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59-765: The McDonald Heights were photographed from aircraft of the United States Antarctic Service (USAS), 1939–1941. They were observed and partially mapped from USS  Glacier during February 1962, and were mapped in detail by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in 1965. The heights were named by the United States Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) after Captain Edwin A. McDonald, United States Navy , Deputy Commander of

118-603: A hostile environment requires specialized systems to keep scientists and support staff safe and equipment operational. The Antarctic Program uses a variety of aircraft to transport people and cargo to and from Antarctica, as well as throughout the continent. McMurdo Station maintains two landing strips on the adjacent McMurdo Ice Shelf: Williams Airfield for ski-equipped planes, and Phoenix Airfield for wheeled planes. U.S. Air Force C-17 cargo planes and unique New York Air National Guard ski-equipped LC-130s ferry people and cargo between Christchurch, New Zealand and McMurdo Station. During

177-499: A period called "Mainbody," with fewer flights during the winter months (March – September). South Pole Station is located at the geographic South Pole, on the polar plateau, at an elevation of 2,835 m (9,300 ft) above sea level. The station sits on an ice sheet that is 2,700 m (8,858 ft) thick and drifts with the ice at about 10 m (33 ft) a year toward the Weddell Sea . The mean annual temperature

236-420: A small fleet of helicopters, under contract, at McMurdo Station to transport people and cargo around the immediate area of the station. Helicopters also carry scientific survey equipment and reconnoiter landing and scientific sites. Occasionally some of the helicopters will be temporarily set up at larger field camps to enable transport around an otherwise inaccessible region. The current helicopter support contract

295-638: Is 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph), but winds have exceeded 100 knots (190 km/h; 120 mph). McMurdo Sound is a historic area. In 1841, James Clark Ross brought his ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror into the Sound, farther south than anyone had ever gone, before sailing eastward along a great wall of ice. He and his crew were the first humans to see the island and the ice shelf that both now bear his name. In 1902, Robert F. Scott wintered HMS Discovery in Winter Quarters Bay, adjacent to

354-745: Is a modern, multi-disciplinary research vessel containing six laboratories with a combined space of 353.5 m (3,805 sq ft). It can accommodate 39 scientists and ASC personnel and operates throughout the Southern Ocean. ASRV Laurence M. Gould is 70 m (230 ft) long and is capable of breaking one foot (0.30 m) of first-year ice while maintaining continuous forward progress. Lawrence M. Gould has berthing space to accommodate 28 scientists and ASC personnel. There are an additional nine bunks for passengers transiting to Palmer Station. Lawrence M. Gould transports personnel and cargo to and from Palmer Station and supports research in

413-476: Is about 44 in the summer and 20 or more in winter. Unlike the South Pole and McMurdo stations, Palmer usually receives transportation year-round and does not generally have a period of winter isolation. RVIB Nathaniel B. Palmer is 94 m (308 ft) long and is able to break three feet (0.91 m) of ice at a continuous forward speed of three knots (5.6 km/h; 3.5 mph). Nathanial B. Palmer

472-402: Is for ski-equipped aircraft only. McMurdo also has a heliport to support helicopter operations. Approximately 90% of USAP participants live in or pass through McMurdo Station. The austral winter population ranges from 150 to 200, with the summer population varying between 800 and 1,000. The station has routine weekly flights to and from New Zealand during the austral summer (October – February),

531-455: Is held by Air Center Helicopters. Tractor-pulled convoys or “traverses” are used to transport large quantities of fuel and cargo across large distances. Every year three traverses carrying more than 100,000 gallons of fuel drive the 1,600 km (990 mi) from McMurdo Station to Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station to deliver fuel for the next year. Other "science traverses" transport heavy science equipment to field sites hundreds of miles from

