. In design, Windsor most closely resembled Arundel Castle , another powerful early Norman fortification, but the double bailey design was also found at Rockingham and Alnwick Castle . Windsor was not initially used as
55615-402: Was converted into the headquarters for the Earl of Essex , a senior Parliamentary general. The Horseshoe Cloister was taken over as a prison for captured Royalists, and the resident canons were expelled from the castle. The Lady Chapel was turned into a magazine . Looting by the underpaid garrison continued to be a problem; 500 royal deer were killed across the Windsor Great Park during
55860-555: Was created Earl of Chester at only twelve days old, and by January the following year had been provided with an entire household. An early influence on Prince Edward was the Bishop of Durham , Richard de Bury , one of the century's major bibliophiles . Originally a tutor, he appears to have become a mentor to the King. Under Bury's tutelage, Edward learned to write and to read French and Latin. He would have had access to famous contemporary works, such as Vegetius 's De Re Militari , which had been translated into Anglo-Norman , as well as
56105-431: Was damaged again in 1322 when he executed his cousin Thomas, Earl of Lancaster , and confiscated the Lancaster estates. Historian Chris Given-Wilson wrote that, by 1325, the nobility believed that "no landholder could feel safe" under the regime. This distrust of Edward was shared by his wife, Isabella of France , who believed Despenser responsible for poisoning the King's mind against her. In September 1324 Queen Isabella
56350-418: Was deemed champion. This was followed by the King's announcement of the founding of the Round Table of King Arthur , to which "certain lords" took an oath. The first meeting of the new chapter was arranged for the following Whitsun . Nothing, however, was to come of the project; as Murimuth comments, "this work was later stopped for various reasons". Instead, around four years later, Edward founded Order of
56595-414: Was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law Charles IV of France to perform homage for the English Duchy of Aquitaine . The King was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger . Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place and sent him to France to perform
56840-413: Was heavily reinforced with a southern stone wall, protected by the new Edward III and Henry III towers at each end. Windsor Castle was one of Henry III's three favourite residences and he invested heavily in the royal accommodation, spending more money at Windsor than in any other of his properties. Following his marriage to Eleanor of Provence , Henry built a luxurious palace in 1240–1263, based around
57085-459: Was held in Windsor Castle to which large numbers were invited; not just the lords but the City of London also sent a contingent. The first night saw a feast at which all the attending ladies, with only two knights among them, dined, while the other men ate in their tents. This was followed by jousting over the next three days, where Edward — "not because of his kingly rank but because of his great exertions", iterates Adam Murimuth in his chronicle —
57330-400: Was imprisoned at Windsor Castle during Henry's reign, before his execution in 1513. Henry VIII enjoyed Windsor Castle, as a young man "exercising himself daily in shooting, singing, dancing, wrestling, casting of the bar, playing at the recorders, flute, virginals, in setting of songs and making of ballads". The tradition of the Garter Feasts was maintained and became more extravagant;
57575-411: Was initially successful—contemporaries compared Henry V 's decisive victory at Agincourt with Edward's at Crécy and Poitiers— when the tide turned against the English in France, the dynasty was also weakened. Indeed, war in France was problematic for the House of York as well as Lancaster. Edward IV was probably consciously following in his namesake's footsteps when he invaded France in 1475, even if
57820-439: Was insufficient to leave him secure on his own: he lanced the opposition but had not turned them into a loyalist cadre. Only the Earls of Arundel , Oxford and Warwick could be counted on as loyalists. To counter the limited loyalty among the aristocrats, following the March 1337 Parliament Edward created a duke and eight new earls . He also summoned 61 new men to the lords with lesser titles, usually by writ of summons , over
58065-429: Was launched and Edward II's forces deserted him completely. Isabella and Mortimer summoned a parliament , and the King was forced to relinquish the throne to his son, who was proclaimed king in London on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III at Westminster Abbey on 1 February at the age of 14. One of Edward's first acts — de facto Mortimer's — was to lead another campaign to Scotland in July 1327. It
58310-470: Was not always the prerogative of the nobility. Knights Banneret — knights able to lead other knights — were also favoured as leaders of armies or divisions, as they were also already close to the king, being part of his household and bodyguard. They bore particular responsibilities during King Edward's chevauchées , which often required the main army to split into smaller forces, each requiring its own captain. This sometimes led to dissension. For example, in
58555-412: Was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position of Mortimer at court, who was now the de facto ruler of England. Mortimer used his position to acquire noble estates and titles, and his unpopularity grew with the humiliating defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stanhope Park in the county of Durham , and the ensuing Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton , agreed with
58800-675: Was often dictated by the personality and character of the king. However, it was also understood that not only should a king rule well and wisely, but that he should be seen to do so. Ormrod argues that, while he did not begin his reign with these skills, unlike many of his fellow Plantagenet kings, he acquired them. His collection of chronicles indicates an interest in history, even to the extent that, on occasion, he consulted their authors. He may have been particularly keen to emulate Henry II and Edward I , whose own martial prowess and success would have resonated with him. His tastes were conventional, Ormrod says, and J. R. Lander also has argued that this
59045-515: Was publicly humiliated when the government declared her an enemy alien, and the King repossessed her estates, probably at the urging of Despenser. Edward also disbanded her retinue. Edward had already been threatened with deposition on two previous occasions (in 1310 and 1321). Historians agree that hostility towards Edward was universal. W. H. Dunham and C. T. Wood ascribed this to Edward's "cruelty and personal faults", suggesting that "very few, not even his half-brothers or his son, seemed to care about
59290-464: Was seen to hold far too much power over the ageing king, was banished from court. Yet the real adversary of the Commons, supported by powerful men such as Wykeham and Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March , was John of Gaunt . Both the King and Edward of Woodstock were by this time incapacitated by illness, leaving Gaunt in virtual control of government. Gaunt was forced to give in to the demands of Parliament, but at its next convocation in 1377, most of
59535-416: Was soon abandoned. Then, from 1336 onwards, a series of schemes aimed at increasing royal revenues from wool export were introduced. After some initial problems and discontent, it was agreed through the Statute of the Staple of 1353 that the new customs should be approved by Parliament, though in reality, they became permanent. Through the steady taxation of Edward III's reign, Parliament — and in particular
59780-432: Was the greatest English venture of the Hundred Years' War, involving an army of 32,000 men. The siege started on 4 September 1346, and lasted until the town surrendered on 3 August 1347. After the fall of Calais, factors outside of Edward's control forced him to wind down the war effort. In 1348, the Black Death struck England with full force, killing a third or more of the country's population. This loss of manpower led to
60025-410: Was under discussion should be as they were in Edward III's final year. Even the final destruction of the Plantagenets at Bosworth in 1485 failed to impinge on Edward III's posthumous image; he was also the most recent king Henry VII could lay claim of descent from. Edward III enjoyed unprecedented popularity in his own lifetime, and even the troubles of his later reign were never blamed directly on
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