590-417: Is in the southeast. 74°58′S 135°09′W  /  74.967°S 135.150°W  / -74.967; -135.150 . A series of ice-covered cliffs which face seaward along the northern side of McDonald Heights. The cliffs stand between Hanessian Foreland and Hagey Ridge and descend abruptly from about 800 metres (2,600 ft) high, the average summit elevation, to 400 metres (1,300 ft) high at

649-405: Is the primary cause of snow accumulation around buildings. Average wind speed is 10.8 knots. The original station was built in 1956-1957 and is buried beneath the ice. A second station, located under a geodesic dome, was completed in 1975. The Dome was dismantled in 2009-10 and removed from the continent. The current station was dedicated on January 12, 2008. The winter population is around 45, and

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708-544: Is –49 °C (–56 °F). Average monthly temperatures range from –28 °C (–18 °F) in the summer to –60 °C (–76 °F) in winter. The record high of – 12.3 °C (9.9 °F) was recorded in December 2011, and the record low of –82.8 °C (–117 °F) was recorded in June 1982. The site has very low humidity, and precipitation is only about 20 cm of snow (8 cm water equivalent) per year. Drifting

767-688: The Antarctic Treaty , which was signed in 1959. Since then, Treaty nations have agreed to several addenda, including the 1991 Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty which establishes rules and procedures specifically designed to protect the Antarctic environment. The Protocol was ratified and went into effect in 1998. The U.S. Antarctic Program operates three year-round research stations and two research vessels. Additional temporary field camps are constructed and operated during

826-592: The International Geophysical Year (IGY, 1957–58). The IGY was an intensive, multi-national, multi-disciplinary, global research effort designed to study a wide range of geophysical processes. Much of that effort took place in Antarctica and was crucial in establishing Antarctica as a continent for peace and science. The international coordination that resulted from the IGY ultimately lead to

885-547: The South Shetland Islands and westward along the Antarctic Peninsula . Expeditions sponsored by several nations approached the Antarctic continent early in the 19th century. Among the leaders was Charles Wilkes , a U.S. Navy lieutenant who commanded an expedition in 1839–40 that was the first to prove the existence of the continent. His expedition mapped about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) of

944-731: The United States Antarctic Research Program or USARP and the United States Antarctic Service or USAS ) is an organization of the United States government which has a presence in the Antarctica continent. Founded in 1959, the USAP manages all U.S. scientific research and related logistics in Antarctica as well as aboard ships in the Southern Ocean . The United States established

1003-671: The Antarctic Peninsula region, is named after Nathaniel B. Palmer, the American sailor who pioneered the exploration of the Peninsula in 1820. The station is located on Anvers Island at 64°46' S, 64°03’ W and consists of two major buildings and several small ones. There is no airfield. Located just north of the Antarctic Circle, the climate is milder than that of the other U.S. Antarctic stations. Temperatures in

1062-582: The Antarctic Peninsula region. Every season the Program establishes several dozen field camps to house researchers and support staff around the continent. These range in size from just two or three people in small pitched tents, to large camps of up to 60 people in temporary shelters, to permanent, hard-walled structures that teams return to year after year. The Astrophysics and Geospace Sciences Program sponsors research areas that either use Antarctica as an observing platform or contribute to an understanding of

1121-426: The Antarctic Treaty and ensure that this continent will continue to be used only for peaceful purposes and shall not become an area or object of international discord; to foster cooperative scientific research for the solution of worldwide and regional problems, including environmental monitoring and prediction and assessment of resources; and to protect the Antarctic environment and develop appropriate measures to ensure

1180-431: The Antarctic as carried out by the U.S. Antarctic Program. The report states that policies in the 1982 memorandum continue to be appropriate at the current funding level and that present U.S. policy and practice with respect to the U.S. Antarctic Program are well justified. The first Americans to work in the Antarctic were sealers and whalers who discovered many sub-Antarctic islands. They were first to explore parts of

1239-561: The Antarctic coastline in the Indian and Australian quadrants. In 1928–1930 and 1933–1935, Admiral Richard E. Byrd led two privately sponsored expeditions, one that included the first flight over the South Pole in 1929, sparking U.S. interest in Antarctica. The U.S. Antarctic Service Expedition (1939–1940), under the leadership of the U.S. Navy, maintained bases at Marguerite Bay and Bay of Whales . Operation Highjump in 1946–1947

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1298-446: The Antarctic continent and surrounding Southern Ocean. The Artists and Writers Program supports participants whose work requires them to be in the Antarctic to complete their project, in particular projects that increase understanding and appreciation of the Antarctic and of human activities on the southernmost continent. PolarTREC (Teachers and Researchers Exploring and Collaborating) is an NSF-funded program that brings teachers from

1357-542: The Antarctic that is 'responsive to U.S. scientific, economic, and political objectives. ' " In February 1982 President Ronald Reagan in White House Memorandum 6646 reaffirmed the prior policy and noted that the presence in Antarctica shall include "the conduct of scientific activities in major disciplines" and "year-round occupation of the South Pole and two coastal stations." On 9 June 1994 Presidential Decision Directive NSC 26 ("United States Policy on

1416-532: The Arctic and Antarctic Regions") stated that U.S. policy toward Antarctica has four fundamental objectives: (1) protecting the relatively unspoiled environment of Antarctica and its associated ecosystems, (2) preserving and pursuing unique opportunities for scientific research to understand Antarctica and global physical and environmental systems, (3) maintaining Antarctica as an area of international cooperation reserved exclusively for peaceful purposes, and (4) assuring

1475-542: The Terra Bus” and the large Kress are used to transport large numbers of people to and from the airfields over the ice roads of McMurdo Station. Passenger vans with wide tires are also used to transport people around McMurdo Station and Amundsen-Scott South Pole station as well. McMurdo Station also has a small fleet of pickup trucks. Each station uses diesel fuel to generate electricity. At McMurdo Station, wind turbines installed by Antarctic New Zealand in 2010 supply about

1534-680: The U.S. Antarctic Research Program (USARP) in 1959—the name was later changed to the U.S. Antarctic Program—immediately following the success of the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Today, the National Science Foundation (NSF) has a Presidential Mandate to manage the United States Antarctic Program, through which it operates three year-round research stations and two research vessels, coordinates all U.S. science on

1593-625: The United States Naval Support Force, Antarctica, in 1962, and Commander of the Task Unit that explored this coast aboard Glacier in February 1962. Download coordinates as: The McDonald Heights extend east from Cape Burks , the easternmost point of Hull Bay , along the north side of Hull Glacier and its tributary Kirkpatrick Glacier to Johnson Glacier in the east. The Jackson Glacier flows north from

1652-598: The United States to the polar regions to spend three to six weeks participating in hands-on field research experiences. Managed by the Arctic Research Consortium of the United States (ARCUS), the goal is to invigorate polar science education and understanding by bringing educators and polar researchers together. Antarctica is the most remote region of the world, with no native inhabitants or infrastructure and nearly no vegetation. Working in such

1711-409: The austral summer. McMurdo Station (77°51' S, 166°40' E), the largest U.S. station in Antarctica, is situated on barren volcanic hills at the southern tip of Ross Island, about 3,827 km (2,378 mi) south of Christchurch, New Zealand and 1,350 km (840 mi) north of the South Pole. The station sits on the eastern shore of McMurdo Sound, the southernmost body of seasonally open water in

1770-687: The base. The feature was photographed from aircraft of the United States Antarctic Service, 1939-41, and was mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-66. Named by US-ACAN (1974) for Rolf P. Bjornert of the Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, who served in the capacity of Station Projects Manager for Antarctica. 74°57′S 134°56′W  /  74.950°S 134.933°W  / -74.950; -134.933 . High snow-covered ridge, between Bjornert Cliffs and Johnson Glacier, forming

1829-576: The confluence of Kirkpatrick and Hull Glaciers from the north. Mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for George A. Petrides, member of the biological party that made population studies of seals, whales and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971-72. 75°05′S 136°13′W  /  75.083°S 136.217°W  / -75.083; -136.217 . A small rocky summit along

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1888-471: The conservation and sustainable management of the living resources in the oceans surrounding Antarctica. An April 1996 report, U.S. Antarctic Program , by the President's National Science and Technology Council , directed the establishment of the present Panel and reaffirmed that essential elements of U.S. national and scientific interests are well served by continued involvement in scientific activity in

1947-466: The east end of McDonald Heights. The ridge was first photographed from aircraft of the United States Antarctic Service in December 1940. It was mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-66. Named by US-ACAN for Lieutenant Donald W. Hagey, United States Navy, Officerin-Charge at Byrd Station in 1969. 74°54′S 134°50′W  /  74.900°S 134.833°W  / -74.900; -134.833 . Ice-covered headland marking

2006-521: The east extremity of McDonald Heights. The cliffs were photographed from aircraft of US AS, 1939-41, and were mapped in detail from United States Navy air photos and USGS surveys, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for Lieutenant Commander C.H. Zilch, United States Navy, Officer-in-Charge of the meteorological support unit during Operation Deep Freeze 1966. 75°02′S 135°03′W  /  75.033°S 135.050°W  / -75.033; -135.050 . An ice-covered mountain 1,090 metres (3,580 ft) high in

2065-416: The equitable and wise use of living and non-living resources… Science has provided a successful basis for international accord, and the Antarctic is the only continent where science serves as the principal expression of national policy and interest." In 1970 and again in 1976 National Security Decision Memoranda (71 and 318) reaffirmed the "importance of maintaining an active and influential U.S. presence in

2124-542: The great peninsula jutting out of the Antarctic mainland toward South America. Among them was Nathaniel Palmer , who was among the first to see Antarctica, while on board the Hero in 1820, though historians have not settled the question of who discovered Antarctica. James Eights , a geologist from Albany, New York, became the first U.S. scientist to work in Antarctica. In 1830, aboard the Annawan , Eights made investigations in

2183-813: The heights into Siniff Bay . In the north east the Björnert Cliffs face north towards the Hanessian Foreland , extending to Hagey Ridge, Morris Head and the Zilch Cliffs along the west side of Johnson Glacier. In west the Peden Cliffs face the Ericson Bluffs, including Cox Point , Gilbert Bluff, Dee Nunatak and Coor Crags. In the southwest the Ericson Bluffs include Mount Grey, Oehlenschlager Bluff, Dow Nunatak, Mount Petrides, Mount Otis and Mount Sinha. Mount Rubin de la Borbolla

2242-447: The history and dynamics of the Antarctic ice sheet and its surrounding ice shelves. Studies of the processes controlling the mass balance and dynamics of the ice sheet are also important. The Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences Program aims to advance understanding of the physics and chemistry of both oceanic and lower atmospheric processes, and environments at high southern latitudes, and their links at local, regional and global scales across

2301-700: The islands near the station. McMurdo Station is resupplied by ship at the end of every summer season. The U.S. Coast Guard heavy icebreaker Polar Star cuts a channel for a cargo ship to pass through and reach the ice pier at the station. A fuel tanker usually follows the cargo vessel to deliver fuel. The Program has a fleet of vehicles to meet a range of needs at each station. A variety of large and small loaders are used to move cargo and other heavy equipment around. Tracked vehicles, including PistenBullys and Hagglunds transport people and equipment over snow and ice covered regions. Smaller snowmobiles are also used for transport across snow and ice-covered areas as well. “Ivan

2360-643: The north and east sides, located on the south side of Garfield Glacier and near the north margin of Erickson Bluffs. Mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for James R. Gilbert, member of the biological party that made population studies of seals, whales and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971-72. 74°29′S 136°36′W  /  74.483°S 136.600°W  / -74.483; -136.600 . Several rock crags standing 3.5 nautical miles (6.5 km; 4.0 mi) high, southeast of Cox Point in

2419-597: The north part of Erickson Bluffs. The feature was first observed and photographed from aircraft of the USAS, 1939^41. Mapped by the USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for Lieutenant Commander Lawrence W. Coor, United States Navy, pilot of LC-130 Hercules aircraft during Operation Deep Freeze 1970 and 1971. 75°01′S 136°42′W  /  75.017°S 136.700°W  / -75.017; -136.700 . A rounded, ice-worn mountain on

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2478-629: The north side of Kirkpatrick Glacier. The feature is 1.5 nautical miles (2.8 km; 1.7 mi) southwest of Mount Sinha at the southeast margin of Erickson Bluffs. Mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for Jack Otis, member of the biological party that made population studies of seals, whales, and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971-72. 75°04′S 136°09′W  /  75.067°S 136.150°W  / -75.067; -136.150 . A mountain 990 metres (3,250 ft) high at

2537-625: The north. It marks the southwest extremity of Erickson Bluffs and McDonald Heights. Mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for Richard J. Oehlenschlager, member of the biological party that made population studies of seals, whales, and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971-72. 75°01′S 136°14′W  /  75.017°S 136.233°W  / -75.017; -136.233 . A small, relatively isolated nunatak 3.5 nautical miles (6.5 km; 4.0 mi) northwest of Mount Sinha in

2596-648: The peak of the Antarctic summer, the ice runways aren't able to support the weight of wheeled aircraft and only planes that can take off and land on skis can operate. For transportation across vast distances around the continent, the Program uses a combination of ski-equipped LC-130s and ski-equipped Basler BT-3 and Twin Otter planes through a contract with through Kenn Borek Air, Ltd.. Ski-equipped planes can land on groomed and maintained ski runways like those at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station and other field camps, or in relatively smooth ungroomed snow. The program maintains

2655-464: The role played by the Antarctic upper atmosphere in global environmental processes. The Organisms and Ecosystems Program supports research at all levels of biological organization, from molecular, cellular and organismal to communities and ecosystems. The Earth Sciences Program provides insights into Antarctica's geologic history and lead to increased understanding of processes shaping it today. The Glaciology Program supports research concerned with

2714-611: The seaward end of Hagey Ridge and northeast extremity of McDonald Heights. The headland was photographed from aircraft of the US AS on December 18, 1940, and was mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for Lloyd Morris, QMC, United States Navy, Chief Quartermaster and senior member of the bathythermograph team aboard USS Glacier in exploring this coast, 1961-62. 74°58′S 134°55′W  /  74.967°S 134.917°W  / -74.967; -134.917 . A series of steep cliffs that mark

2773-642: The southeast extremity of Erickson Bluffs in the south part of McDonald Heights. It overlooks lower Kirkpatrick Glacier from the north in Marie Byrd Land. Mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for A.A. Sinha, member of the biological party that made population studies of seals, whales and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971-72. United States Antarctic Service The United States Antarctic Program (or USAP ; formerly known as

2832-451: The southeast extremity of McDonald Heights, overlooking Johnson Glacier from the west. Mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for George S. Rubin de la Borbolla, meteorologist at Plateau Station, 1968. 75°02′S 136°30′W  /  75.033°S 136.500°W  / -75.033; -136.500 . A series of conspicuous rock bluffs extending from Gilbert Bluff to Mount Sinha, forming

2891-417: The southernmost continent , and works with other federal agencies, the U.S. military, and civilian contractors, to provide the necessary logistical support for the science. The U.S. is a signatory to the Antarctic Treaty and the conduct of science is the principal expression of U.S. interest in the Antarctic. In October 1970 President Richard Nixon stated U.S. policy for Antarctica to be: To maintain

2950-587: The southwest edge of McDonald Heights. A portion of the bluffs were photographed from aircraft of the US AS, 1939-41. They were mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for Albert W. Erickson, leader of a biology party that made population studies of seals, whales, and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971-72. 74°58′S 136°37′W  /  74.967°S 136.617°W  / -74.967; -136.617 . A rock bluff with abrupt cliff faces on

3009-530: The southwest part of McDonald Heights. It stands on the east side of Hull Glacier, 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) north of Oehlenschlager Bluff. Discovered on aerial flights from the West Base of the USAS in 1940, and named for Orville Gray, aviation machinist's mate, plane captain on these flights. 75°03′S 136°42′W  /  75.050°S 136.700°W  / -75.050; -136.700 . A steep rock bluff overlooking Hull Glacier from

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3068-457: The southwest part of McDonald Heights. Mapped by USGS from surveys and United States Navy air photos, 1959-65. Named by US-ACAN for Charles R. Dow, who participated in glaciological research at Byrd Station, 1969-70. 75°04′S 136°30′W  /  75.067°S 136.500°W  / -75.067; -136.500 . A mountain with much exposed rock midway between Oehlenschlager Bluff and Mount Sinha, in southern Erickson Bluffs. It overlooks

3127-537: The station. The program maintains two research vessels, RVIB Nathaniel B. Palmer and ASRV Laurence M. Gould . The ships are used to both transport people and supplies between Palmer Station on the Antarctic Peninsula, and the port at Punta Arenas, Chile, and to embark on longer science-focused voyages to understand the Southern Ocean or visit other remote areas of the continent. Smaller boats at Palmer Station, including inflatable rafts and larger rigid-hulled inflatable boats, are used to transport scientists around

3186-428: The station. Both of Scott's (1901–1904 and 1910–1913) and Ernest Shackleton's (1907–1909 and 1914–1916) expeditions used the area as a base to deploy sledging parties for both scientific exploration and attempts to reach the South Pole. The huts these expeditions built still stand today at Hut Point, Cape Evans, and Cape Royds. The original station was constructed in 1955–1956. With many additions and modernizations over

3245-589: The summer population averages 150. Most Antarctic Program personnel and cargo reach the South Pole from McMurdo Station via LC-130 ski-equipped aircraft, whereas most fuel is transported via surface traverse from McMurdo Station. The short austral summer, when most activity occurs, is from late October through mid-February. The station is isolated for the rest of the year. Research at the South Pole includes astronomy, astrophysics, aeronomy , auroral and geospace studies, meteorology, geomagnetism, seismology, earth-tide measurements, and glaciology. Palmer Station , on

3304-423: The summer range from just below freezing to above 4 °C (40 °F). Winter temperatures range from 0 °C (32 °F) to -10 °C (14 °F). Palmer Station is often windy and wet, with both snow and rain. The water equivalent in snow and rain averages 81 cm (32 in) per year. Wildlife is abundant near the station, which makes it superbly located for ecosystem research. The station population

3363-488: The world. Mount Erebus , a 3,794-meter (12,448 ft) high active volcano, towers over Ross Island. On the west side of the Sound, the Royal Society Range and Mount Discovery , an extinct volcano, provide spectacular vistas. The mean annual temperature is −18 °C (0 °F). Temperatures may reach as high as 8 °C (46 °F) in summer and −50 °C (−58 °F) in winter. The average wind speed

3422-511: The years, today's station is the primary logistics facility for airborne and overland resupply of inland stations and field science projects. The station is also the waste management center for much of the USAP. McMurdo has two airfields. Phoenix Airfield, located about 18 km (11 mi) from McMurdo on the McMurdo Ice Shelf, accommodates wheeled aircraft. Williams Field Skiway, located about 15 km (9.3 mi) from McMurdo

3481-591: Was the largest single expedition ever to explore Antarctica, involving 13 naval vessels, numerous airplanes and more than 4,700 men. The next year, the Navy's Operation Windmill used helicopters to complete some of the work begun during Highjump. In 1956–57 the U.S. Navy, during Operation Deep Freeze I, and in conjunction with research teams funded by the National Science Foundation, established seven research stations in Antarctica to prepare for

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